IP Multimedia Subsystem
The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia
Core Network Subsystem (IMS) is an architectural
framework for delivering IP multimedia services. His-
torically, mobile phones have provided voice call services
over a switched-circuit-style network, rather than strictly
over an IP packet-switched network. Alternative meth-
ods of delivering voice or other multimedia services over
IP have become available on smartphones (e.g. VoIP or
Skype), but they have not become standardized across the
industry. IMS is an architectural framework to provide
such standardization.
IMS was originally designed by the wireless standards
body 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), as a
part of the vision for evolving mobile networks beyond
GSM. Its original formulation (3GPP Rel-5) represented
an approach to delivering "Internet services over GPRS.
This vision was later updated by 3GPP, 3GPP2 and ETSI
TISPAN by requiring support of networks other than
GPRS, such as Wireless LAN, CDMA2000 and xed
lines.
To ease the integration with the Internet, IMS uses IETF
protocols wherever possible, e.g., SIP (Session Initiation
Protocol). According to the 3GPP,[1] IMS is not intended
to standardize applications, but rather to aid the access
of multimedia and voice applications from wireless and
wireline terminals, i.e., to create a form of xed-mobile
convergence (FMC). This is done by having a horizon-
tal control layer that isolates the access network from the
service layer. From a logical architecture perspective,
services need not have their own control functions, as the
control layer is a common horizontal layer. However, in
implementation this does not necessarily map into greater
reduced cost and complexity.
Alternative and overlapping technologies for access and
provisioning of services across wired and wireless net-
works include combinations of Generic Access Network,
soft switches and naked SIP.
Since it is becoming increasingly easier to access content
and contacts using mechanisms outside the control of tra-
ditional wireless/xed operators, the interest of IMS is
being challenged.[2]
Examples of global standards based on IMS are MMTel
which is the basis for Voice over LTE (VoLTE) and Rich
Communication Services (RCS) which is also known as
joyn or Advanced Messaging.
1
1 History
IMS was originally dened by an industry forum
called 3G.IP, formed in 1999. 3G.IP developed
the initial IMS architecture, which was brought to
the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), as
part of their standardization work for 3G mobile
phone systems in UMTS networks. It rst appeared
in Release 5 (evolution from 2G to 3G networks),
when SIP-based multimedia was added. Support
for the older GSM and GPRS networks was also
provided.[3]
3GPP2 (a dierent organization from 3GPP) based
their CDMA2000 Multimedia Domain (MMD) on
3GPP IMS, adding support for CDMA2000.
3GPP release 6 added interworking with WLAN,
inter-operability between IMS using dierent IP-
connectivity networks, routing group identities,
multiple registration and forking, presence, speech
recognition and speech-enabled services (Push to
talk).
3GPP release 7 added support for xed networks
by working together with TISPAN release R1.1, the
function of AGCF (access gateway control func-
tion) and PES (PSTN emulation service) are intro-
duced to the wire-line network for the sake of inher-
itance of services which can be provided in PSTN
network. AGCF works as a bridge interconnect-
ing the IMS networks and the Megaco/H.248 net-
works. Megaco/H.248 networks oers the possibil-
ity to connect terminals of the old legacy networks
to the new generation of networks based on IP net-
works. AGCF acts a SIP User agent towards the
IMS and performs the role of P-CSCF. SIP User
Agent functionality is included in the AGCF, and
not on the customer device but in the network it-
self. Also added voice call continuity between cir-
cuit switching and packet switching domain (VCC),
xed broadband connection to the IMS, interwork-
ing with non-IMS networks, policy and charging
control (PCC), emergency sessions.
3GPP release 8 added support for LTE / SAE, multi-
media session continuity, enhanced emergency ses-
sions and IMS centralized services.
3GPP release 9 added support for IMS emer-
gency calls over GPRS and EPS, enhancements to
multimedia telephony, IMS media plane security,
2 2 ARCHITECTURE

enhancements to services centralization and conti- is free to combine two functions in one node, or to split
nuity. a single function into two or more nodes. Each node can
also be present multiple times in a single network, for di-
3GPP release 10 added support for inter device mensioning, load balancing or organizational issues.
transfer, enhancements to the single radio voice call
continuity (SRVCC), enhancements to IMS emer-
gency sessions. 2.1 Access network
3GPP release 11 added USSD simulation service,
network-provided location information for IMS, The user can connect to IMS in various ways, most of
SMS submit and delivery without MSISDN in IMS, which use the standard IP. IMS terminals (such as mobile
and overload control. phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and comput-
ers) can register directly on IMS, even when they are
roaming in another network or country (the visited net-
work). The only requirement is that they can use IP
2 Architecture and run SIP user agents. Fixed access (e.g., Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modems, Ethernet), mo-
bile access (e.g. W-CDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS)
and wireless access (e.g., WLAN, WiMAX) are all sup-
ported. Other phone systems like plain old telephone
service (POTSthe old analogue telephones), H.323
and non IMS-compatible systems, are supported through
gateways.

2.2 Core network

HSS Home subscriber server:

The home subscriber server (HSS), or user prole server
function (UPSF), is a master user database that supports
the IMS network entities that actually handle calls. It
contains the subscription-related information (subscriber
3GPP / TISPAN IMS architectural overview
proles), performs authentication and authorization of the
user, and can provide information about the subscribers
location and IP information. It is similar to the GSM
home location register (HLR) and Authentication centre
(AuC).
A subscriber location function (SLF) is needed to map
user addresses when multiple HSSs are used.
User identities:
Various identities may be associated with IMS: IP multi-
media private identity (IMPI), IP multimedia public iden-
tity (IMPU), globally routable user agent URI (GRUU),
wildcarded public user identity. Both IMPI and IMPU
are not phone numbers or other series of digits, but
uniform resource identier (URIs), that can be digits (a
Tel URI, such as tel:+1-555-123-4567) or alphanumeric
identiers (a SIP URI, such as sip:john.doe@example.
com" ).
IP Multimedia Private Identity:
The IP Multimedia Private Identity (IMPI) is a unique per-
3GPP / TISPAN IMS architectural overview HSS in IMS layer
(as by standard) manently allocated global identity assigned by the home
network operator, and is used, for example, for Regis-
Each of the functions in the diagram is explained below. tration, Authorization, Administration, and Accounting
The IP multimedia core network subsystem is a collection purposes. Every IMS user shall have one IMPI.
of dierent functions, linked by standardized interfaces, IP Multimedia Public Identity:
which grouped form one IMS administrative network.[4] The IP Multimedia Public Identity (IMPU) is used by any
A function is not a node (hardware box): An implementer user for requesting communications to other users (e.g.
2.2 Core network
this might be included on a business card). There can be
multiple IMPU per IMPI. The IMPU can also be shared
with another phone, so that both can be reached with the
same identity (for example, a single phone-number for an
entire family).
Globally Routable User Agent URI:
Globally Routable User Agent URI (GRUU) is an identity
that identies a unique combination of IMPU and UE in-
stance. There are two types of GRUU: Public-GRUU
(P-GRUU) and Temporary GRUU (T-GRUU).
P-GRUU reveal the IMPU and are very long lived.
T-GRUU do not reveal the IMPU and are valid until
the contact is explicitly de-registered or the current
registration expires
Wildcarded Public User Identity:
A wildcarded Public User Identity expresses a set of
IMPU grouped together.
The HSS subscriber database contains the IMPU, IMPI,
IMSI, MSISDN, subscriber service proles, service trig-
gers, and other information.
2.2.1 CSCF Call Session Control Function
Several roles of SIP servers or proxies, collectively called
Call Session Control Function (CSCF), are used to pro-
cess SIP signalling packets in the IMS.
A Proxy-CSCF (P-CSCF) is a SIP proxy that is the
rst point of contact for the IMS terminal. It can
be located either in the visited network (in full IMS
networks) or in the home network (when the visited
network is not IMS compliant yet). Some networks
may use a Session Border Controller (SBC) for this
function. The P-CSCF is at its core a specialized
SBC for the Usernetwork interface which not only
protects the network, but also the IMS terminal. The
use of an additional SBC between the IMS terminal
and the P-CSCF is unnecessary and infeasible due
to the signaling being encrypted on this leg. The
terminal discovers its P-CSCF with either DHCP, or
it may be congured (e.g. during initial provisioning
or via a 3GPP IMS Management Object (MO)) or in
the ISIM or assigned in the PDP Context (in General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS)).
It is assigned to an IMS terminal before reg-
istration, and does not change for the duration
of the registration.
It sits on the path of all signalling, and can in-
spect every signal; the IMS terminal must ig-
nore any other unencrypted signalling.
It provides subscriber authentication and may
establish an IPsec or TLS security association
3
with the IMS terminal. This prevents spoong
attacks and replay attacks and protects the pri-
vacy of the subscriber.
It inspects the signaling and ensures that the
IMS terminals do not misbehave (e.g. change
normal signaling routes, do not obey home net-
works routing policy).
It can compress and decompress SIP messages
using SigComp, which reduces the round-trip
over slow radio links.
It may include a Policy Decision Function
(PDF), which authorizes media plane re-
sources e.g., quality of service (QoS) over the
media plane. It is used for policy control,
bandwidth management, etc. The PDF can
also be a separate function.
It also generates charging records.
An Interrogating-CSCF (I-CSCF) is another SIP
function located at the edge of an administrative do-
main. Its IP address is published in the Domain
Name System (DNS) of the domain (using NAPTR
and SRV type of DNS records), so that remote
servers can nd it, and use it as a forwarding point
(e.g., registering) for SIP packets to this domain.
it queries the HSS to retrieve the address of the
S-CSCF and assign it to a user performing SIP
registration
it also forwards SIP request or response to the
S-CSCF
Up to Release 6 it can also be used to hide
the internal network from the outside world
(encrypting parts of the SIP message), in
which case its called a Topology Hiding Inter-
network Gateway (THIG). From Release 7 on-
wards this entry point function is removed
from the I-CSCF and is now part of the In-
terconnection Border Control Function (IBCF).
The IBCF is used as gateway to external net-
works, and provides NAT and rewall func-
tions (pinholing). The IBCF is practically a
Session Border Controller specialized for the
NNI.
A Serving-CSCF (S-CSCF) is the central node of the
signalling plane. It is a SIP server, but performs ses-
sion control too. It is always located in the home
network. It uses Diameter Cx and Dx interfaces
to the HSS to download user proles and upload
user-to-S-CSCF associations (the user prole is only
cached locally for processing reasons only and is not
changed). All necessary subscriber prole informa-
tion is loaded from the HSS.
it handles SIP registrations, which allows it to
bind the user location (e.g., the IP address of
the terminal) and the SIP address
4 2 ARCHITECTURE

it sits on the path of all signaling messages of hosted by application servers. As user identities, PSI
the locally registered users, and can inspect ev- takes the form of either a SIP or Tel URI. PSIs are stored
ery message in the HSS either as a distinct PSI or as a wildcarded PSI:
it decides to which application server(s) the
SIP message will be forwarded, in order to a distinct PSI contains the PSI that is used in routing
provide their services
a wildcarded PSI represents a collection of PSIs.
it provides routing services, typically using
Electronic Numbering (ENUM) lookups
2.2.3 Media servers
it enforces the policy of the network operator
there can be multiple S-CSCFs in the net- The Media Resource Function (MRF) provides media re-
work for load distribution and high availabil- lated functions such as media manipulation (e.g. voice
ity reasons. Its the HSS that assigns the S- stream mixing) and playing of tones and announcements.
CSCF to a user, when its queried by the I-
Each MRF is further divided into a media resource func-
CSCF. There are multiple options for this pur-
tion controller (MRFC) and a media resource function
pose, including a mandatory/optional capabil-
processor (MRFP).
ities to be matched between subscribers and
S-CSCFs.
The MRFC is a signalling plane node that interprets
information coming from an AS and S-CSCF to con-
2.2.2 Application servers trol the MRFP

See also: Next generation network services
SIP Application servers (AS) host and execute services,
and interface with the S-CSCF using SIP. An example
of an application server that is being developed in 3GPP
is the Voice call continuity Function (VCC Server). De-
pending on the actual service, the AS can operate in SIP
proxy mode, SIP UA (user agent) mode or SIP B2BUA
mode. An AS can be located in the home network or in
an external third-party network. If located in the home
network, it can query the HSS with the Diameter Sh or
Si interfaces (for a SIP-AS).
The MRFP is a media plane node used to mix,
source or process media streams. It can also manage
access right to shared resources.
The Media Resource Broker (MRB) is a functional en-
tity that is responsible for both collection of appropriate
published MRF information and supplying of appropriate
MRF information to consuming entities such as the AS.
MRB can be used in two modes:
Query mode: AS queries the MRB for media and
sets up the call using the response of MRB

In-Line Mode: AS sends a SIP INVITE to the MRB.

SIP AS: Host and execute IMS specic services The MRB sets up the call
IP Multimedia Service Switching Function (IM-
SSF): Interfaces SIP to CAP to communicate with 2.2.4 Breakout gateway
CAMEL Application Servers
A Breakout Gateway Control Function (BGCF) is a SIP
OSA service capability server (OSA SCS) : Inter-
proxy which processes requests for routing from an S-
faces SIP to the OSA framework;
CSCF when the S-CSCF has determined that the session
cannot be routed using DNS or ENUM/DNS. It includes
Functional model The AS-ILCM (Application Server routing functionality based on telephone numbers.
- Incoming Leg Control Model) and AS-OLCM (Appli-
cation Sever - Outgoing Leg Control Model) store trans-
2.2.5 PSTN gateways
action state, and may optionally store session state de-
pending on the specic service being executed. The
A PSTN/CS gateway interfaces with PSTN circuit
AS-ILCM interfaces to the S-CSCF (ILCM) for an in-
switched (CS) networks. For signalling, CS networks use
coming leg and the AS-OLCM interfaces to the S-CSCF
ISDN User Part (ISUP) (or BICC) over Message Transfer
(OLCM) for an outgoing leg. Application Logic provides
Part (MTP), while IMS uses SIP over IP. For media, CS
the service(s) and interacts between the AS-ILCM and
networks use Pulse-code modulation (PCM), while IMS
AS-OLCM.
uses Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP).

Public Service Identity Public Service Identities A signalling gateway (SGW) interfaces with the sig-
(PSI) are identities that identify services, which are nalling plane of the CS. It transforms lower layer
2.4 Charging 5

protocols as Stream Control Transmission Protocolnetwork domain. Indirect interconnection at one layer
(SCTP, an IP protocol) into Message Transfer Partrefers to the interconnection between two network do-
(MTP, an Signalling System 7 (SS7) protocol), to mains with one or more intermediate network domain(s)
pass ISDN User Part (ISUP) from the MGCF to the acting as transit networks. The intermediate network do-
CS network. main(s) provide(s) transit functionality to the two other
network domains. Dierent interconnection modes may
A media gateway controller function (MGCF) is a be used for carrying service layer signalling and media
SIP endpoint that does call control protocol con- trac.
version between SIP and ISUP/BICC and inter-
faces with the SGW over SCTP. It also controls the
resources in a Media Gateway (MGW) across an 2.4 Charging
H.248 interface.
A media gateway (MGW) interfaces with the me- Oine charging is applied to users who pay for their ser-
dia plane of the CS network, by converting be- vices periodically (e.g., at the end of the month). Online
tween RTP and PCM. It can also transcode when charging, also known as credit-based charging, is used for
the codecs don't match (e.g., IMS might use AMR, prepaid services, or real-time credit control of postpaid
PSTN might use G.711). services. Both may be applied to the same session.
Charging function addresses are addresses distributed to
each IMS entities and provide a common location for
2.2.6 Media resources
each entity to send charging information. charging data
function (CDF) addresses are used for oine billing and
Media Resources are those components that operate on
Online Charging Function (OCF) for online billing.
the media plane and are under the control of IMS core
functions. Specically, Media Server (MS) and Media
gateway (MGW) Oine Charging : All the SIP network entities (P-
CSCF, I-CSCF, S-CSCF, BGCF, MRFC, MGCF,
AS) involved in the session use the Diameter Rf in-
2.3 NGN interconnection terface to send accounting information to a CDF lo-
cated in the same domain. The CDF will collect
There are two types of next-generation networking inter- all this information, and build a call detail record
connection: (CDR), which is sent to the billing system (BS) of
the domain.
Service-oriented interconnection (SoIx): The physi- Each session carries an IMS Charging Identier
cal and logical linking of NGN domains that allows (ICID) as a unique identier generated by the rst
carriers and service providers to oer services over IMS entity involved in a SIP transaction and used for
NGN (i.e., IMS and PES) platforms with control, the correlation with CDRs. Inter Operator Identier
signalling (i.e., session based), which provides de- (IOI) is a globally unique identier shared between
ned levels of interoperability. For instance, this is sending and receiving networks. Each domain has
the case of carrier grade voice and/or multimedia its own charging network. Billing systems in dier-
services over IP interconnection. Dened levels of ent domains will also exchange information, so that
interoperability are dependent upon the service or roaming charges can be applied.
the QoS or the Security, etc.
Online charging : The S-CSCF talks to a IMS gate-
Connectivity-oriented interconnection (CoIx): The way function (IMS-GWF) which looks like a regu-
physical and logical linking of carriers and service lar SIP application server. The IMS-GWF can sig-
providers based on simple IP connectivity irrespec- nal the S-CSCF to terminate the session when the
tive of the levels of interoperability. For exam- user runs out of credits during a session. The AS
ple, an IP interconnection of this type is not aware and MRFC use the Diameter Ro interface towards
of the specic end to end service and, as a conse- an OCF.
quence, service specic network performance, QoS
and security requirements are not necessarily as- When immediate event charging (IEC) is used,
sured. This denition does not exclude that some a number of credit units is immediately de-
services may provide a dened level of interoper- ducted from the users account by the ECF and
ability. However, only SoIx fully satises NGN in- the MRFC or AS is then authorized to provide
teroperability requirements. the service. The service is not authorized when
not enough credit units are available.
An NGN interconnection mode can be direct or indi- When event charging with unit reservation
rect. Direct interconnection refers to the interconnection (ECUR) is used, the ECF (event charging
between two network domains without any intermediate function) rst reserves a number of credit units
6 3 SESSION HANDLING

in the users account and then authorizes the

MRFC or the AS. After the service is over,
the number of spent credit units is reported
and deducted from the account; the reserved
credit units are then cleared.

2.5 IMS-Based PES Architecture

IMS-based PES (PSTN Emulation System) provides IP
networks services to analog devices. IMS-based PES al-
lows non-IMS devices to appear to IMS as normal SIP
users. Analog terminal using standard analog interfaces
can connect to IMS-based PES in two ways -
TISPAN IMS architecture with interfaces
Via A-MGW (Access Media Gateway) that is linked
and controlled by AGCF. AGCF is placed within the
Operators network and controls multiple A-MGW. ferentially (based on the users prole) triggered, is im-
A-MGW and AGCF communicate using H.248.1 plemented as a lter-and-redirect signalling mechanism
(Megaco) over the P1 reference point. POTS phone in the S-CSCF.
connect to A-MGW over the z interface. The sig-
The S-CSCF might apply lter criteria to determine the
nalling is converted to H.248 in the A-MGW and
need to forward SIP requests to AS. It is important to note
passed to AGCF. AGCF interprets the H.248 signal
that services for the originating party will be applied in
and other inputs from the A-MGW to format H.248
the originating network, while the services for the termi-
messages into appropriate SIP messages. AGCF
nating party will be applied in the terminating network,
presents itself as P-CSCF to the S-CSCF and passes
all in the respective S-CSCFs.
generated SIP messages to S-CSCF or to IP bor-
der via IBCF (Interconnection Border Control Func-
tion). Service presented to S-CSCF in SIP mes- 3.1 Initial lter criteria
sages trigger PES AS. AGCF has also certain ser-
vice independent logic, for example on receipt of An initial lter criteria (iFC) is an XML-based format
o-hook event from A-MGW, the AGCF requests used for describing control logic. iFCs represent a provi-
the A-MGW to play dial tone. sioned subscription of a user to an application. They are
Via VGW (VoIP-Gateway) or SIP Gate- stored in the HSS as part of the IMS Subscription Pro-
way/Adapter on customer premises. POTS le and are downloaded to the S-CSCF upon user reg-
phones via VOIP Gateway connect to P-CSCF istration (for registered users) or on processing demand
directly. Operators mostly use session border (for services, acting as unregistered users). iFCs are valid
controllers between VoIP gateways and P-CSCFs throughout the registration lifetime or until the User Pro-
[5]
for security and to hide network topology. VoIP le is changed.
gateway link to IMS using SIP over Gm reference The iFC is composed of:
point. The conversion from POTS service over the
z interface to SIP occurs in the customer premises
Priority - determines the order of checking the trig-
VoIP gateway. POTS signaling is converted to SIP
ger.
and passed on to P-CSCF. VGW acts as SIP user
agent and appears to P-CSCF as SIP terminal. Trigger point - logical condition(s) which is veried
against initial dialog creating SIP requests or stand-
Both A-MGW and VGW are unaware of the services. alone SIP requests.
They only relay call control signalling to and from the
PSTN terminal. Session control and handling is done by Application server URI - species the application
IMS components. server to be forwarded to when the trigger point
matches.

2.6 Interfaces description There are two types of iFCs:

3 Session handling Shared - When provisioning, only a reference num-

ber (the shared iFC number) is assigned to the sub-
One of the most important features of IMS, that of al- scriber. During registration, only the number is sent
lowing for a SIP application to be dynamically and dif- to the CSCF, not the entire XML description. The
 7

complete XML will have previously been stored on Video share

the CSCF.
Image share
Non-shared - when provisioning, the entire XML
description of the iFC is assigned to the subscriber. IP connectivity access network
During registration, the entire XML description is Text over IP
sent to the CSCF.
Multimedia telephony (MMTel)
Voice call continuity
4 Security aspects of early IMS and
Push to talk
non-3GPP systems
IMPS
It is envisaged that security dened in TS 33.203 may Rich Communication Suite
not be available for a while especially because of the lack
of USIM/ISIM interfaces and prevalence of devices that Service capability interaction manager
support IPv4. For this situation, to provide some pro-
tection against the most signicant threats, 3GPP denes Extensions to the SIP for the IP multimedia subsys-
some security mechanisms, which are informally known tem
as early IMS security, in TR33.978. This mechanism
relies on the authentication performed during the net-
work attachment procedures, which binds between the 6 References
users prole and its IP address. This mechanism is also
weak because the signaling is not protected on the user [1] Technical Specication Group Services and System As-
network interface. pects (2006), IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), Stage 2, TS
23.228, 3rd Generation Partnership Project
CableLabs in PacketCable 2.0, which adopted also the
IMS architecture but has no USIM/ISIM capabilities in [2] Alexander Harrowell, Sta Writer (October 2006), A
their terminals, published deltas to the 3GPP specica- Pointless Multimedia Subsystem?, Mobile Communica-
tions where the Digest-MD5 is a valid authentication op- tions International, archived from the original on Septem-
ber 2010
tion. Later on, TISPAN also did a similar eort given
their xed networks scopes, although the procedures are [3] 3GPP Release Descriptions. 3GPP.
dierent. To compensate for the lack of IPsec capabil-
ities, TLS has been added as an option for securing the [4] 3GPP, 23.228. 3GPP Stage 2 Specications.
Gm interface. Later 3GPP Releases have included the [5] 3GPP, 29.228. 3GPP Stage 2 Specications.
Digest-MD5 method, towards a Common-IMS platform,
yet in its own and again dierent approach. Although all
3 variants of Digest-MD5 authentication have the same
functionality and are the same from the IMS terminals
7 External links
perspective, the implementations on the Cx interface be-
tween the S-CSCF and the HSS are dierent. A decent IMS tutorial
IMS multi-page tutorial

5 See also IMS Call Flows

4G
8 Books
LTE
Camarillo, Gonzalo; Garca-Martn, Miguel A.
UMB
(2007). The 3G IP multimedia subsystem (IMS) :
Mobile broadband Merging the Internet and the Cellular Worlds (2 ed.).
Chichester [u.a.]: Wiley. ISBN 0-470-01818-6.
Softswitch
Poikselk, Miikka (2007). The IMS : IP multimedia
Voice over IP concepts and services (2 ed.). Chichester [u.a.]: Wi-
Mobile VoIP ley. ISBN 0-470-01906-9.

SIMPLE Syed A. Ahson, Mohammed Ilyas, ed. (2009). IP

multimedia subsystem (IMS) handbook. Boca Raton:
Peer-to-peer video sharing CRC Press. ISBN 1-4200-6459-2.
8 8 BOOKS

Wuthnow, Mark; Staord, Matthew; Shih, Jerry

(2010). IMS : A New Model for Blending Applica-
tions. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 1-4200-9285-
5.
 9

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text
IP Multimedia Subsystem Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_Multimedia_Subsystem?oldid=765780608 Contributors: The
Anome, Michael Hardy, Plop, Ijon, Conti, Ehn, .mau., Netje, Dbenbenn, Joconnor, Frencheigh, Mboverload, Bobblewik, Edcolins,
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