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EGYPTAIR

TECHNICAL TRAINING CENTER

STANDARD PRACTICES FOR AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERS

PREPARED BY SUPERVISED BY
Eng. ABDALLA EL-GHORORY Eng. MAGDY EL-TOHMY
A/F&P.P Instructor Tech. Training Center Gen. Manger
STANDARD PRACTICES
FOR
AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERS

Table of content
Subject Page

INTRODUCTION 1
OBJECTIVES .. 2
CHAPTER 1 3
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE .. 3
INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 THREADED FASTENERS .. 3
1.1.1 Aircraft Bolts .. 3
1.1.2 Screws . 8
1.1.3 Nuts . 9
1.1.4 Installation of Nuts and Bolts 13
1.1.5 Application of Torque . 14
1.2 TURNLOCK FASTENERS . 15
1.2.1 Camlock Fasteners .. 15
1.2.2 Airlock Fasteners 17
1.2.3 Dzus Fasteners 18
1.3 RIVETS .. 19
1.3.1 Solid Rivets ... 19
1.3.2 Rivnuts 22
1.4 MISCELLANEOUS FASTENERS 23

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Subject Page

1.4.1 Snap Rings . 23


1.4.2 Turnbuckles 23
1.4.3 Pins 24
1.5 FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS . 25
1.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM HARDWARE .. 26
1.6.1 Wire and Cable 26
1.6.2 Connectors 26
1.6.3 Terminals ... 27
1.6.4 Bonding . 28
1.7 SAFETY METHODS 29
1.7.1 Safety wiring .. 29
1.7.2 Nuts, Bolts, and Screws .. 29
1.7.3 Oil Caps, Drain Cocks, and Valves 33
1.7.4 Electrical Connectors ,, 34
1.7.5 Turnbuckles . 34
1.7.6 General Safety Wiring Rules .. 36
1.7.7 Cotter Pins .. 36
1.8 WASHERS .. 38
1.8.1 Plain Washers 38
1.8.2 Lock Washers . 38
1.8.3 Star Lock Washers 38
1.8.4 Tab Lock Washers 38
1.8.5 Special Washers 39

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Subject Page

1.9 LOCKING 40
1.9.1 Tab Washers 40
1.9.2 Locking Nut /Jam Nut 41
1.9.3 Nylock /Simmonds Nut .. 41
1.9.4 Locking Plates . 42
1.10 CLAMPS . 43
1.10.1Connecting clamps .. 43
1.10.2 Support /Fixing Clamps . 44
1.10.3 Tightening Clamps .. 46
1.10.4 Clamp Installation 47
1.10.5 Clamp Inspection .. 48
1.10.6 Typical Installation of tubes . 48
1.11 TUBE FITTINGS .. 52
1.11.1 Universal Fitting 52
1.11.2 Unions 54
1.11.3 Bulkhead Fitting .. 54
1.12 SEALS AND GASKETS 55
1.12.1 Gaskets .. 55
1.12.2 Crush washers (Tube connection seals) . 56
1.13 O-RING SEALS ... 57
1.13.1 Typical Applications .. 58
1.13.2 Back- up rings . 59
1.13.3 Other Seals Cross Sections . 59
1.13.4 Installation of 'O' Ring 60

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Subject Page

1.13.5 Failure Modes .. 62


1.14 PLUMPING 63
1.14.1 Fluid Lines . 63
1.14.2 Flexible Hoses .. 63
1.14.3 Inspection .. 63
1.14.4 Replacement of Flexible Hose . 64
1.15 TORQUE 65
1.15.1 Torque Definition . 65
1.15.2 Torque Accuracy . 65
1.15.3 Torque Wrench 65
1.15.4 Particulars . 65
1.15.5 Torque Correction .. 66
1.15.6 Torquing Practices . 66
1.15.7 Torque Wrench Types 69
1.15.8 Differences between Types .. 72
1.15.9 Accessories .. 72
1.16 ROLLING BEARINGS 75
1.16.1 Sliding Bearing and Rolling Bearing . 75
1.16.2 Classification of Rolling Bearings . 76
1.16.3 Rolling Bearing Construction . 77
1.16.4 Characteristics of Rolling Bearing 80
1.16.5 Bearing Features 80
1.16.6 Plain/Journal Bearing 82
1.16.7 Bearing Inspection . 82

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Subject Page

1.16.8 The do and dont when working with Bearing .. 83


1.17 SEALS 85
1.17.1 Dynamic Seal Function ... 85
1.17.2 Classification of Dynamic Seals ... 85
1.17.3 Static Seals . 88
1.18 CONTROL CABLES . 94
1.18.1 Cable Definitions .. 94
1.18.2 Independent Wire Rope Center 7 by 7 94
1.18.3 Fixable Cables 94
1.18.4 Nylon-Coated Cables 95
1.18.5 Non Flexible Cables .. 96
1.18.6 Pulleys .. 96
1.18.7 Replacement of Cable .. 96
1.18.8 Splicing 99
1.18.9 Swaged Ball Terminals 100
1.18.10 Cable Slippage in Terminal .. 100
1.18.11 Lap Splice . 101
1.18.12 Cable System Inspection .. 101
1.18.13 Cable System Corrosion and Rust Prevention ... 108
1.18.14 Wire Splices ., 108
1.18.15 Cable Tension Adjustment 109
1.19 PUSH PULL CABLES 110
1.20 FLEXIBLE SHAFT .. 111

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Subject Page

CHAPTER 2 .. 113
AIRCRAFT AND ENGINE LUBRICANTS AND FUEL .. 113
INTRODUCTION .. 113
2.1 THE FUNDAMENTALE OF FUELS AND LUBRICANTS .. 113
2.1.1 Fractional Distillation 113
2.1.2 Oil Refinery .. 114
2.1.3 Process . 115
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS 116
2.2.1 Origins ... 116
2.2.2 Fluid Lubricants (Oils) .. 116
2.3 AVIATION TURBINE FUEL (JET FUEL) 117
2.3.1 Civil Aviation Fuels 117
2.4 JET FUEL HANDLING (FUELING) . 118
2.4.1 Safety Precautions 118
2.5 ENGINE OILS .. 121
2.5.1 Engine Oil Properties 121
2.5.2 Lubricant .... 121
2.5.3 Purpose . 121
2.6 SYNTHETIC OILS 123
2.6.1 Hydraulic Fluids .. 123
2.6.2 Skydrol .. 124
2.7 SAFTEY PRECAUTIONS . 125
2.8 HANDLING OF FLUID AND COMPONENTS 126
2.8.1 Personal Protection 126

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Subject Page

2.8.2 Fire Hazards for Fuel and OILS . 127


2.9 DISPOSAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 128
2.10 AVIATION GREASES 128
2.10.1 Oil and Grease Compared for Aviation Purposes . 128
2.10.2 Requirements for Aircraft Lubricating Greases . 129
2.10.3 Types of Greases 129
2.10.4 Special Engine Lubricants 130
2.11 OIL SAMPLING 131
2.11.1 Purpose . 131
2.11.2 Intervals . 131
2.12 AIRCRAFT SEALANTS . 131
2.12.1 Definition of Sealing .. 131
2.12.2 Sealant Application Areas ... 133
2.13 TYPES OF SEALING . 133
2.13.1 Fillet Seals 133
2.13.2 Injection Seals 133
2.13.3 Faying Surface Seals 134
2.13.4 Prepack Seals . 134
2.13.5 Brush Coat Seals .. 134
2.14 SOLVENTS 134
2.15 APPLICATION EQUIPMENT .. 134
2.15.1 Sealant Gun 134
2.15.2 Nozzles 134
2.15.3 Scrapers . 135

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Subject Page

2.16 SEALING COMPOUNDS 135


2.16.1 Description . 135
2.16.2 Sealant Life Definition . 135
2.16.3 Environmental Effects 136
2.16.4 Special Precautions for Silicones 136
2.16.5 SEALANT TYPES .. 137
2.17 SEALANT APPLICATION .. 137
2.17.1 Surface Preparation . 137
2.18 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASS-A AND CLASS- B .. 139
CHAPTER 3 ... 141
LINE OPERATIONS AND RAMP SAFETY . 141
INTRODUCTION .. 141
3.1 OPERATING EQUIPMENT AROUND AIRCRAFT . 141
3.2 HAZARDS OF SUPPORT EQUIPMENT .. 142
3.3 MULTI ENGINE AIRCRAFT HANDLING .. 143
3.4 FUEL SPILLAGE ... 143
3.5 AIRCRAFT ENGINE FIRES . 144
3.5.1 Internal Engine Fire ... 144
3.5.2 Tail Pipe Fire 145
3.6 HOT BRAKES .. 145
3.7 WHEEL ASSEMBLY FIRES . 146
APPENDIX I
FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE, Challenges to Airport Ramp Debris Control .. 149
APPENDIX II THE DIRTY DOZEN ... 157

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INTRODUTION

This manual contains three chapters, all included information are collected and
adapted to give aviation engineers enough knowledge about AIRCRAFT
HARDWARE (Bolts, Nuts, Screws, seals, etc.), AIRCAFT & ENGINE
LUBRICANTS and AVIATION FUEL (Oils, Greases, Synthetic Fluids, etc.) and
finally LINE OPERATION and RAMP SAFETY. These standard practices
information will give engineers the potential needs to carry out their job with the
highest quality in a minimum time which consequently leads to safe time safe and
money. Also, it includes the definition of the dirty dozen and how much them
affecting the quality of the product.

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COURSE OBJECTIVES

At the completion of this manual the aircraft maintenance engineers will be able
to:
Identify all of the hardware used in the aircraft.
Correct choose of required item.
Carry out a correct inspection on various components of aircraft systems.
Identify the correct torque application and correction.
Recognize the most used fuels, lubricants and sealants.
Recognize the harmful of fuel, lubricants and sealants to avoid it.
Carry out good and safe handling of aircraft.
Face some emergency cases which may happen to aircraft.
Know how much the FOD affects the aircraft safety.

2
CHAPTER 1
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE

INTRODUCTION
The safe and efficient operation of any aircraft depends upon the correct selection and use of aircraft
hardware. This chapter discusses the various types of threaded fasteners, quick-release fasteners, rivets,
electrical hardware, and other miscellaneous hardware. As the items of aircraft hardware should remain tightly
secured in the aircraft. Therefore, we will discuss proper safetying methods.
Aircraft hardware is identified for use by its specification number or trade name. Threaded fasteners and
rivets are identified by Air Force-Nay (AN), National Aircraft Standard (NAS), and Military Standard (MS) numbers.
Quick-release fasteners are identified by factory trade names and size designations.
When aircraft hardware is ordered from supply, the specification numbers and the factory part numbers are
changed into stock numbers (SN). This change is identified by using a part-number cross-reference index.

1.1 THREADED FASTENERS


LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify common types of threaded fasteners and methods used to properly
install safety them.

Bolts and screws are similar in that both have ahead at one end and a screw thread at the other. However,
there are several differences between them. The threaded end of the screw may fit into a nut or directly into the
material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short threaded section and a comparatively long grip length (The
unthreaded part). A screw may have a longer threaded section and no clearly defined grip length. A bolt
assembly is generally tightened by turning a nut. Another minor difference between a screw and a bolt is that a
screw is usually made of lower strength materials.

1.1.1 Aircraft Bolts


Bolts are used in aircraft construction in areas where high strength is needed. Aircraft quality bolts are made
from alloy steel, stainless or corrosion resistant steel, aluminum alloys, and titanium. Aircraft bolts will always
have a marking on their head, an "X" or an asterisk along with a name, etc. The corrosion resistant (stainless

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steel) bolt and the head of that bolt should have one raised dash. A chart of typical bolt heads is presented in
figure 1-1. NAS bolts have a higher tensile strength (usually about 160,000 psi) and can be identified by a cupped
out head. Close tolerance bolts can be either AN or NAS and typically have a head marking consisting of a raised
or recessed triangle.

Figure 1-1 Bolt head identification

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The three principal parts of a bolt are the head, grip, and threads, as shown in figure 1-2.
The head is the larger diameter of the bolt and may be one of many shapes or design.
The grip is the unthreaded part of the bolt shaft.
The thread is other end of the bolt and it shape depends on function.
As shown in figures1- 2 & 1- 3 the other parameters of the bolt are:
The bolt length is the distance from the tip of the threaded end to the head of the bolt. Correct length
selection is indicated when the bolt extends through the nut at least two full threads. The grip length
should be approximately the same as the thickness of the material to be fastened.
The bolt diameter, it should be the same of hole diameter depending on its function.
The head thickness and width, if the head is too thin or too narrow, it might not be strong enough to bear
the load imposed on it. If the head is too thick or too wide, it might extend so far that it interferes with the
movement of adjacent parts.

Bolts come in three head style-hex head, clevis and eyebolt. NAS bolts are available in countersunk, internal
wrenching, and hex head styles. Head markings may indicate if the bolt is classified as a close tolerance bolt,
see figure1-1&1- 4. Additional information, such as bolt diameter, bolt length, and grip length, may be obtained
from the bolt part number.

For example AN 4- 4A
AN - Means the bolt is manufactured according to Air Force-Navy specs
4 - Identifies the diameter of the bolt shank in 1/16 inch increments
4 - Identifies the length of the shank in 1/8 inch increments
A - Means the shank of the bolt is undrilled (no letter here means a drilled shank)

So, this particular bolt is a inch diameter AN bolt that is inch long measured from just under the head to
the tip of the shank. The bolt is also has an undrilled shank which means it cannot accept a cotter pin. Also, bolt
length may vary by +1/32nd inch to -1/64th inch. If the letter "C" follows the AN designation (ANC) that identifies a
stainless steel bolt. The letter "H" after AN (ANH) identifies a drilled head bolt.

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Figure 1- 2 Bolt terms and dimensions

Figure 1- 3 Correct and incorrect grip lengths

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Figure 1- 4 Types of bolts and marking

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1.1.2 Screws
The most common threaded fastener used in aircraft construction is the screw. The three most used types are
the machine screw, structural screw, and the self-tapping screw, as shown in figure 1-5, it also shows the three
head slots-straight, Phillips, and Reed and Prince.

Figure 1- 5 Screws

A- Structural Screws
Structural screws are made of alloy steel and are properly heat-treated. They differ from structural bolts only
in the type of head. These screws are available in countersunk head, round head and brazier head types, see
figure1-6.

Figure 1- 6 Structural screws

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B- Machine Screws
The commonly used machine screws are the roundhead, flat head, fillister head, pan head, truss head, and
socket head types.
C- Self-Tapping Screws
Self-tapping screws may be used only in comparatively soft metals and materials. Machine self-tapping
screws are usually used for attaching removable parts, such as nameplates, to the casting after a hole has been
predrilled undersize. Sheet metal self-tapping screws may be used to permanently assemble nonstructural units
here it is necessary to insert screws in difficult to get o areas.

CAUTION
Self-tapping screws should never be used to replace standard screws, nuts, or rivets originally
used in the structure.
1.1.3 Nuts
Aircraft nuts may be divided into two general groups-one self-locking and self-locking nuts. Nonself -locking
nuts are those that must be safeties by external locking devices, such as cotter pins, safety wire, or locknuts.
The locking feature is an integral part of self-locking nuts.

A- Non-self-locking Nuts
The most common of the non-self -locking nuts are the castle nut, the plain hex nut, the castellated shear nut,
and the wing nut. Figure1-7 shows these none-self-locking nuts.
Castle nuts are used with drilled-shank AN hex-head bolts, clevis bolts, or studs. They are designed to
accept a cotter pin or lock wire for safetying.
Castellated shear nuts are used on such parts as drilled clevis bolts and threaded taper pins. They are
normally subjected to shearing stress only. They must not be used in installations where tension stresses
are encountered.
Plain hex nuts have limited use on aircraft structures. They require an auxiliary locking device such as a
check nut or a lock washer.
Wing nuts are used where the desired tightness can be obtained by the fingers and where the assembly is
frequently removed. Wing nuts are commonly used on battery connections.

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Figure 1- 7 Non-self-locking nuts

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B- Self-Locking Nuts
Self-locking nuts provide tight connections that will not loosen under vibrations. Self-locking nuts approved
for use on aircraft meet critical specifications as to strength, corrosion resistance, and heat-resistant
temperatures. There are two general types of self-locking nuts.
1. All-metal nuts
2. Metal nuts with a nonmetallic insert to provide the locking action.
The elastic stop and the nonmetallic insert lock nut are examples of the nonmetallic insert type. The elastic stop
nut is constructed with a nonmetallic (nylon) insert, which is designed to lock the nut in place. The insert is
unthreaded and has a smaller diameter than the inside diameter of the nut.
Self-locking nuts are generally suitable for reuse in non critical applications provided the threads have not
been damaged. If the locking material has not been damaged or permanently distorted, it can be reused.

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Figure 1- 8 Self-locking nuts

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Note
If any doubt exists about the condition of a nut, use a new one.

The sheet spring nut may be used, see figure 1-9. Applications include supporting line clamps, electrical
equipment, and small access doors. It is made of sheet spring steel and is cut so as to have two flaps.

Figure 1- 9 Sheet spring nut

1.1.4 Installation of Nuts and Bolts


Examine the markings on the head to determine whether a bolt is steel or aluminum alloy. It is of extreme
importance to use like bolts in replacement. Be sure that washers are used under the heads of both bolts and
nuts unless their omission is specified. A washer guards against mechanical damage to the material being bolted
and prevents corrosion of the structural members. An aluminum alloy washer may be used under the head and

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nut of a steel bolt securing aluminum alloy or magnesium alloy members. Corrosion will attack the washer rather
than the members. Steel washers should be used when joining steel members with steel bolts. Whenever
possible, the bolt should be placed with the head on top or in the forward position.

1.1.5 Application of Torque


Torque is the amount of twisting force applied when you are tightening a nut. If torque values are specified in
the appropriate manual, a torque wrench must be used. Regardless of whether torque values are specified or not,
all nuts in a particular installation must be tightened a like amount. See torque section for procedure and wrench
types.

Note
It is very important that all nuts except the self-locking type be safetied after installation. This
prevents nuts from loosening in flight because of vibration. Methods of safetying are discussed
later.

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1.2 TURNLOCK FASTENERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the three common types of turn-lock fasteners (quick-action panel
fasteners) and how they operate.

1.2.1 Camlock Fasteners


The Camloc fastener consists of four principal parts receptacle, grommet, retaining ring, and stud assembly,
see figure 1-10. The receptacle assembly is riveted to the access door frame, which is attached to the structure of
the aircraft. Grommets are available in two types the flush type and the protruding type. The stud assembly
consists of a stud, cross pin, spring, and spring cup. The assembly is designed so that it can be quickly inserted
into the grommet by compression of the spring. Once installed in the grommet, the stud assembly cannot be
removed unless the spring is again compressed.

Figure 1- 10 Camloc series fastener

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The Camloc high-stress panel fastener, shown in figure 1-11, is a high-strength, quick-release, rotary-type
fastener. It may be used on flat or curved,

Figure 1- 11 Camloc high-stress panel fasteners

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1.2.2 Airlock Fasteners
Figure 1-12 shows the parts that make up an Airloc fastener. The stud is attached to the access panel and is
held in place by the cross pin. The receptacle is riveted to the access panel frame. Two types of Airloc
receptacles are available-the fixed type (view A) and the floating type (view B).

Figure 1- 12 Airloc fasteners

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1.2.3 Dzus Fasteners
Dzus fasteners are available in two types. One is the light-duty type, used on box covers, access hole covers,
and light weight fairing. The second is the heavy-duty type, which is used on cowling and heavy fairing. Figure 1-
13 shows the parts making up a light-duty Dzus fastener. Notice that they include a spring and a stud. The stud
comes in a number of designs (as shown in views A, B, and C) and mounts in a dimpled hole in the cover
assembly.

Figure 1- 13 Dzus fastener

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1.3 RIVETS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the solid rivets, blind rivets, and rivnuts commonly used in aircraft
construction.
In addition to being used in the skin, rivets are used in joining spar and rib sections. They are also used for
securing fittings to various parts of the aircraft, and for fastening bracing members and other parts together.
Rivets that are satisfactory for one part of the aircraft are often unsatisfactory for another part.

Two of the major types of rivets used in aircraft construction are the solid rivet and the blind rivet. The solid
rivet must be driven with a bucking bar. The blind rivet is installed when a bucking bar cannot be used.

1.3.1 Solid Rivets


Solid rivets are classified by their head shape, size, and the material from which they are manufactured. Rivet
head shapes and their identifying code numbers are shown in figure1-14. Solid rivets have five different head
shapes. They are the round head, flat head, countersunk head, brazier head, and universal head rivets.

A- Round Head Rivets


Round head rivets are used on internal structures where strength is the major factor and streamlining is not
important.
B- Flat Head Rivets
Flat head rivets, like round head rivets, are used in the assembly of internal structures where maximum
strength is required. They are used where interference of nearby members does not permit the use of round head
rivets.
C- Countersunk Head Rivets
Countersunk head rivets, often referred to as flush rivets, and are used where streamlining is important. On
combat aircraft practically all external surfaces are flush riveted.
D- Brazier Head Rivets
Brazier head rivets offer only slight resistance to the airflow and are used frequently on external surfaces,
especially on noncombat-type aircraft.

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E- Universal Head Rivets
Universal head rivets are similar to brazier head rivets. They should be used in place of all other protruding-
head rivets when existing stocks are depleted.

Figure 1- 14 Rivet head shapes and code numbers

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F- Blind Rivets
There are many places on an aircraft where access to both sides of a riveted structural part is impossible.
They are lighter than solid-shank rivets but are amply strong. Such rivets are referred to as blind rivets or self-
plugging because of the self-heading feature. Figure1-15 shows a general type of blind rivet.

Figure 1- 15 Self-plugging rivet (mechanical lock)

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1.3.2 Rivnuts
The rivnut is a hollow aluminum rivet that is counter bored and threaded on the inside. The rivet is installed
with the aid of a special tool. Rivnuts are used primarily as a nut plate. They may be used as rivets in secondary
structures such as instruments, brackets, and soundproofing materials. Rivnuts are manufactured in two head
styles, countersunk and flat, and in two shank designs, open and closed ends, see figure1-16.
Open-end rivnuts are the most widely used. They are preferred in place of the closed-end type. However, in
sealed flotation or pressurized compartments, the closed-end rivnut must be used.

Figure 1- 16 Sectional view of Rivnut showing head and end designs

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1.4 MISCELLANEOUS FASTENERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the miscellaneous fastener used to fasten special purpose units.
Some fasteners cannot be classified as rivets, turn locks, or threaded fasteners. Included in this category are
snap rings, turnbuckles, taper pins, flat head pins, and flexible connector/clamps.

1.4.1 Snap Rings


A snap ring is a ring of metal, either round or flat in cross section that is tempered to have spring like action.
This spring like action holds the snap ring firmly seated in a groove. The external types are designed to fit in a
groove around the outside of a shaft or cylinder. The internal types fit in a groove inside a cylinder. A special
type of pliers is made to install each type of snap ring. Snap rings may be reused as long as they retain their
shape and spring like action.

1.4.2 Turnbuckles
A turnbuckle is a mechanical screw device consisting of two threaded terminals and a threaded barrel. Figure
1-17 shows a typical turnbuckle assembly.
Turnbuckles are fitted in the cable assembly for the purpose of making minor adjustments in cable length and
for adjusting cable tension. One of the terminals has right-hand threads and the other has left-hand threads. The
barrel has matching right- and left-hand internal threads. The end of the barrel with the left-hand threads can
usually be identified by a groove or knurl around that end. When installing a turnbuckle in a control system, it is
necessary to screw both of the terminals an equal number of turns into the barrel. It is also essential that you
screw both turnbuckle terminals into the barrel until not more than three threads are exposed. After you adjust a
turnbuckle properly, it must be safetied. We will discuss the methods of safetying turnbuckles later in this
chapter.

Figure 1- 17 Typical turnbuckle assembly

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1.4.3 Pins
A- Taper pins
Taper pins are used in joints that carry shear loads and where the absence of clearance is essential, see
figure1-18. The threaded taper pin is used with a taper pin washer and a shear nut if the taper pin is drilled. Use a
self-locking nut if the taper pin is undrilled. When a shear nut is used with the threaded taper pin and washer, the
nut is secured with a cotter pin.

B- Flat head pins


The flat head pin is used with tie-rod terminals or secondary controls, which do not operate continuously. The
flat head pin should be secured with a cotter pin. The pin is normally installed with the head up, see figure1-18,
and view C.

Figure 1- 18 Types of aircraft pins

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1.5 FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS
Some of the most commonly used clamps are shown in figure 1-19. When installing a hose between two duct
sections, the gap between the duct ends should be one-eighth inch minimum to three-fourths inch maximum.
When you install the clamps on the connection, the clamp should be one-fourth inch minimum from the end of
the connector. Misalignment between the ducting ends should not exceed one-eighth inch maximum. Marman
type clamps, commonly used in ducting systems, should be tightened to the torque value indicated on the
coupling. Use the torque value as specified on the clamp or in the applicable maintenance instruction manual.

Figure 1- 19 Flexible line connect

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1.6 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM HARDWARE
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the special hardware found in an aircraft's electrical system.
The aircraft maintenance engineer must become familiar with wire and cable, connectors, terminals, and
bonding.

1.6.1 Wire and Cable


For purposes of electrical installations, a wire is described as a stranded conductor covered with an
insulating material. The term cable, as used in aircraft electrical installations, includes the following:
Two or more insulated conductors contained in the same jacket (multi-conductor cable)
Two or more insulated conductors twisted together (twisted pair)
One or more insulated conductors covered with a metallic braided shield (shielded cable)
A single insulated conductor with a metallic braided outer conductor (RF cable)

1.6.2 Connectors
Connectors are devices attached to the ends of cables and sets of wires to make them easier to connect and
disconnect. Each connector consists of a plug assembly and a receptacle assembly. The two assemblies are
coupled by means of a coupling nut. Each consists of an aluminum shell containing an insulating insert that
holds the current-carrying contacts. The plug is usually attached to the cable end, and is the part of the
connector on which the coupling nut is mounted. The receptacle is the half of the connector to which the plug is
connected. It is usually mounted on a part of the equipment. One type of connector commonly used in aircraft
electrical systems is shown in figure1-20.

Figure 1- 20 Connectors assemblies

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1.6.3 Terminals
The terminals used in electrical wiring are either of the soldered or crimped type.
The crimped-type terminals are generally recommended for use on naval aircraft. Soldered-type terminals are
usually used in emergencies only. The basic types of sholderless terminals are shown in figure1-21. They are the
straight, right angle, flag, and splice types.

Figure 1- 21 Basic types of sholderless terminals.

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1.6.4 Bonding
When you connect all the metal parts of an aircraft to complete an electrical unit, it is called bonding.
Bonding connections are made of screws, nuts, washers, clamps, and bonding jumpers. Figure1-22 shows a
typical bonding link installation.
An aircraft can become highly charged with static electricity while in flight. If the aircraft is improperly bonded,
all metal parts do not have the same amount of static charge. A difference of potential exists between the various
metal surfaces.
If the resistance between insulated metal surfaces is great enough, charges can accumulate. The potential
difference could become high enough to cause a spark. This constitutes a fire hazard and also causes radio
interference. If lighting strikes an aircraft, a good conducting path for heavy current is necessary to minimize
severe arcing and sparks. Bonding also provides the necessary low resistance return path for single-wire
electrical systems.This low-resistance path provides a means of bringing the entire aircraft to the earth's
potential when it is grounded. When you perform an inspection, both bonding connections and safetying devices
must be inspected with great care.

Figure 1- 22 Typical bonding link installation.

28
1.7 SAFETY METHODS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the procedures for the safetying of fasteners and electrical system
hardware.
Safetying is a process of securing all aircraft bolts, nuts, caps crews, studs, and other fasteners. Safetying
prevents the fasteners from working loose due to vibration. Loose bolts, nuts, or screws can ruin engines or
cause parts of the aircraft to drop off. To carry out an inspection on an aircraft, you must be familiar with the
various methods of safetying. Careless safetying is a sure road to disaster. Always use the proper method for
safetying. Always safety a part you have just unsafetied before going on to the next item of inspection. You
should always inspect for proper safetying throughout the area in which you are working.
There are various methods of safetying aircraft parts. The most widely used methods are safety wire, cotter
pins, lock washers, snap rings, and special nuts. Some of these nuts and washers have been described
previously in this chapter.

1.7.1 Safety wiring


Safety wiring is the most positive and satisfactory method of safetying. It is a method of wiring together two
or more units. Any tendency of one unit to loosen is counteracted by the tightening of the wire.

1.7.2 Nuts, Bolts, and Screws


Nuts, bolts, and screws are safety wired by the single-wire double-twist method. This method is the most
common method of safety wiring. A single-wire may be used on small screws in close spaces, closed electrical
systems, and in places difficult to reach. Figure1-23 illustrates the following steps required to install a standard
double-twist safety wire for two bolts with right-hand threads.

Step1. Assemble the unit. Torque the bolts and carefully align the safety wire holes.
Step2. Insert the proper size wire through the hole in the first bolt.
Step3. Bend the left end of the wire clockwise around the bolt head and under the other end of the wire.
Step4. Pull the loop tight against the bolt head. Grasp both ends of the wire. Twist them in a clockwise direction
until the end of the braid is just short of the second bo

29
Step5. Check to ensure that the loop is still tightly in place around the first bolt head. Grasp the wire with plier s
jus beyond the end of the braid. While holding it taut, twist it in a clockwise direction until the braid is stiff.

Note
The braid must be tight enough to resist friction or vibration wear, but should not be over
tightened.

Step6. Insert the upper end of the safety wire through the hole in the second bolt. Pull the braid until it is taut.
Step7. Bring the other end of the wire counterclockwise around the bolt head and under the protruding wire end.
Step8. Tighten the loop and braid the wire ends in a counterclockwise direction. Grasp the wire with the pliers
just beyond the end of the braid and twist in a counterclockwise direction until the braid is stiff. Make sure you
keep the wire under tension.
Step9. With a final twisting motion, bend the braid to the right and against the head of the bolt.
Step10. Cut the braid, being careful that between three and six full twists still remain. Avoid sharp projecting
ends.

30
Figure 1- 23 Locking steps

31
Figure1- 24 shows various methods which are commonly used in safety wiring nuts, bolts, and screws.
Examples 1, 2, and 5 of figure1-24 show the proper method of safety wiring bolts, screws, square head plugs, and
similar parts when wired in pairs. Examples 6 and 7 show a single-threaded component wired to a housing or lug.
Example 3 shows several components wired in series. Example 4 shows the proper method of wiring castellated
nuts and studs. Note that there is no loop around the nut. Example 8 shows several components in a closely
spaced, closed geometrical pattern, using the single-wire method.
When drilled-head bolts, screws, or other parts are grouped together, they are more conveniently safety wired
to each other in a series rather than individually. The number of nuts, bolts, or screws that may be safety wired
together depends on the application. For instance, when you are safety wiring widely spaced bolts by the double-
twist method, a group of three should be the maximum number in a series.
When you are safety wiring closely spaced bolts, the number that can be safety wired by a 24-inch length of
wire is the maximum in a series. The wire is arranged in such a manner that if the bolt or screw begins to loosen,
the force applied to the wire is in the tightening direction.
Torque all parts to the recommended values, and align holes before you attempt to proceed with the safetying
operation. Never over torque or loosen a torqued nut to align safety wire holes.

Figure1- 24 Safety wiring methods

32
1.7.3 Oil Caps, Drain Cocks, and Valves
These units are safety wired as shown in figure1-25. In the case of the oil cap, the wire is anchored to an
adjacent fillister head screw. Ordinarily, anchorage lips are conveniently located near these individual parts.
When this provision is not made, the safety wire is fastened to some adjacent part of the assembly.

Figure 1- 25 Safety wiring oil caps, drain cocks, and valves

33
1.7.4 Electrical Connectors
Under conditions of severe vibration, the coupling nut of a connector may vibrate loose. With sufficient
vibration, the connector could come apart. When this occurs, the circuit carried by the cable opens. The proper
protective measure to prevent this occurrence is by safety wiring, as shown in figure1- 26. The safety wire should
be as short as practicable. It must be installed in such a manner that the pull on the wire is in the direction that
tightens the nut on the plug.

Figure 1- 26 Safety wiring attachment for plug connectors

1.7.5 Turnbuckles
After you adjust a turnbuckle properly, safety it. There are several methods of safetying turnbuckles. These
methods are shown in views (A) and (B) of figure1- 27. The clip-locking method is used only on the most modern
aircraft. The older type of aircraft still uses the turnbuckles that require the wire-wrapping method.

34
Figure 1- 27 Safetying turnbuckles. (A) Clip-locking method& (B) wire-wrapping method

35
1.7.6 General Safety Wiring Rules
When you use the safety wire method of safetying, follow these general rules:
1. A pigtail of one-fourth to one-half inch (three to six twists) should be made at the end of the wiring. This
pigtail must be bent back or under to prevent it from becoming a snag.
2. The safety wire must be new upon each application.
3. When you secure castellated nuts with safety wire, tighten the nut to the low side of the selected torque
range, unless otherwise specified. If necessary, continue tightening until a slot aligns with the hole.
4. All safety wires must be tight after installation, but not under such tension that normal handling or
vibration will break the wire.
5. Apply the wire so that all pull exerted by the wire tends to tighten the nut.
6. Twists should be tight and even, and the wire between the nuts should be as taut as possible without
being over twisted.

1.7.7 Cotter Pins


Use cotter pins to secure bolts, screws, nuts, and pins. Some cotter pins are made of low-carbon steel, while
others consist of stainless steel, and thus are more resistant to corrosion. Use stainless steel cotter pins in
locations where nonmagnetic material is required. Regardless of shape or material, use all cotter pins for the
same general purpose-safetying. Figure1- 28 shows three types of cotter pins and how their size is determined.

Figure 1- 28 Types of cotter pins

36
Cotter pin installation is shown in figure1- 29. Use castellated nuts with bolts that have been drilled for cotter
pins. Use stainless steel cotter pins. The cotter pin should fit neatly into the hole, with very little sideplay. The
following general rules apply to cotter pin safetying:
Tighten nut to low side of prescribes torque range.
Tighten nut until slot aligns with hole in the bolt shank.
If nut slot and bolt shank hole do not align before maximum torque is exceeded loosen nut and repeat
procedure.
If slot still does not line up before maximum torque is exceeded, use a new nut and/or bolt and repeat the
procedure outlined above.
If half or more of the cotter pin diameter is above the nut castellation, use a new nut and repeat procedure.
Do not bend the prong over the bolt end beyond the bolt diameter. (Cut it off if necessary.)
Do not bend the prong down against the surface of the washer. (Again, cut it off if necessary.)
Do not extend the prongs outward from the sides of the nut if you use the optional wraparound method.
Bend all prongs over a reasonable radius. Sharp angled bends invite breakage. Tap the prongs lightly with
a mallet to bend them.

Figure 1- 29 Cotter pin installations.

Note
Whenever uneven- prong cotter pins are used, the length measurement is to the end of the shorter prong

37
1.8 WASHERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the two primary functions of washers as used in aircraft/engine
construction.
Washers used in aircraft structures may be grouped into three general classes-plain, lock washers, and
special washers. Figure1- 30 shows some of the most commonly used types.

1.8.1 Plain Washers


Plain washers are widely used under AN hex nuts to provide a smooth bearing surface. They act as a shim in
obtaining the correct relationship between the threads of a bolt and the nut. They also aid in adjusting the
position of castellated nuts with respect to drilled cotter pin holes in bolts. Plain washers are also used under
lock washers to prevent damage to surfaces of soft material.

1.8.2 Lock Washers


Lock washers are used whenever the self-locking or castellated type nut is not used. Sufficient friction is
provided by the spring action of the washer to prevent loosening of the nut because of vibration. Lock washers
must not be used as part of a fastener for primary or secondary structures.

1.8.3 Star Lock Washers


The star lock or shake proof washer is a round washer made of hardened and tempered carbon steel,
stainless steel, or Monel. This washer can have either internal or external teeth. Each tooth is twisted, one edge
up and one edge down. The top edge bites into the nut or bolt and the bottom edge bites into the working
surface. It depends on spring action for its locking feature. This washer can be used only once because the teeth
become somewhat compressed after being used.

1.8.4 Tab Lock Washers


Tab lock washers are round washers designed with tabs or lips that are bent across the sides of a hex nut or
bolt to lock the nut in place. There are various methods of securing the tab lock washer to prevent it from
turning, such as an external tab bent downward 90 degrees into a small hole in the face of the unit, an external
tab that fits a keyed bolt, or two or more tab lock washers connected by a bar. Tab lock washers can withstand

38
higher heat than other methods of safetying, and can be used safely under high vibration conditions. Tab lock
washers should be used only once because the tab tends to crystallize when bent a second time.

1.8.5 Special Washers


Special washers such as ball seat and socket washers and taper pin washers are designed for special
applications.

Figure 1- 30 Various types of washers

39
1.9 LOCKING
1.9.1 Tab Washers
Tab washers are thin metal washers designed with two or more tabs which project from the outside diameter.
The washer is placed below the head of the bolt or the nut and following tightening one or two tabs are bent
upwards against the flats of the bolt/nut head. The remaining tab is bent down into a suitable hole in the surface
being fastened or over a local edge, if one is available.

Figure 1- 31 Tab washer

40
1.9.2 Locking Nut /Jam Nut
It should be noticed that the thin lock nut /jam nut is below the normal nut. The proper connection is made by
tightening the jam nut snugly first, then tightening the upper nut so tightly that the stress on the jam nut is
reversed as the bolt strains. The locknut principle can also be used to fix the nut in any position on the male
screw thread and therefore create a shoulder. Figure 1-32 illustrates the jam nut locking.

Figure 1- 32 Locking/Jam nut

1.9.3 Nylock /Simmonds Nut


This is a nut with a plastic or fiber collar set into the nut which is an interference fit on the male thread. On
assembly the male thread forces its way through the collar and the resultant friction restricts the tendency to
unscrew. These nuts are not as effective for locking if used more than once. Figure 1-33 illustrates this type of
nuts.

Figure 1- 33 Nylock/Simmonds nut

41
1.9.4 Locking Plates
Locking plates are manufacture items made from thin plates with hexagon shaped holes sized to fit snugly
over the hex heads to be locked. The plates have holes used for fastening the plate in place onto the surface
being clamped using small screws which are locked. Figure 1-34 illustrates the locking plate.

Figure 1- 34 Locking plates

42
1.10 CLAMPS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the types and function, of clamps.
The clamps are classified for three classes depending on its function.

1.10.1Connecting clamps
V-bands have a special V-shaped inner steel lining. They are used to clamp some components to the
accessory case or ducts to components, or to clamp pneumatic ducts together at the joints. See figure 1-35.
Usually the V-clamps are tightened for certain torque.

Figure 1- 35 V- Clamps

43
1.10.2 Support /Fixing Clamps
A-The support clamps usually has a round shape or other shape depending on the duct shape, and mainly
used to protect the duct from vibration ; consequently from cracking. It is bracket by adjustable rod or plate. This
type of clamp is shown in fig.1-36.

Figure 1- 36 Typical application of support clamp

44
B- Another type of fixing clamps is the loop clamps. Loop clamps are used to hold tubes, ducts and wiring
harnesses in place, to prevent vibration and chafing against casings or each other. They normally have grommet
to give cushions, which prevent chafing between pipe and clamp. See figure 1-37 and fig.1-38 gives typical
application for harness fixation.

Figure 1- 37 Loop clamps

Figure 1- 38 Typical application of Harness Clamp Fixation

45
1.10.3 Tightening Clamps
The tightening clamps are used to tight to parts together, like hose on to tube fitting or secure insulation over
the pneumatic ducts. Figure 1-39 shows the common types of hose clamps. Another shape of tightening clamp is
plastic strap which usually used to collect electric wires together. See figure1-40 and figure 1-41 for typical
application for duct insulation fixation by plastic clamps.

Figure1-39 Hose clamps

Figure1- 40 Plastic tightening clamp

46
Figure 1- 41 Typical application of tightening clamps

1.10.4 Clamp Installation


Refer to fig. 1-38 which illustrates the harness installation.
Clamps must be at 90 degrees to the harness
Loosely route harness according to appropriate technical data.
Loosely install clamps making certain all wires are within the cushion position of the clamp.
Connect electrical connectors
Tighten all clamp bolts and nuts to recommended standard torque values without distorting the clamp
cushion material.
The clamp selection table permits selection of clamp sizes to allow for variations in wire harness diameter.
Only use the appropriate clamp selection table for the task and engine model you are working on.

47
1.10.5 Clamp Inspection
Early replacement of worn or broken clamps is crucial in preventing chaffed tubes, which can lead to work
through tubes resulting in loss of oil or fuel.
Check loop clamps for:
Clamp drooping or distress.
Mesh compacting or deterioration.
Replace broken loop clamps.
Replace those with mesh missing or worn away.
Check rubber silicone clamps for: cracks or chunking of rubber deterioration.
An observation of reddish powder around the clamp signals deterioration.

Caution
Replace worn or broken clamps.

1.10.6 Typical Installation of tubes


The following figures show a typical installation of tubes with clamps.

Figure 1- 42 Typical Installation of tube with clamps

48
Figure 1- 43 Typical Installation of tube with clamps

49
Figure 1- 44 Typical Installation of tube with flanges

50
Figure 1- 45 Typical Installation of tube with flexible fitting

51
1.11 TUBE FITTINGS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the types of tube fittings and unions and various applications.

1.11.1 Universal Fitting


A universal fitting consist of two parts:
A hollow bolt which as a hole drilled from the thread end but not through the head. Another hole is then
drilled through the side of the bolt.
A universal tube fitting: The hollow bolt fits closely though the hole in the fitting. It has a gasket between
the bolt- head and the fitting and one between the fitting and the casing. These are used in limited spaces.

Note
As most modern aircraft use flare less fittings it is very important that these fittings are not over
tightened. Over tightening can cause a restriction in the tube end, cracking of the fitting or leaks.
The correct method is hand tight plus one sixth of a turn.

Figures1- 46 shows the two types of fittings, while figure1- 47 gives the of tube fittings.

Figure 1- 46 Tube fitting

52
Figure 1- 47 Universal Fitting

53
1.11.2 Unions
Figure 1-48 shows an union with National Pipe Thread (NPT) on one and National Fine (NF) flared fitting on the
other end.

Figure 1- 48 Union

1.11.3 Bulkhead Fitting


Figure 1-49 shows the bulkhead fitting.

Figure 1- 49 Bulkhead fitting

54
1.12 SEALS AND GASKETS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the types of seals and gaskets, procedure of installation and
inspection.

1.12.1 Gaskets
The Copper Asbestos gasket consists of a split capper tube filled with an asbestos composition. The split in
the tube is facing to one side and should always be installed to face the largest contact area. Copper asbestos
gasket, because of their relatively soft composition; make a Good seal on slightly uneven surface. It can
however, withstand high pressures.

Figure 1- 50 Copper asbestos gaskets

Note
Copper Asbestos gasket can only be used once and must be replaced each time the nut or bolt
is loosened.

55
1.12.2 Crush washers (Tube connection seals)
Crush washers are made of a soft but solid soled material like aluminum or copper. It has the same purpose
as a CA gasket but needs relatively smoother surfaces to seal properly. Crush washers are normally a 100%
replacement item, but may be re-used in an emergency, after being annealed. (Heating up with flame and then
cooling slowly)

Figure 1- 51 Crushable washers

56
1.13 O-RING SEALS
An O-ring is the name given to a round molded rubber ring. It can be used on stationary as well as moving
parts no form a seal. It is widely used on aircraft systems to seal hydraulic, fuel, air and oil systems.Seal failure
may occur because different rubber compositions are used for different fluids and gasses. An O-ring, also known
as a packing
The O-ring may be used in static applications or in dynamic applications where there is relative motion between
the parts and the O-ring. Dynamic examples include rotating pump shafts and hydraulic cylinder pistons. O-rings
are one of the most common seals used in machine design because they are inexpensive, easy to make, reliable,
and have simple mounting requirements. Packings (O-ring ) are made of three types of material:
1. Fluorocarbon packing this type is commonly used for oil systems and Jet-A fuel systems.
2. Fluorosilicone packing are used only in fuel systems and specified for external sealing of fuel components
because of their seal capabilities over the temperature range of -65 to 300 degrees F.
3. Silicone packing's are used only in the air and water systems.

Figure 1- 52 O-ring

57
1.13.1 Typical Applications
As long as the pressure of the fluid being contained does not exceed the contact stress of the O-ring, leaking
cannot occur. For this reason, an o-ring can easily seal high pressure as long as it does not fail mechanically.
The most common failure is extrusion through the mating parts.
The seal is designed to have a point contact between the O-ring and sealing faces. The flexible nature of O-
ring materials accommodates imperfections in the mounting parts. But it is still important to maintain good
surface finish of those mating parts, especially at low temperatures where the seal rubber reaches its glass
transition temperature and becomes increasingly crystallineA surface finish that is too rough will abrade the
surface of the o-ring, and a surface that is too smooth will not allow the seal to be adequately lubricated by a
fluid film.
The O-ring is installed in an annular groove machined into one of the mating parts. At Installation it is
compressed at both the inside and outside diameters, and is capable of containing extremely high pressure.
Figure 1-53 gives example of o-ring application.

.
Figure 1- 53 O- Ring applications

58
1.13.2 Back- up rings
Back-up rings are normally made of Teflon, and are of rectangular cross section. The purpose of a back-up
ring is to protect the O-ring from damage by the jam nut (fastening nut). Teflon back-up rings are also used on
high pressure hydraulic systems, to protect the O-ring against deformation and damage.

Figure 1- 54 Back-up ring

1.13.3 Other Seals Cross Sections

Figure 1- 55 Other seals cross sections

59
1.13.4 Installation of 'O' Ring
A- General Instructions
Destroy removed Ring seals to prevent reuse.
Use extreme care when removing seals to prevent scratches or other damage to sealing surface. Use
fingers to remove seals or use a tool made of soft wood or plastic called spatula.
Unless otherwise specified in the overhaul manual, all sealing surfaces shall be cleaned prior to seal
installation.
Any cuts scratches, dents, distortions or deposits of foreign material must be removed from "O" Ring
grooves and adjoining flat surfaces before cleaning sealing surfaces.
Clean all sealing surfaces and installation tools with clean lint free gauze.
If vapor degreasing of parts containing seals called for, all seals must be removed before degreasing and
must be replaced.
Diameter of Ring seals shall be stretched more than 50% during installation and use spatula.
All Ring seals, which can only be installed in their grooves by rolling shall be realigned with twist prior
to closing the gland
Rings must not be pinched, and any attaching bolts shall be properly torqued.
All "0" Rings shall remain sealed in packages until just prior lo installation to assure cleanliness and
permit age control and identification.
B- Cleaning
Unless otherwise specified in the overhaul manual, all seals shall be cleaned prior to installation, using either
solvent cleaning or dry wiping.
C- Inspection/Check
1. Check entire surface of seal carefully for cuts, nicks, grooves, excessive flash or dents. Reject all
"O"Rings with any of these defects or that show cracks decomposition, or other deterioration.
2. Examine ".O Ring and sealing surface of component for, chips, grease or other contaminants, inspect,
sealing surface for roughness and burned areas.
3. Observe limits on storage to guarantee an "O" Ring with the proper resiliency and soundness. Failure to
maintain shelf life limits can lead to cracking and premature "O" Ring deterioration.

60
D- Lubrication
1. Apply thin film of appropriate lubricant by hand to all surfaces of seal. Application technique employed
shall not contaminate lubricant or surfaces to which it is applied.
2. Remove excess lubricant with clean lint free gauze after installation.

CAUTION
Only use new "O" Rings and seals that are in sealed packaging, discard if packing is
contaminated or open check shelf life expiry date to be valid. Also check part number to be
correct.

Note
Worn seals will allow dirt to enter the bearing housing. Proper maintenance of bearing seals is
vital to the good performance of any bearing.

There are variations in cross-section design other than circular. These include the O-ring with an X-shaped
profile, commonly called the X-ring, O-ring, or by the trademarked name Quad Ring. This contrasts with the
standard O-ring's comparatively larger single contact surfaces top and bottom. X-rings are most commonly used
in reciprocating applications, where they provide reduced running and breakout friction and reduced risk of
spiraling when compared to O-rings.
There are also rings with a square profile, commonly called square-cuts, lathe cuts, or Square rings. When O-
rings were selling at a premium because of the novelty, lack of efficient manufacturing processes and high labor
content, Square rings were introduced as an economical substitution for O-rings. The Square ring is typically
manufactured by molding an elastomer sleeve which is then lathe-cut. This style of seal is sometimes less
expensive to manufacture with certain materials and molding technologies (compression, transfer, injection),
especially in low volumes. The physical sealing performance of Square rings in static applications is superior to
that of O-rings; however in dynamic applications it is inferior to that of O-rings. Square rings are usually only
used in dynamic applications as energizers in cap seal assemblies. Square rings can also be more difficult to
install than O-rings. Similar devices with non-round cross-sections are called seals or packing.

61
1.13.5 Failure Modes
O-ring materials may be subjected to high or low temperatures, chemical attack, vibration, abrasion, and
movement. Materials are selected according to the situation.
There are O-ring materials which can tolerate temperatures as low as -200 C or as high as 250+ C. At the
low end, nearly all engineering materials become rigid and fail to seal; at the high end, the materials often
burn or decompose.
Chemical attacks can degrade the material, start brittle cracks or cause it to swell. For example, NBR seals
can crack when exposed to ozone gas at very low concentrations, unless protected.
Other failures can be caused by using the wrong size of ring for a specific recess, which may cause
extrusion of the rubber.

62
1.14 PLUMPING
1.14.1 Fluid Lines
Aircraft plumping lines usually are made metal tubing and fittings or flexible hoses. Metal tubing is widely
used in aircraft for fuel, oil, hydraulic, and instruments sensing lines. Flexible hoses are generally used with
moving parts or where the hose is subjected to considerable vibration.

1.14.2 Flexible Hoses


Flexible hoses are used in aircraft to connect the moving parts with stationary part in location subjected to
vibration or where great amount of flexibility is needed. Synthetic material most commonly used in the
manufacture of flexible hoses.

1.14.3 Inspection
Carefully inspect all hydraulic hose and fittings at regular intervals to ensure airworthiness. Investigate any
evidence of fluid loss or leaks. Check metal tubes for leaks, loose anchorage, scratches, kinks, or other damage.
Inspect fittings and connections for leakage, looseness, cracks, burrs, or other damage. Replace or repair
defective elements. Make sure the hoses do not chafe against one another and are correctly secured and
clamped.
When inspection shows hydraulic hose to be damaged or defective replace the entire line or, if the damaged
section is localized, a repair section may be inserted. In replacing aircraft hose, always use tubing of the same
size and material as the original line. Use the old tubing as a template when bending the new tube, unless it is too
greatly damaged, in which case a template can be made from soft iron wire.
Over tightening will damage the tube or fitting, which may cause a failure. Under-tightening may cause leakage
which could result in a system failure.
Minor dents and scratches in tubing may be repaired. Scratches or nicks not deeper than 10 percent of the
wall thickness in aluminum alloy tubing, that are not in the heel of a bend, may be repaired by burnishing with
hand tools. Replace lines with severe die marks, seams, or splits in the tube. Any crack or deformity in a flare is
unacceptable and cause for rejection. A dent less than 20 percent of the tube diameter is not objectionable
unless it is in the heel of a bend. A severely-damaged line should be replaced; however, it may be repaired by
cutting out the damaged section and inserting a tube section of the same size and material.

63
1.14.4 Replacement of Flexible Hose
When replacement of flexible hose is necessary, use the same type, size, part number, and length of hose as
the line to be replaced. If the replacement of a hose with a swaged-end type fitting is necessary, obtain new
hydraulic hose assemblies of the correct size and composition. Certain synthetic oils require a specially
compounded synthetic rubber hose, which is compatible. Refer to the aircraft manufacturer's service information
for the correct part number for the replacement hose. Install hose assemblies without twisting. A hose should not
be stretched tight between two fittings as this will result in overstressing and eventual failure. The length of hose
should be sufficient to provide about 5 to 8 percent slack. Avoid tight bends in flex lines as they may result in
failure. Never exceed the minimum bend radii.
All flexible hose installations should be supported at least every 24 inches. Closer supports are preferred.
They should be carefully routed and securely clamped to avoid abrasion, kinking, or excessive flexing. Excessive
flexing may cause weakening of the hose or loosening at the fittings.

64
1.15 TORQUE
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the definition of torque, torque wrenches types and using of
adapters, also the calculation of torque correction and conversion.

1.15.1 Torque Definition


Torque is twisting force. In using a torque wrench, what we re concerned with is applying a specific amount of
twisting force in tightening down a fastener. Setting torque is a way to quantify snug, tight, or light tension.
Torque is measured in pound-foot ( lbs.ft) and pound- inch (in.lbs.) for most applications, although metric
equivalents " such as Newton/Meters " can also describe a torque requirement. Torque calculations are a matter
of simple leverage. Force multiplied by distance equals torque.

1.15.2 Torque Accuracy


The accuracy of torquing, is a pretty fine point, most micrometer wrenches are capable of 2 to 4%, while this
tolerance may drop to 1 to 2 percent on a dial or beam wrench.

1.15.3 Torque Wrench


A torque wrench is a tool used to precisely apply a specific torque to a fastener such as a nut or bolt. A torque
wrench is used where the tightness of screws and bolts is crucial.

1.15.4 Particulars
Always hold the wrench by its handle when you re using it; that s the only way it will give accurate results
because a torque wrench is calibrated from the center of its handle. Another important caution that s also related
to the basic formula for torque is to understand the effect that extensions have on your results. Any sort of
extensions, such as those that increase the physical length of the wrench, must be compensated.
The formula is simple to work after you have a few things to feed into it.
1. First, measure your wrench from the center of its socket to the center of its handle.
2. Next, snap on the extension and measure from the center of the wrench socket to the center of the
fastener.
3. Take these numbers to the formula shown below under the illustration.

65
1.15.5 Torque Correction

A = length from center of handle to center of drive


B = length from center of drive to center of extension
C = wrench setting
D = desired torque applied to fastener

1.15.6 Torquing Practices


Torquing a fastener, pull the wrench slowly and smoothly and make sure you grasp it by the handle, never
farther up on the wrench body. And stop as soon as the head releases; failure to do so will result in
continued tightening. The click is only a reminder; it does not totally free the ratchet mechanism.
The torque wrenches is a measuring instrument and treat it as such. Most are pretty tough, but none take
abuse. If you want to maintain the best accurate life from a torque wrench, it should be stored at its lowest
setting; dial in the torque fresh prior to each use. No one will do that, me included, but that s the
professional advice.

66
Threads should be in good condition and no "necking" should be present. Plain nuts should be hand free
and studs should screw in firmly. Self-locking nuts should be checked for running torque before use.
Since friction accounts for 90% of torque applied, any factor that alters it becomes important. Generally,
speaking, bolts and studs are used as they come from the peck hue some listings specify that lubricant is
to be used. The manufacturer s recommendation should be followed. Graphite or molybdenum based
grease or oils decrease friction considerably and should be used where indication or according to
manufactures charts.
Do not use the wrench to undo a nut, if a nut has to be "cracked back use a spanner or socket wrench,
particularly if the bolt has been tightened for sometime. If often takes much higher torque to undo a bolt to
tighten it.
Check to be sure torque wrench is not overdue for calibration; never use a wrench whose calibration
period has expired.
When a torque wrench is dropped or damaged in service, turn it to the tool room f or recalibration and/or
repair.
When accessories are to be used with the torque wrench, be sure to make the necessary corrections in the
wrench setting. Failure to make corrections for the use of accessories may result in serious installation
errors.
Always mount accessories in line with the torque wrench.
When using a dial-indicating type of wrench, preload it several times in the desired direction of rotation
before making final adjustments. This will compensate far any free travel present in the Indicator.
A reliable torque reading cannot be obtained by using a torque wrench on a nut already completely
tightened with a conventional wrench. Checking in this manner requires extra force for rotating the
fastener, commonly referred as breakaway torque. In most cases, there is a substantial difference between
breakaway and dynamic friction, causing an error in torque readings. For accurate torquing, the final turn
of the nut should be made with the torque wrench.
Apply the force at the torque wrench handle only, and keep the direction of pull at right angles to the
handle.
Always use a backup wrench when tightening couplings and bulkhead style fittings. Back the fitting and
tighten the nut in all cases.

67
Try to select a wrench that will require 80% or less of full scale deflection to do the job . Never exceed the
full scale deflection of the wrench.
When the torque value for a particular fastener or fitting is not specified on the engineering drawing, the
mechanic should use the torque values listed in the standard torque chart.
Thread lubricants shall be applied to parts which are going to be torqued, unless specified othenvise.(use
recommended lubricant)
Do not apply both oil and anti-gallant on the same pair of surfaces.
Allow hot parts to cool to ambient temperature before applying final torque.
Flanges and mating sections must be properly seated before applying the final torque.
When seating flanges and mating sections use work bolts spaced evenly around and uniformly torqued to
75% of the final torque in a "X" pattern. Final torque should also be in the "X" pattern.
After torquing a castle nut, screw, or bolt it should not be loosened to permit the insertion of lockwire,
safety cable, or cotter pin. If the hole is not aligned at the minimum torque further tighten the fastener to
align the hole but Do Not exceed the maximum torque limit.
Select a new fastener if alignment can not be made within the torque limits.
When possible torque the nut rather than the bolt.

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1.15.7 Torque Wrench Types
A torque wrench is a tool used to precisely apply a specific torque to a fastener such as a nut or bolt. It is
usually in the form of a socket wrench with special internal mechanisms. This permits proper tension and
loading of all parts. A torque wrench indirectly measures torque as a proxy for bolt tension. The technique
suffers from inaccuracy due to inconsistent or un-calibrated friction between the fastener and its mating hole.
The followings are the torque wrench types:

1. Beam Type
Beam type torque wrench. The indicator bar remains straight while the main shaft bends proportionally to the
force applied at the handle. Detailed view of the torque display scale on a beam type torque wrench.

Beam Type toque wrench

A more sophisticated variation of the beam type torque wrench has a dial gauge indicator on its body that can
be configured to give a visual indication, or electrical indication, or both when a preset torque is reached.
Deflecting beam
The dual-signal deflecting beam torque wrench employs the principle of applying torque to a deflecting beam
rather than a coil spring. This helps prolong wrench life, with a greater safety margin on maximum loading and
provides more consistent and accurate readings throughout the range of each wrench. The operator can see and
hear when a dual-signal wrench reaches the selected torque, since the signal can be seen and heard.

69
2. Click Type
Click-type torque wrench, with a socket attached, adjusted by turning the knurled handleAt the point where
the desired torque is reached, the clutch slips, signaling the desired torque and preventing additional tightening.
The most common form uses a ball detent and spring, with the spring preloaded by an adjustable screw thread,
calibrated in torque units. The ball detent transmits force until the preset torque is reached, at which point the
force exerted by the spring is overcome and the ball "clicks" out of its socket. The advantage of this design is
greater precision and a positive action at the set point. A number of variations of this design exist for different
applications and different torque ranges.

Click type torque wrench

4. Mechatronic Torque Wrenches


Torque measurement is achieved in the same way as with a click-type torque wrench but, at the same time,
the torque is measured as a digital reading (click and final torque) as with an electronic torque wrench. This is,
therefore, a combination of electronic and mechanical measurements. All the measurements are transferred and
documented via wireless data transmission.
5. Hydraulic Torque Wrench
A hydraulic torque wrench is a tool designed to exert torque on a fastener to achieve proper tightening or
loosening of a connection through the use of hydraulics. A torque wrench is applied to the nut either directly or
in conjunction with an impact socket. Hydraulic torque wrenches apply a predetermined, controlled amount of
torque to a properly lubricated fastener.

70
6. Electric Torque Wrench
An Electric Torque wrench is a planetary torque multiplier or a "Gearbox". This gearbox is mated to an electric
motor. At the end of the "gearbox" is a reaction device that is used to absorb the torque. This allows the operator
of the tool to use the Electric torque wrench with very little effort. These tools are primarily used anywhere
accurate torque is required on a nut and bolt, or where a stubborn nut needs to be removed.
The Electric torque wrench is sometimes confused with a standard impact wrench, because it looks similar,
but it actually a totally different tool. An electric torque wrench is driven by continuous gearing, and not by the
hammers of an impacting wrench. This is why an electric torque wrench has very little vibration, and an extreme
amount of repeatability and accuracy.
7. Pneumatic Torque Wrench
A pneumatic torque wrench is a planetary torque multiplier or a gearbox that is mated to a pneumatic air
motor. At the end of the gearbox is a reaction device that is used to absorb the torque and allows the tool
operator to use it with very little effort. The torque output is adjusted by controlling the air pressure.Pneumatic
Torque Wrench are primarily used anywhere accurate torque is required on a nut and bolt, or where a stubborn
nut needs to be removed. A pneumatic torque wrench has very little vibration, and excellent repeatability and
accuracy.

Pneumatic Torque Wrench

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1.15.8 Differences between Types
Click type torque wrenches are precise when properly calibrated however the more complex mechanism can
result in loss of calibration sooner than the beam type, where there is little to malfunction. Beam type torque
wrenches are impossible to use in situations where the scale cannot be directly read and these situations are
common in automotive applications. There is also the issue of increased user error with the beam type the
torque has to be read at every use and the operator must use caution to apply loads only at the floating handle's
pivot point.
For the click type, when not in use, the force acting on the spring should be removed by setting the scale to 20%
of full scale in order to maintain the spring's strength. Never set a micrometer style torque wrench to zero as the
internal mechanism requires a small amount of tension in order to prevent tool failure due to unwarranted tip
block rotation.

1.15.9 Accessories
Accessories are attached to the square drive of the tongue wrenches to:
Apply torque to various types or fasteners and fittings.
Gain access to locations that cannot be reached with the torque wrench alone.
Increase the ease of torque application by increasing the leverage of the wrench in manual torquing.

CAUTION
When accessories that add lever length are used with torque wrench, the wrench will no longer
read true in most cases and special correction must be made.

The Four general types of accessories used with torque wrenches are:
1. Attachments
2. Adaptors
3. Extensions
4. Handle Extensions

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1. Attachments
An attachment is any form of work-engaging member that functions on the same axis as, and is attachable the
square drive of hand and power torque wrenches. Common types of attachments are plain socket , Phillips,
Allen, and Hi-torque drivers. Various other forms are available for special applications.

Attachments

2. Adaptors
An adaptors any form of work-engaging member that extend from the axis of, and is attachable to ,the square
drive of a hand torque wrench. Three common adaptors are shown. Where standard adaptors will not do the job,
special vendor-designed adaptors should request.

Adapters

73
3. Drive
A drive extension is a rigid member attached to the square drive of a hand torque wrench to increase its
reach. A drive square for mounting attachments and adaptors is provided at the end of the extension. Two most
common types of extensions are illustrated. Special vendor-designed extensions should be requested when
needed.

Drives
4. Handle Extensions
A handle extension is simply a rigid member attached to the handle of a hand wrench to increase its leverage.
Handle extensions are used only with rigid-frame torque wrenches. Correction of the wrench reading is not r-
enquired when a handle extension is used in conjunction with attachments, but correction is require when used
with adaptors or extension.

Hand extension

74
1.16 ROLLING BEARINGS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the rolling bearing types, classification, and applications.

1.16.1 Sliding Bearing and Rolling Bearing


Bearings are used as a mechanical component to transfer the power and to move a certain part, and this is
done by utilizing the small frictional force of the bearings, which makes them rotate easily (or move in one
direction easily), all the while withstanding the force and weight load acting against them. Bearings can be
classified into two major groups, namely, sliding bearings and rolling bearings, depending on their friction type.
Three types of bearings are shown in
Fig.1- 56, and (a) Sliding Bearings represent both the self lubricating bearings made of special material that
requires no lubricants between Shaft A and Bearing B and the ones made of porous material to be soaked with
lubricants, and (b) Sliding Bearing represents both the hydrodynamic lubrication bearings requiring lubricants
that automatically form the oil film in the space between Shaft A and Bearing B by way of rotating the shaft and
the hydrostatic lubrication bearings requiring lubricants that elevates the rotating shaft by providing the
pressurized lubricant from outside. Recently, magnetic bearings that elevate the rotating shaft by using both
attraction and repulsion forces of the magnet have been introduced, and the air bearings that use the air as
lubricant instead of oil are also the newest development.

Figure 1- 56 Sliding and Rolling Bearings

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1.16.2 Classification of Rolling Bearings
Rolling bearings divide into two main classifications: ball bearings and roller bearings. Ball bearings are
classified according to their bearing ring configurations: deep groove type and angular contact type. Roller
bearings on the other hand are classified according to the shape of the rollers: cylindrical, needle, tapered and
spherical. Rolling bearings can be further classified according to the direction in which the load is applied; radial
bearings carry radial loads and thrust bearings carry axial loads.
There are two types of Rolling Bearings:
1. Ball bearing has balls between inner ring A and outer ring B.
2. Roller bearing has rollers instead of balls.
Either balls or rollers of rolling bearings serve the same purpose as the lubricating oil in the sliding bearings.
However rolling bearings still require some help from lubricating oil. Although the movement of rolling bearing
consists mainly of rolling action, it still involves some sliding action in reality. That is why some lubricant is
needed for reduction of friction, and also for withstanding the high speed rotation.
Rolling bearings have some advantages as listed below, compared with the sliding bearings.
Because bearing specifications are standardized internationally, most rolling bearings are
interchangeable, and could be replaced easily with the ones made by different manufacturers.
Surrounding structures of a bearing could be simplified.
Easy to diagnose and maintain
Has small starting torque, and the difference between starting torque and operating torque is very small.
Generally, both radial and axial loads can be applied to the rolling bearings at the same time.
Comparatively easy to be used even under the high or low temperatures.
The rigidity of bearings could be increased by applying preload.
Because this Catalogue contains description only on the rolling bearings, the words, rolling bearings , in
the rest of this Catalogue have been simply written down as the bearings , unless it is necessary to
compare them with sliding bearings.

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1.16.3 Rolling Bearing Construction
Most rolling bearings consist of rings with raceway (inner ring and outer ring), rolling elements (either balls or
rollers) and cage. The cage separates the rolling elements at regular intervals, holds them in place within the
inner and outer raceways, and allows them to rotate freely.

A- Raceway (Inner ring and Outer ring)


The surface on which rolling elements are rolling is called the raceway surface". The load placed on the
bearing is supported by this contact surface. Generally the inner ring fits on the axle or shaft and the outer ring
on the housing. The raceway of thrust bearing is called "raceway disc," the inner ring is called the "shaft raceway
disc" and the outer ring is called the "housing raceway disc."
B- Rolling Elements
Rolling elements classify in two types: balls and rollers.
Rollers come in four types:
1. Cylindrical
2. Needle
3. Tapered
4. Spherical
Theoretically, rolling bearings are so constructed as to allow the rolling elements to rotate orbitally while also
rotating on their own axes at the same time.
C- Cages
Cages function to maintain rolling elements at a uniform pitch so load is never applied directly to the cage and
to prevent the rolling elements from falling out when handling the bearing. Types of cages differ according to
way they are manufactured, and include pressed, machined and formed cages.

77
Figure 1- 57 Rolling Bearing Types 1 A & B

Figure 1- 57 Rolling Bearing Types E & F

78
Classification and Characteristics of Rolling Bearings

79
1.16.4 Characteristics of Rolling Bearing
Rolling bearings come in many shapes and varieties, each with its own distinctive features. However, when
compared with sliding bearings, rolling bearings all have the following advantages:
1. The starting friction coefficient is lower and there is little difference between this and the dynamic friction
coefficient.
2. They are internationally standardized, interchangeable and readily obtainable.
3. They are easy to lubricate and consume less lubricant.
4. As a general rule, one bearing can carry both radial and axial loads at the same time.
5. May be used in either high or low temperature applications.
6. Bearing rigidity can be improved by preloading

Almost all types of rolling bearings can carry both radial and axial loads at the same time. There are also
bearings classed as complex bearings which combine the loading characteristics of both radial and thrust
bearings.

1.16.5 Bearing Features


The features of typical standard bearings are as follows:
A- Deep Groove Ball Bearing
The most common type of bearing, deep groove ball bearings are widely used in a variety of fields.
B- Angular Contact Ball Bearings
Bearings are generally designed with three contact angles. Angular contact ball bearings can support an axial
load, but cannot be used by single bearing because of the contact angle. They must instead be used in pairs or in
combinations. These bearings however require caution because problems such as excessive temperature rise
and wearing could occur depending on the load conditions.
C- Cylindrical Roller Bearings
Uses rollers for rolling elements, and therefore has a high load capacity. The rollers are guided by the ribs of
the inner or outer ring. The inner and outer rings can be separated to facilitate assembly, and both can be fit with
shaft or housing tightly. Cylindrical roller bearings are therefore ideal to be used as so-called "free side
bearings" that absorb shaft expansion.Figure1-58 shows the basic configuration for cylindrical roller bearings. In

80
addition to these, there are cylindrical roller bearings with multiple rows of rollers and the SL type of full
complement roller bearing without cage.
D- Tapered Roller Bearings
Tapered roller bearings are designed so the inner/outer ring raceway and apex of the tapered rollers intersect
at one point on the bearing centerline. By receiving combined load from inner and outer ring, the rollers are
pushed against the inner ring rib and roll guided with rib. Induced force is produced in the axial direction when a
radial load is applied, so must be handled by using a pair of bearings. The inner ring with rollers and outer ring
come apart, thus facilitating mounting with clearance or preload. Assembled clearance is however hard to
manage and requires special attention. Tapered roller bearings are capable of supporting large loads in both the
axial and radial directions. Figure1-59 shows the basic configuration for tapered bearings.

Figure 1- 59 Tapered roller bearings

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1.16.6 Plain/Journal Bearing
These bearings are usually designed, to take radial loads however, plain bearings with flanges are often used
as thrust bearings in horizontally opposed aircraft engine. Plain bearings are used for connecting rods,
crankshafts, and camshafts of low power aircraft engines. The metal used for plain bearings is silver, lead, or
alloys such as bronze or Babbitt, or combination of metals.

Figure 1- 63 Plain/Journal Bearing

1.16.7 Bearing Inspection


The following are the main items to be inspected:
A. Dust and dirt are of an abrasive nature. It is therefore important during bearing inspection to have clean
tools and a clean area in which to use them. If it is possible, bearings shall be inspected In an air conditioned
room. If this is impractical: for field installations, an area shall be set aside and maintained as clean and as dust
free as possible, cleaning the area several times daily if necessary.

82
CAUTION
Do not spin the bearing in an unloaded condition. Spinning an unloaded bearing can result the
rolling elements bunching up, jamming the cage and producing a false indication of rough
running bearing.

B. Ensure the bearings are thoroughly cleaned and oiled, then apply a light axial force to the outer race and
turn it slowly by hand, holding the inner race to ensure contact between the raceway and each rolling element.
Invert the bearing and repeat the inspection.

Note
Always wear limy free cotton gloves when handling aircraft bearing.

C. Any rough bearing should be thoroughly re-cleaned in accordance with manufacturers cleaning
recommendation. Reject the bearing if, after re-cleaning, the bearing continues to feel rough.

1.16.8 The do and don t when working with Bearing


A- What you should do
1. Work with clean tools in clean surroundings
2. Only unwrap new bearings when ready to install.
3. Handle bearings with lint free cotton gloves.
4. Handle bearings with clean bare hands only when packing with grease.
5. Use clean, approved solvents hen washing bearings.
6. Thoroughly clean all mounting surfaces before fitting a bearing.
7. Only use clean approved lubricants (grease).
8. Only use correct tools and procedures. -

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B- What you should not do.
1. Never strike a bearing with hardened tools.
2. Do not work on wooden surface.
3. Do not use dirty hands when packing a bearing.
4. Do not spin a dry bearing.
5. Do not use compressed air on a bearing.
6. Do not use sluffy rags or cotton waste.
7. Do not use petrol, paraffin or paint thinners.
8. Do not remove grease or oil from new bearing.

84
1.17 SEALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Recognize the types of seals,(Static and dynamic) and there applications.
Seals are mainly divided to:
Dynamic seal
Static seal

1.17.1 Dynamic Seal Function


The function of seal is to keep lubrication oils in a designated area and will therefore reduce:
Bearing wear
Oil consumption
High rotational, speeds and high temperatures inside a gas turbine engine require different; seals from those
used in reciprocating engines. Two types of commonly used seals are: carbon seals and labyrinth seals.

1.17.2 Classification of Dynamic Seals


The mechanical seals are divided into:
Carbon seals
Labyrinth seals
Felt seals
Lip seals
Brush seal

A- Carbon Seals
There are two types of carbon seals-namely:
1. Ring type
2. Face type
These carbon seals are used for applications where an absolute minimum of leakage is allowed. These are
rubbing-type seals in which contact is maintained between the stationary carbon element and a polished steel
surface or race. A highly polished, hardened steel seal race rotates with the shaft, and carbon segments held in

85
seal housing rub against the race. A circumferential or garter-type, coil spring encircles the seal and holds the
segments in contact with the race.
B- Labyrinth Seals
A labyrinth seal is a mechanical seal that fits around an axle to prevent the leakage of oil or other fluids.
Turbines use labyrinth seals due to the lack of friction ,which is necessary for high rotational speeds.
A labyrinth seal is composed of many straight grooves that press tightly inside another axle, or inside a hole,
so that the fluid has to pass through a long and difficult path to escape.
Turbines use labyrinth seals due to the lack of friction, which is necessary for high rotational speeds.
Figure1- 62 illustrates the simple design of labyrinth seals, while fig.1-63 gives the variations of Labyrinth Seals.

Figure 1- 64 Simple labyrinth seal

C- Brush seals
This type of mechanical seals mainly used for sealing the gas turbine bearing. Thousands of wires or bristles
are safely fixed via a clamping tube, using a core wire, to form a flexible seal. Incoming gases press the wire pack
against a supporting ring, compressing it still further and so minimizing the seal s permeability to gas. Compared
with conventional labyrinth seals, then, losses are reduced to almost nothing. The following figure illustrates the
design of a type of brush seal.

86
Figure1- 68 Designs of the Brush Seal

87
1.17.3 Static Seals
A- Pressure seals
Pressure seals are installed where a control cable move through pressure bulkheads. The pressure seal
assembly maintains an air tight seal around a cable that passes through a hole in a pressure bulkhead, enough
to prevent excess air pressure loss but not to hinder cable movement.

Figure1- 69 Pressure Seal

88
B- Bulb Seals
The bulb seals have many types depending on its cross section. The following give cross section of some
types.

1. Bulb and Lip Seal ( Seal)


Bulb seal is generally used for low pressure sealing. Works best under straight compressive loading but
can accommodate some transverse relative movement through rolling of the bulb. Usually it is retained with a
cover plate on the lip. Variations include shaped bulb and crowned bulb.

2. Double Bulb Seal


This type Increase the factor of safety due to second bulb. Concept can be applied for EMI sealing with an
outer nonconductive bulb for environmental sealing and an interior bulb for EMI protection. Usually it is
retained with cover plate between the bulbs.

89
3. Center Bulb Seal ( Omega )
Low pressure seal which installs by sliding mounting foot into groove. Seal has better roll stability against
transverse loading than bulb and lip seal. A rounded triangular bulb can be used to increase sealing force.

4. Center Bulb Seal (Wraparound Mount)


This type of seal is limited for low pressure bulb seal and space-constrained applications. In some cases, the
simple snap fit of the seal lip is sufficient for retention. In other cases, an adhesive or cover plate is used. The
sealing force in this and other bulb seals can be increased with a sponge rubber core.

90
5. Center Bulb Seal (Pull-through Tab Mount)
Low pressure seal that can be secured with tabs which pull through holes in mounting surface. Fewer tabs
can also be used for positioning of a bonded-in-place seal.

6. Tadpole Seal
Low pressure seal for edge mounting, seal will accept some transverse loading.

7. Blade Seal
Low pressure seal often used as a fairing seal between a straight and a contoured surface. For high
temperatures, a metal insert provides long term sealing force.

91
8. Lip Seal
High pressure seal that utilizes a differential pressure to increase sealing force. It used to seal gaps
between two substantially parallel surfaces, mounting on non-pressure side.

9. Lip Seal ( Section)


Low pressure seal used to seal two substantially parallel surfaces. The seal mounts by snapping over the
edge of one surface and lop sealing on the other. It is a common design for window seals.

10. Double Lip Seal


A high pressure seal which is used to seal against pressure from either side.

92
11. Lip Seal (Space-constrained Mount)
Same as regular lip seal except with a smaller envelope.

12 - U-Section Seal
Medium differential pressure seal often used to seal two surfaces that have a large, dynamic gap variation.
The seal is mounted on each leg to track the movement of the surfaces. Often used in high temperature
applications

93
1.18 CONTROL CABLES
Introduction
Aircraft control cables are generally fabricated from carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel wire of either
flexible or nonflexible-type construction.

1.18.1 Cable Definitions


The following is the definition of control cables components:
Wire Each individual cylindrical steel rod or thread.
Strand Each group of wires helically twisted or laid.
Core strand A strand center is a single, straight strand made of preformed wires, similar to the other
strands comprising the cable, in arrangement and number of wires.
Cable A group of strands helically twisted or laid about a central core,
Performed cable A cable in which the wires and strands are shaped prior to fabrication of the Cable,
Diameter The diameter of the cable is the diameter of the circumscribed circle.
Lay or twist The helical form taken by the wires and strands in a cable., A cable is said to have a
right-hand lay i f the wires and strands twist in the same direction as the thread on a right-hand screw.
PITCH The distance in which a strand or wire makes one complete revolution about the axis of
the cable or strand respectively.
Cable assembly A cable assembly is a length of a specific diameter cable and permanently-attacked
fittings.

1.18.2 Independent Wire Rope Center 7 by 7


A 7 by 7 independent wire rope center as specified herein shall consist of a cable or wire rope of six strands of
seven wires each, twisted or laid around a strand center or core consisting of seven wires.

1.18.3 Fixable Cables


Flexible, preformed, corrosion-resistant, this wire is coated with pure tin or zinc. (See fig.1-70).
These cables are of the 3 by 7, 7 by 7, 7 by 19, or 6 by 19. The 3 by 7 cable consists of three strands of seven
wires each. There is no core in this construction. The 3 by 7 cable has a length of lay of not more than eight times

94
or less than five times the nominal cable diameter. The 7 by 7 cable consists of six strands, of seven wires each,
laid around a center strand of seven wires. The wires are laid so as to develop a cable which has the greatest
bending and wearing properties. The 7 by 7 cable has a length of lay of not more than eight times or less than six
times the cable diameter. The 7 by 19 cable consists of six strands laid around a center strand in a clockwise
direction. The wires composing the seven individual strands are laid around a center wire in two layers. The
center core strand consists of a lay of six wires laid around the central wire in a clockwise direction and a layer
of 12 wires laid around this in a clockwise direction. The six outer strands of the cable consist of a layer of six
wires laid around the center wire in a counterclockwise direction and a layer of 12 wires laid around this in a
counterclockwise direction. The 6 by 19 cable consists of six strands of 19 wires each, laid around a 7 by 7.

Figure 1- 70 Flexible cable cross section


1.18.4 Nylon-Coated Cables
Nylon-Coated Cable Is made by extruding a flexible nylon coating over Corrosion Resistant Steel (CRES)
cable.
The service life of nylon-coated cable is much greater than the service life of the same cable when used bare.
Most cable wear occurs at pulleys where the cable bends. In long, straight runs of cable, vibration work hardens
the wires causing the brittle wires to fracture with eventual failure of the cable.

95
1.18.5 Non Flexible Cables
The nonflexible steel cables are of the 1 by 7 (Type I) or 1 by 19 (Type II) construction according to the
diameter. The 1 by 7 cable consists of six wires laid around a center wire in a counterclockwise direction. The 1
by 19 cable consists of a layer of six wires laid around a center wire in a clockwise direction plus twelve wires
laid around the inner strand in a counterclockwise direction (See fig.1-71).

Figure 1- 71 Nonflexible cable cross section


1.18.6 Pulleys
Pulleys are used to guide cables and also change the direction of cable movement. Pulleys is supported by
brackets fastened to the structure of the aircraft. Cables passing over pulley are kept in place by guards. These
guards are cables fitting to prevent jamming or to prevent the cable from slipping off when they are slackened to
perform adjustment.

1.18.7 Replacement of Cable


Replace control cables when they become worn, distorted, corroded, or otherwise damaged. If spare cables
are not available, prepare exact duplicates of the damaged cable. Use materials of the same size and quality as
the original. Standard swaged cable terminals develop the full cable strength and may be substituted for the
original terminals wherever practical. However, if facilities and supplies are limited and immediate corrective

96
action is necessary, repairs may be made by using cable bushings, eye splices, and the proper combination of
turnbuckles in place of the original installation, (See fig.1-74(c)).
A- Location of Splices.
Locate splices so that no portion of the splice comes closer than 2 inches to any fair-lead or pulley. Locate
connections at points where jamming cannot occur during any portion of the travel of either the
loaded cable or the slack cable in the deflected position.

B- Terminal Swaging
When swaging tools are used, it is important that all the manufacturers instructions, including go and no go
dimensions, be followed in detail to avoid defective and interior swaging. Observance of all instructions should
result in a terminal developing the full-rated strength of the cable.
When swaging terminals onto cable ends, observe the following procedures:
1- Cut the cable to the proper length allowing for growth during swaging. Apply a preservative compound to
the cable ends before insertion into the terminal barrel.

Note
Never solder cable ends to prevent fraying, since the presence of the solder will greatly increase
the tendency of the cable to pull out of the terminal.

2- Insert the cable into the terminal approximately 1inch, and bend toward the terminal, then push the cable
end entirely into the terminal barrel. The bending action puts a kink or bends in the cable end, and provides
enough friction to hold the terminal in place until the swaging operation can be performed. Bending also tends to
separate the strands inside the barrel, thereby reducing the strain on them.

Note
If the terminal is drilled completely through, push the cable into the terminal until it reaches the
approximate position shown in figure 1-72. If the hole is not drilled through, insert the cable until
the end rests against the bottom of the hole.

97
Figure 1- 72 Insertion of cable into terminal.

3- Accomplish the swaging operation in accordance with the instructions furnished by the manufacturer of the
swaging equipment.
4- Inspect the terminal after swaging to determine that it is free from the die marks and splits, and is not out-
of-round. Check for cable slip page in the terminal and for cut or broken wire strands.
5- Using a go no-go gauge or a micrometer, check the terminal shank diameter as shown in fig.1-73
6- Test the cable by proof-loading it to 60 percent of its rated breaking strength.

Figure 1- 73 Gauging terminal shanks after swaging.

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1.18.8 Splicing
Completely severed cables, or those badly damaged in a localized area, may be repaired by the use of an eye
terminal bolted to a clevis terminal. (See fig.1-74(a)) However, this type of splice can only be used in free lengths
of cable which do not pass over pulleys or through fair-leads.

Figure 1- 74 Typical cable splices.

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1.18.9 Swaged Ball Terminals
On some aircraft cables, swaged ball terminals are used for attaching cables to quadrants and special
connections where space is limited. Single shank terminals are generally used at the cable ends, and double
shank fittings may be used at either the end or in the center of the cable. Dies are supplied with the swaging
machines for attaching these terminals to cables by the following method:
1. The steel balls and shanks have a hole through the center, and are slipped over the cable and positioned in
the desired location.
2. Perform the swaging operation in accordance with the instructions furnished by the manufacturer of the
swaging equipment.
3. Check the swaged fitting with a go no-go gauge to see that the fitting is properly compressed, and inspect
the physical condition of the finished terminal. (See fig.1-75)

Figure 1- 75 Typical terminal gauge

1.18.10 Cable Slippage in Terminal


Ensure that the cable is properly inserted in the terminal after the swaging operation is completed. Instances
have been noted wherein only 1/4 inch of the cable was swaged in the terminal. Observance of the following
precautions should minimize this possibility:

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1. Measure the length of the terminal end of the fitting to determine the proper length of cable to be inserted
into the barrel of the fitting.
2. Lay off this length at the end of the cable and mark with masking tape. Since the tape will not slip, it will
provide a positive marking during the swaging process.
3. After swaging, check the tape marker to make certain that the cable did not slip during the swaging
operation.
4. Remove the tape and paint the junction of the swaged fitting and cable with red tape.
5. At all subsequent service inspections of the swaged fitting, check for a gap in the painted section to see if
cable slippage has occurred.

1.18.11 Lap Splice


The sleeves should be positioned as shown in fig.1-74 (b), and the compressions made in the order shown. As
in the case of eye splices, it is desirable to have the cable ends extend beyond the sleeves sufficiently to allow
for the increased length of the compressed sleeves.

Note
All stop sleeves are plain copper. Certain sizes are colored for identification.

1.18.12 Cable System Inspection


A- Cable Inspection
Aircraft cable systems are subject to a variety of environmental conditions and deterioration. Wire or strand
breakage is easy to visually recognize. Other kinds of deterioration such as wear, corrosion, and/or distortion are
not easily seen; therefore, control cables should be periodically inspected.
1. At each annual inspection, all control cables must be inspected for broken wires strands. Any cable
assembly that has one broken wire strand located in a critical fatigue area must be replaced.
2. A critical fatigue area is defined as the working length of a cable where the cable runs over, under, or
around a pulley, sleeve, or through a fair-lead; or any section where the cable is flexed, rubbed, or worked in any
manner; or any point within 1 foot of a swaged-on fitting.
3. A swaged-on fitting can be an eye, fork, ball, ball and shank, ball and double shank, threaded stud, threaded
stud and turnbuckle, compression sleeve, or any hardware used as a termination or end fitting on the cable.

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These fittings may be attached by various swaging methods such as rotary swaging, roll swaging, hydraulic
pressing, and hand swaging tools. The pressures exerted on the fittings during the swaging process sometimes
pinch the small wires in the cable. This can cause premature failure of the pinched wires, resulting in broken
wires.
4. Close inspection in these critical fatigue areas, must be made by passing a cloth over the area to snag on
broken wires. This will clean the cable for a visual inspection, and detect broken wires if the cloth snags on the
cable. Also, a very careful visual inspection must be made since a broken wire will not always protrude or stick
out, but may lie in the strand and remain in the position of the helix as it was manufactured. Broken wires of this
type may show up as a hairline crack in the wire. If a broken wire of this type is suspected, further inspection
with a magnifying glass of 7power or greater, is recommended. Figure 1-76 shows a cable with broken wires that
was not detected by wiping, but was found during a visual inspection.

Figure1 - 76 Cable inspection techniques

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5. Kinking of wire cable can be avoided if properly handled and installed. Kinking is caused by the cable
taking a spiral shape as the result of unnatural twist. One of the most common causes for this twist is improper
unreeling and uncoiling. In a kinked cable, strands and wires are out of position, which creates unequal tension
and brings excessive wear at this part of the cable. Even though the kink may be straightened so that the damage
appears to be slight, the relative adjustment between the strands has been disturbed so that the cable cannot
give maximum service and should be replaced. Inspect cables for a popped core or loose strands. Replace any
cable that has a popped core or loose strands regardless of wear or broken wires.
6. Nylon-jacketed cable with any cracks or necking down in the diameter of the jacket shall be replaced.
Usable cable life is over when these conditions begin to appear in the nylon jacket.
7. External wear patterns will extend along the cable equal to the distance the cable moves at that location and
may occur on one side of the cable or on its entire circumference. Replace flexible and nonflexible cables when
the individual wires in each strand appear to blend together (outer wires worn 40 to 50 percent) as depicted in
fig.1-76. Actual instances of cable wear beyond the recommended replacement point are shown in fig.1- 77.

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Figure 1- 77 Cable wear patterns. Worn cable (replacement necessary)

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8. As wear is taking place on the exterior surface of a cable, the same condition is taking place internally,
particularly in the sections of the cable which pass over pulleys and quadrants. This condition is not easily
detected unless the strands of the cable are separated. This type of wear is a result of the relative motion
between inner wire surfaces. Under certain conditions, the rate of this type of wear can be greater than that
occurring on the surface.
9. Areas especially conducive to cable corrosion are battery compartments, lavatories, wheel wells, etc.;
where a concentration of corrosive fumes, vapors, and liquids can accumulate. Carefully examine any cable for
corrosion, when it has a broken wire in a section that is not in contact with a wear-producing airframe
component, such as a pulley, fair-lead, etc. If the surface of the cable is corroded, relieve cable tension and
carefully force the cable open by reverse twisting and visually inspect the interior. Corrosion on the interior
strands of the cable constitutes failure, and the cable must be replaced. If no internal corrosion is detected,
remove loose external rust and corrosion with a clean, dry, coarse-weave rag, or fiber brush. Do not use metallic
wool or solvents to clean installed cables. Use of metallic wool will embed dissimilar metal particles in the cables
and create further corrosion problems. Solvents will remove internal cable lubricant allowing cable strands to
abrade and further corrode. After thoroughly cleaning, sparingly apply corrosion-preventive compound to cable.
Do not apply the material so thick that it will interfere with the operation of cables at fairleads, pulleys, or
grooved bell crank areas.
B- Cable Run Inspection
Examine cable runs for incorrect routing, fraying, twisting, or wear at fair-leads, pulleys, anti-abrasion strips,
and guards. Look for interference with adjacent structure, equipment, wiring, plumbing, and other controls.
Inspect cable systems for binding, full travel, and security of attaching hardware. Check for slack in the cable
system by attempting to move the control column and/or pedals while the gust locks are installed on the control
surfaces. With the gust locks removed, actuate the controls and check for friction or hard movement. These are
indications that excessive cable tension exists.

Note
If the control movement is stiff after maintenance is performed on control surfaces, check for
parallel cables twisted around each other, or cables connected in reverse.

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C- Terminals Inspection
Check swaged terminal reference marks for an indication of cable slippage within the fitting. Inspect the fitting
assembly for distortion and/or broken strands at the terminal. Ensure that all bearings and swivel fittings (bolted
or pinned) pivot freely to prevent binding and subsequent failure. Check turnbuckles for proper thread exposure
and broken or missing safety wires/clips.
D- Pulleys Inspection
Inspect for roughness, sharp edges, and presence of foreign material embedded in the grooves. Examine
pulley bearings to ensure proper lubrication, smooth rotation; and freedom from flat spots, dirt, and paint spray.
During the inspection, rotate the pulleys, which only turn through a small arc, to provide a new bearing surface
for the cable. Maintain pulley alignment to prevent the cable from riding on the flanges and chafing against
guards, covers, or adjacent structure. Check all pulley brackets and guards for damage, alignment, and security.
Various cable system malfunctions may be detected by analyzing pulley conditions. These include such
discrepancies as too much tension, misalignment, pulley bearing problems, and size mismatches between
cables and pulleys. Examples of these conditions are shown in figure 1- 78.

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Figure 1- 78 Pulley wear patterns.

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E- Fair-leads Inspection
Inspect fair-leads for wear, breakage, alignment, cleanliness, and security. Examine cable routing at fair-leads
to ensure that defection angles are no greater than 3 maximum. Determine that all guides and anti-abrasion
strips are secure and in good condition.
F- Pressure Seals Inspection
Inspect pressure seals for wear and/or material deterioration. Seal guards should be positioned to prevent
jamming of a pulley in case pressure seal fails and pieces slide along the cable.

1.18.13 Cable System Corrosion and Rust Prevention


To ensure a satisfactory service life for aircraft control cables, use a cable lubricant to reduce internal friction
and prevent corrosion. Apply corrosion prevention material according aircraft manual . Corrosion prevision
material should be brushed, sprayed, or wiped on the cable to the extent it penetrates into the strands and
adequately covers the cable surfaces removing it and wiping off the excess oil. It should be noted that corrosion-
resistant steel cable does not require this treatment for rust prevention.
Frequent inspections and preservation measures such as rust-prevention treatments for bare carbon steel
cable areas, will help to extend cable service life. Where cables pass through fair-leads, pressure seals, or over
pulleys, remove accumulated heavy grease or coatings of corrosion-prevention compound. Provide corrosion
protection for these cable sections by lubricating with a light coat of general-purpose, low-temperature oil.

1.18.14 Wire Splices


Standard manufacturing splices have been mistaken for defects in the cable because individual wire end
splices were visible after assembly of a finished cable length. In some instances, the process of twisting outer
strands around the core strand may also slightly flatten individual outer wires, particularly in the area of a wire
splice. This flattening is the result of die-sizing the cable, and does not affect the strength of the cable. These
conditions (as shown in fig.1-79) are normal, and are not a cause for cable rejection.

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Figure1- 79 Manufacturer s wire splice.

1.18.15 Cable Tension Adjustment


Carefully adjust, control cable tension in accordance with the airframe manufacturer s recommendations. On
large aircraft, take the temperature of the immediate area into consideration when using a tension meter. For long
cable sections, use the average of two or three temperature readings to obtain accurate tension values. If
necessary, compensate for extreme surface temperature variations that may be encountered if the aircraft is
operated primarily in unusual geographic or climatic conditions such as arctic, arid, or tropic locations. Use
rigging pins and gust locks, as necessary, to ensure satisfactory results. At the completion of rigging operations,
check turnbuckle adjustment and safetying in accordance with section 14 of this chapter.

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1.19 PUSH PULL CABLES
Push-Pull assemblies are used when the transmission of force is required in both direction of the assembly
travel. Pull assemblies are used when the transmission of force is needed in one direction. A push-pull assembly
is stiffer by nature; therefore, larger bend radii are required for smooth motion of the inner wire.
They are conventionally used to control the operation of valves and other mechanisms from a conveniently
located position remotely located from the actual mechanism being operated. For example, in case of
pressurized potable water supply in large commercial passenger aircraft, it is desirable to keep the total length of
the control cable as short as possible in order to minimize weight. Thus, it is desirable that it be possible to
operate a control valve from a remote location by means of a simple, convenient and reliable mechanism for
transferring motive forces. For such purposes, push-pull cable assemblies are commercially available having an
operating handle at one end and an actuating rod at the other end connected by a flexible cable contained within
a closely fitting sheath. Such assembly can transmit both tensile and compressive forces from one end to the
other. Since many valves and other mechanisms employ a conical or spherical member that must be rotated
through an angle (typically 90) from one position (e.g., "off") to another position (e.g.," on"), prior art push-pull
cable assemblies have been provided with a swivel fitting at the actuating end which permits a swiveling
movement of the actuating rod at the end of the cable so that the cable's outer sheath and its associated
mountings are not subjected to bending moments as a lever arm operatively connected to the valve's rotating
member moves in an arc about the valve's rotational axis and so that the end of the cable will always be able to
exert its pushing and pulling motive forces in a straight line and thus will not become bent or kinked.
With respect to such prior art push-pull cables, it will be appreciated that a certain amount of backlash is
associated with their operation. Furthermore, as a result of normal use, the diametrical clearance between the
cable and sheath will gradually increase, with the result that a worn push-pull cable will have even more backlash
than a new push-pull cable. If the adjustment were made too short, the valve would be free to move away from its
normal position, causing the aircraft's water supply to function erratically.

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1.20 FLEXIBLE SHAFT
Flexible shafts provide rotary power transmission along curved or adjustable axes. They are used in a wide
variety of remote control, valve actuation, and power transmission applications.
There are two basic types of flexible shafts:
1. Unidirectional shafts rotate in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction as viewed from the motor or
drive-end of the shaft. They are used for power transmission along non-linear axes in industrial
automation, heavy-duty, and specialized applications such as agricultural equipment, speedometers,
dentistry, woodworking, engine thrust reverser power transmission and jewelry tools.
2. Bidirectional flexible shafts can be rotated in either direction or reversed. They are well-balanced in both
directions and suitable for cyclic applications. Some flexible shafts are corrosion resistant or can
withstand environmental contaminants such as dust, fluid, and oil. Others have a casing around the shaft
for protection and safety.

Flexible shafts differ in terms of materials and applications. Most products are made of carbon steel, stainless
steel, tempered steel, music wire, rocket wire, bronze alloys, or copper alloys. The aerospace industry uses
flexible shafts in thrust reverser actuation, variable bleed valve, magazine drive shaft, rescue pump, scavenger
pump and flap actuation systems. Flexible shafts are also used in industrial power tools and reach rods for valve
removal.

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CHAPTER 2
AIRCRAFT AND ENGINE LUBRICANTS AND FUEL

INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the various types of lubricants ( greases and oils) including synthetic (hydraulic fluids
and engine oils).Greasing and oiling is a very important for aircraft parts life. Also, gives crude oil refining
process, to give enough information about aviation fuels.

2.1 THE FUNDAMENTALE OF FUELS AND LUBRICANTS


Crude oil is a mixture of what known as hydrocarbons, substances formed by the chemical combination of
hydrogen and carbon. They, occur in a great many forms, as greases, liquids, or solids. Crude oil is normally a
mixture of a wide range of hydrocarbons and varies considerably from one source to another although, with
modern refining methods, a high standard of uniformity can be obtained in the finished products.

2.1.1 Fractional Distillation


The crude oil is first heated by being pumped through tubes in furnaces, fired either by fuel oil or gas (also
products of cruds oil).It is heated to a temperature which will ensure that all the fractions to be removed are
vaporized. The hot oil, now part liquid and part vapor, is then fed into the lower end of the fractioning column
which is divided horizontally into by sections by plates or trays. This continuous process of condensation and
re-evaporation results in each tray holding a lower boiling point fraction than the one below it, and the different
fractions are drawn off from the column at corresponding levels.
The lightest fractions are taken from the top of the column, and these include what is termed Straight run
petrol . Other production include gases such as propane and butane, kerosine, gas oil and diesel The residue
may be used to prepare fuel oils by blending with gas oil, or it is further distilled under vacuum, if the crude is of
suitable quality, to make lubricating oils and bitumen.

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2.1.2 Oil Refinery
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined
into more useful petroleum products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and
liquefied petroleum gas. Oil refineries are typically large sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping
running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units.

Oil Refining Process

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2.1.3 Process
Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships, automobiles,
aircraft engines, lawn mowers, chainsaws, and other machines. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons
to be separated by distillation. Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal
combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these
higher value products.

Products Temperature Levels

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2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LUBRICANTS
A lubricant is any natural or artificial substance having greasy or oily properties which can be used to:
Reduce friction between moving parts, consequently heat generation.
Prevent rust and corrosion on metallic surfaces.

2.2.1 Origins
Lubricants may be Classified according to their origins as animal, vegetable, or mineral.

A- Animal Lubricants
They are highly salable at normal temperatures and hence they can be used to lubricate fire arms, sewing
machines, clocks, and other light machinery and devices. However, none of the lubricants of animal origin are
suitable for lubricating aircraft internal-combustion engines because they throw off fatty acids at high
temperature
B- Vegetable Lubricants
These oils tend to oxidized when exposed to the atmosphere. Both vegetable and animal oils have a lower
coefficient at friction than most mineral oils, but they wear steel away rapidly because of their ability to loosen
the bonds of iron on the surface. For this reason, cottonseed oil is often used a cutting oil for hard steel.
Of all the lubricants, castor oil has the most oiliness If some means could be found far overcoming its
disadvantages, it might some days be used more generally as an engine oil, but meanwhile it cannot be used as
an aircraft engine oil.
C- Mineral Lubricants
Mineral lubricants are used in the lubrication of aircraft internal combustion engines and gearboxes. They may
be classified as solids, semi-solids and fluids.
Some solid lubricants can carry heavy loads and hence they are mixed with certain fluid lubricants to reduce
the wear between adjacent surfaces subjected to high unit pressure.

2.2.2 Fluid Lubricants (Oils)


Fluid lubricants (oils) are used at the principal lubricant in all types of internal combustion engines. They can
be pumped easily and stored readily, they absorb and dissipate heat quickly and provide a good cushioning
effect.

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Note
In general, lubricants of animal and vegetable origin are chemically unstable at high
temperatures, often perform poorly at low temperature, and are unsuited for aircraft engines
lubrication. On the other hand, lubricants having a mineral base are chemically stable at high
temperature, perform well at low temperature and are widely used for aircraft engines lubrication.

2.3 AVIATION TURBINE FUEL (JET FUEL)


Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher
quality than fuels used in less critical applications such as heating or road transport, and often contains
additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperatures, amongst other properties.
Jet fuel is a clear to straw colored fuel, based on either an unleaded paraffin oil (Jet A-1), or a naphtha-
kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either compression ignition engines or
turbine engines

2.3.1 Civil Aviation Fuels


Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering jet and turbo-prop engines aircraft and are not to be confused
with Avgas. Outside former communist areas, there are currently two main grades of turbine fuel in use in civil
commercial aviation:
Jet A-1
Jet A
Both are kerosene type fuels. There is another grade of jet fuel, Jet B which is a wide cut kerosene (a blend of
gasoline and kerosene) but it is rarely used except in very cold climates.

A- JET A-1
Jet A-1 is a kerosene grade of fuel suitable for most turbine engines aircraft. It is produced to a stringent
internationally agreed standard, has a flash point above 38C (100F) and a freeze point maximum of - 47C. It is
widely available outside the U.S.A.

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B- JET A
Jet A is similar kerosene type of fuel, normally only available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A-
1 but a higher freeze point maximum (- 40C).
C- JET B
Jet B is a distillate covering the naphtha and kerosene fractions. It can be used as an alternative to Jet A-1 but
because it is more difficult to handle (higher flammability), there is only significant demand in very cold climates
where its better cold weather performance is important.

2.4 JET FUEL HANDLING (FUELING)


Fueling means, aircraft fueling or defueling, so the safety precautions must be taken into consideration during
both processes.

2.4.1 Safety Precautions


Any fuelling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation fuelling has a number of unique characteristics
which must be accommodated.
As an aircraft flies through the air, it can accumulate a charge of static electricity. If this is not dissipated
before fuelling, an electric arc can occur which may ignite fuel vapors. To prevent this, aircraft are
electrically bonded to the fuelling apparatus before fuelling begins, and are not disconnected until fuelling
is complete. Some regions require that the aircraft and/or fuel truck be grounded as well. Static electricity
is a class of phenomena involving the net charge present on an object; typically referring to charged
object with voltages of sufficient magnitude to produce visible attraction, repulsion, and sparks.
Aviation fuel can cause severe environmental damage, and all fuelling vehicles must carry equipment to
control fuel spills. As well, fire extinguishers must be present at any fuelling operation, and airport
firefighting forces are specially trained and equipped to handle aviation fuel fires and spills.
Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt. Fire
extinguisher

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Fuel servicing personnel is according regulations trained in the safe operation of fueling equipment. During
aircraft refueling you should observe at least the following guidelines:

No smoking within at least 50 feet of an aircraft.


The aircraft and fueling vehicles or equipment should be grounded together to dissipate static
electricity collected during refueling.
Always keep fire extinguishers nearby.
Portable electronic devices should be switched off (cellphones, radio's, pagers)
If a spill occurs, refueling should be stopped and the airport fire department notified, if necessary.
Ground power units should not be connected or disconnected during refueling
Persons refueling aircraft should not carry lighters or matches when refueling
At the first sight of lightning in the area, refueling operations should be suspended.
Refueling may not be conducted with passengers on board the aircraft
Avoid contact with fuel. The health risks are high if fuel gets into your body, this is possible via the
eyes, skin contact, ingestion of via inhalation. Get medical help if this happens.
Make sure the fuel nozzle is clean and keep dirt and water away from the fuel caps, support the nozzle
preventing damage to the wing tank.
Replace the fuel caps securely, loosing a cap in flight will guarantee a loss of fuel.
Wait some 30 minutes before sampling fuel, gently rock the wings so that any water and debris can
settle near the sample port.

Note
Make sure to take every safety precautions when defueling the aircraft as the dangers remain the
same as refueling.

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Refueling/Defueling

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2.5 ENGINE OILS
2.5.1 Engine Oil Properties
The most important properties of aircraft engine oil are its flash point, viscosity, pour point and chemical
stability. Mineral oils in their original distilled condition include many elements such as unstable hydro-carbons,
gums, Tars, Wax, etc, which have to be removed before the lubricants can be useful to engineering demands.
These demands alter or become more arduous as science and engineering progress, and properties required of
the oils are very largely built into them by more intensive refining and then compounding them with chemical
additives.

2.5.2 Lubricant
A lubricant (sometimes referred to as "lube") is a substance (often a liquid) introduced between two moving
surfaces to reduce the friction between them, improving efficiency and reducing wear. They may also have the
function of dissolving or transporting foreign particles and of distributing heat.
Typically lubricants contain 90% base oil (most often petroleum fractions, called mineral oils) and less than
10% additives. Vegetable oils or synthetic liquids such as hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicones,
fluorocarbons and many others are sometimes used as base oils. Additives deliver reduced friction and wear,
increased viscosity, improved viscosity index, resistance to corrosion and oxidation, aging or contamination,
etc.
Another approach to reducing friction and wear is to use bearings such as ball bearings, roller bearings or air
bearings, which in turn require internal lubrication themselves, or to use sound, in the case of acoustic
lubrication.
In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used for many other purposes. Other uses include bio-
medical applications (e.g. lubricants for artificial joints) .

2.5.3 Purpose
Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system. This has the benefit of reducing friction
and surface fatigue together with reduced heat generation, operating noise and vibrations. Lubricants achieve
this by several ways. The most common is by forming a physical barrier i.e. a thin layer of lubricant separates the
moving parts. This is termed hydrodynamic lubrication. In cases of high surface pressures or temperatures the

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fluid film is much thinner and some of the forces are transmitted between the surfaces through the lubricant.
This is termed elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication.

Lubricants perform the following key functions.


Reduce friction
Transfer heat
Carry away contaminants & debris
Transmit power
Protect against wear
Prevent corrosion
Seal for gasses
Stop the risk of smoke and fire of objects
Keep moving parts apart

(1) Reduce Friction


Typically the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less than surface-to-surface friction in a system without any
lubrication. Thus use of a lubricant reduces the overall system friction. Reduced friction has the benefit of
reducing heat generation and reduced formation of wear particles as well as improved efficiency. Lubricants may
contain additives known as friction modifiers that chemically bind to metal surfaces to reduce surface friction
even when there is insufficient bulk lubricant present for hydrodynamic lubrication, e.g. protecting the valve train
in a car engine at startup.
(2) Transfer Heat
Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat. However, liquid lubricants are much more effective on
account of their high specific heat capacity. Typically the liquid lubricant is constantly circulated to and from a
cooler part of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as well as to cool when a regulated
temperature is required. This circulating flow also determines the amount of heat that is carried away in any
given unit of time. High flow systems can carry away a lot of heat and have the additional benefit of reducing the
thermal stress on the lubricant. The primary drawback is that high flows typically require larger sumps and
bigger cooling units. A secondary drawback is that a high flow system that relies on the flow rate to protect the
lubricant from thermal stress is susceptible to catastrophic failure during sudden system shut downs.

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(3) Carry away contaminants and debris
Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying away internally generated debris and external
contaminants that get introduced into the system to a filter where they can be removed. In closed systems such
as gear boxes the filter may be supplemented by a magnet to attract any iron fines that get created.
Poor filtration significantly reduces the life of the machine (engine) as well as making the system inefficient.
(4) Transmit power
Pascal's law is at the heart of hydrostatic power transmission. Hydraulic fluids comprise a large portion of all
lubricants produced in the world.
(5) Protect against wear
Lubricants prevent wear by keeping the moving parts apart. Lubricants may also contain anti-wear or extreme
pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue.
(6)Prevent Corrosion
Good quality lubricants are typically formulated with additives that form chemical bonds with surfaces to
prevent corrosion and rust.
(7) Seal for Gasses
Lubricants will occupy the clearance between moving parts through the capillary force, thus sealing the
clearance. This effect can be used to seal pistons and shafts.

2.6 SYNTHETIC OILS


Synthetic oil is a lubricant consisting of chemical compounds which are artificially made (synthesized) from
compounds other than crude oil (petroleum). Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for lubricant refined from
petroleum, because it generally provides superior mechanical and chemical properties than those found in
traditional mineral oils.

2.6.1 Hydraulic Fluids


Hydraulic fluids, also called hydraulic liquids, are the medium by which power is transferred in hydraulic
machinery. Examples of equipment that might use hydraulic fluids include excavators, brakes, power steering
systems, transmissions, backhoes, garbage trucks, aircraft flight control systems and industrial machinery.
Hydraulic systems like the ones mentioned above will work most efficiently if the hydraulic fluid used has low
compressibility.

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The two types of hydraulic fluids most commonly used today are:
A - Petroleum based fluids (MIL-H 5606) specifications, have the following well known advantages:
i) Among the best lubricants for all metal combinations.
ii) Non corrosive.
iii) A wide operating temperature range.
iv) Non, toxic the fluid as well as the decomposition products.
v) Readily available in many viscosity grades.
The primary disadvantage of the petroleum base fluid is that petroleum burns with a very high specific energy
release which makes it impossible to use near or with components with high operating temperatures..
B- Phosphate Ester-based specification according to BMS 3-11(Synthetic) specification, have the following
advantages:
i) Impossible to ignite and will not sustain combustion on its own.
ii) Superior lubricating properties.
iii) Much wider operating temperature range than petroleum fluids.
iv) Less volatile than petroleum fluids.
The primary disadvantage of the phosphate ester based fluids is that the fluid is laboratory synthesized and is
thus most costly fluid in use at this time.

The primary function of a hydraulic fluid is to convey power. In use, however, there are other important
functions of hydraulic fluid such as protection of the hydraulic machine components.

2.6.2 Skydrol
Skydrol is an advanced fire resistant aviation hydraulic fluid. Skydrol is made up of a group of chemical
additives dissolved into a fire-resistant phosphate ester base stock which inhibits corrosion and prevents
erosion damage to servo valves and includes a purple or green dye to ease identification. It has been approved
by most airframe manufacturers including Airbus Industries, Boeing and British Aerospace and has been used in
their products for over 40 years.
Acid and contamination must be monitored while using Skydrol, and generally hydraulic systems should be
sampled every C check. Skydrol has a 10 year shelf life from the date of manufacture.

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Skydrol fluids are irritating to human tissue. Gloves and goggles are recommended safety equipment when
servicing Skydrol systems. If the fluid gets on the skin it creates an itchy, red rash with a burning sensation
which feels similar to a sunburn. The effects subside within a few hours, and studies indicate that Skydrol
causes no permanent damage to human tissue. Castor oil can be applied to the effected area to neutralize the
burning.
The use of hydraulic systems in aircraft almost certainly began with braking systems.As aircraft performance
increased in mid-20th century, the amount of force required to operate mechanical flight controls became
excessive, and hydraulic systems were introduced to reduce pilot effort. The hydraulic actuators are controlled
by valves; these in turn are operated directly by input from the aircrew (hydro-mechanical) or by computers
obeying control laws (fly by wire).
Hydraulic power is used for other purposes. It can be stored in accumulators to start an auxiliary power unit
(APU) for self-starting the aircraft's main engines. The hydraulic power itself comes from pumps driven by the
engines directly, or by electrically driven pumps. In modern commercial aircraft these are electrically driven
pumps; should all the engines fail in flight the pilot will deploy a propeller-driven electric generator which is
concealed under the fuselage This provides electrical power for the hydraulic pumps and control systems as
power is no longer available from the engines. In that system and others electric pumps can provide both
redundancy and the means of operating hydraulic systems without the engines operating, which can be very
useful during maintenance.

2.7 SAFTEY PRECAUTIONS


Because industrial hydraulic systems operate at hundreds to thousands of PSI and temperatures reaching
hundreds of degrees Celsius, severe injuries and death can result from component failures and care must always
be taken when performing maintenance on hydraulic systems.
Fire resistance is a property available with specialized fluids.
Handling and care of fluids
Here are some basic rules to prevent contamination of hydraulic fluid during storage and handling:
1- Never use a hydraulic fluid unless it can be positively identified by its specification.
2- Under no circumstances should different types of fluids be mixed.
3- Service a system with the fluid of the same specification as that indicated on the instruction plate of the
system.
4- Before opening a drum, clean the top bung area thoroughly so no dirt can contaminate the fluid.

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5- Use only clean containers, hoses, etc, to transfer fluid from the drum to the reservoir.
6- Before filling the reservoir, ensure that the filler area is clean and mat the strainer is clean and in position.
7- Establish fluid change intervals so that the fluid will be replaced before it breaks down.
8-Keep the reservoir filled properly to take advantage of heat dissipating characteristics and to prevent
moisture from condensing on inside walls.
9-Repair leaks in the hydraulic system immediately.

2.8 HANDLING OF FLUID AND COMPONENTS


Introduction
The handling of all materials requires care on the part of the user for the health and safety of himself and other
persons who may be affected by his or omissions.
The omission of a material does not mean that hazards may exist through improper use. For example, almost
all liquids, other than clean wate, are dangerous if swallowed excessively. Take into your consideration that
safety first including your health.
Note
"Handling" means working, storing, packing and/or disposal of material.

2.8.1 Personal Protection


Personal safety is very important in aeronautics.
Follow the safe method as in the aircraft manuals or other relevant instructions and not your ow
Know your materials, their properties and their dangers.
Always use the barriers creams, protective clothing and equipment provided.
Know how to deal with emergencies.
Know the locations of the First Aid box and the nearest fire fighting equipment and alarms.
Repot all unsatisfactory and defective equipment, accidents and injuries, to the supervisor as soon as
possible.
Do not act foolishly.

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Note
Claims for compensation will be affected if all safety precautions have not been complied with.

WARNING
Read and comply with the instructions on the container before opening and use.

2.8.2 Fire Hazards for Fuel and OILS


A- Ignition Risk
(1) Petroleum based products are a dangerous fire explosion risk, particularly under the following conditions:
At a temperature which will produce vapor.
Atomized to produce a mist or spray.
During transfer from one container to another (refueling, defueling. etc.)
Work is in progress in wetted fuel tanks.

(2)The following are common sources of ignition:


Open flame and/or heat.
Electrical sparks from energized electrical equipment or switches, or from static charges.

WARING
Do not use paper toweling in any area where combustible vapors are present.

Sparks produced from sharp contact between ferrous metals.


Radio and radar waves.
In effective bonding and earthing of fuel transfer equipment.
B- Fire Prevention
All staff must observe the fire prevention instruction
All staff must be aware with using the available fire fighting equipment.
Suitable fire must be available in site.

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2.9 DISPOSAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
It is estimated that 40% of all lubricants are released into the environment. Disposal, recycling, burning,
landfill and discharge into water may achieve disposal of used lubricant. There are typically strict regulations in
most countries regarding disposal in landfill and discharge into water as even small amount of lubricant can
contaminate a large amount of water. Burning the lubricant as fuel, typically to generate electricity, is also
governed by regulations mainly on account of the relatively high level of additives present. Improvement in
filtration technologies and processes has now made recycling a viable option (with rising price of base stock and
crude oil). Typically various filtration systems remove particulates, additives and oxidation products and recover
the base oil Again there is considerable reluctance to this use as the additives, soot and wear metals will
seriously poison/deactivate the critical catalysts in the process. Occasionally, unused lubricant requires
disposal. The best course of action in such situations is to return it to the manufacturer where it can be
processed as a part of fresh batches. Environment lubricants both fresh and used can cause considerable
damage to the environment mainly due to their high potential of serious water pollution. Further the additives
typically contained in lubricant can be toxic to plants and animals.

2.10 AVIATION GREASES


2.10.1 Oil and Grease Compared for Aviation Purposes
Oil is the ideal lubricant under many conditions especially when the design and operation of the equipment
make it possible to apply the lubricant as a liquid. However, in most aircraft engine accessories, airplane control
mechanisms, linkage bearings, and landing wheels liquid oil can not be used. There are several reasons:
(1) The inaccessibility the parts or the physical difficulty of servicing the parts may make it impractical to
lubricate regularly with oil.
(2)The oil may reach sensitive parts where it will cause damage, such as the electric fields of instruments,
motors, generators, magnetos, etc.
(3) under many conditions, oil leaks too rapidly to maintain good lubrication.
Therefore greases becomes the most suitable material to use.

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2.10.2 Requirements for Aircraft Lubricating Greases
The characteristics required of aircraft engine apply in general to aircraft lubricating greases. but those which
are specially important in judging greases are presented as follows:
1. The grease should have the proper consistency for the method of application employed and for complete
distribution to the surface to be lubricated.
2. The grease should have high anti-wear properties to prevent metallic contact where pressures are applied
suddenly, and, especially where boundary films are expected to protect the surfaces.
3. The grease should have adequate plasticity at low temperatures to prevent sluggish action
and the sticking of moving parts. Plasticity is a state or condition of being easily subjected to molding into any
form under pressure in this case, it merely means that the grease should not become gummy or hard at low
temperatures but should flow easily.
4. The grease should have high antifriction characteristics to reduce the frictional resistance of the moving
parts.
5. The grease should offer resistance to separation at high temperatures, or when subjected to heavy
pressures. This means that it should not break down into its chemical components, thus losing its lubricating
properties. In other words, it should be chemically stable.

2.10.3 Types of Greases


Most grease lubricants cab is divided into groups as follows:
(1) Calcium soap greases, it is smooth and there is no thickness at normal temperatures. These grease use
at operating temperatures above 175F or where high centrifugal speeds may throw out the lubricant, or where the
lubricant part is subjected to shock loading. Also, they very water resistance.
(2) Sodium soap greases, it generally used to lubricate antifriction ball, roller, and needle type bearing that
are subjected to shock loads or high temperatures, and when there is need to retain the lubricant under
conditions of high rotation or centrifugal motion. Common aircraft applications are the lubrication of engine
accessories and wheel bearings.
(3) Aluminum soap greases, it is generally suitable for plain bearing where the speed of rotation is slow,
subjected to shock loads ,and part or unit is exposed to water frequently. They are widely used on airplanes to
lubricate landing gear joints and similar parts of units.

129
(4) Special greases. it is generally used where rubbing conditions or high loading make it necessary to obtain
a tough lubricating film.

2.10.4 Special Engine Lubricants


Oil is the principal aircraft engine lubricant but special lubricants, most of which are greases, are used for
special purposes and given names which usually indicate their use. Examples, thread lubricant spark plug
lubricant, high melting point grease.
Rust preventive compounds are used to corrosion of the unpainted surfaces of aircraft engines while they are
in storage.
Anti-gallant and Anti-seize are solid film lubricants that are applied between two mating surfaces to provide
protection from damage during relative movement and to reduce friction and wear. Anti-gallant is normally used
in blade root and disk slots to prevent galling. Anti-seize is normally used on the threaded parts to prevent
seizing.(bolt, nut, tie-rod, turbine shaft, etc.)
Anti-seizing compounds may be applied at assembly to facilitate disassembly of certain hot section parts only
when allowed by specific assembly or maintenance instructions. Penetrating oil may be used at disassembly to
facilitate in disassembly. When specifically recommended in assembly instructions extreme pressure lubricants
may be applied to prevent galling of highly stressed areas. (I.e. spline drives, case snaps, bearing journals.)

Effective lubricants have the following properties:


Compatibility to substrate
Fluids resistance (oil, fuel, water, etc.)
Low co-efficient of friction
Load carrying capacity
Thermal stability
Torque-tension capability

CAUTION
Extreme care must be used to ensure that anti-gallant and anti-seize compounds are applied in a
thin even coat that all excess material is completely removed so as to avoid its getting into or
onto parts, passages, or surface where it may cause malfunctioning or even failure of the engine

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2.11 OIL SAMPLING
2.11.1 Purpose
Laboratory analysis of lubricating oil samples taken at regular intervals from the oil system of an engine or
unit it in service will determined the following.
(1) The presence and quantity of particles invisible to naked naked eye without magnification.
(2) Particles of impurities, eg. Silica (dust)
(3) Metal particles produced by wear.
(4) The lubricating properties of the oil.

2.11.2 Intervals
Oil sampling at regular interval will provide the following:
(1) Early warning of mechanical deterioration.
(2) An important aid to troubleshooting when used in conjunction with AIDS or other performance monitoring

2.12 AIRCRAFT SEALANTS


INTRODUCTION
Sealing is a vital process in the manufacture of a commercial aircraft. Sealant is used to contain fuel cabin
pressure, reduce fire hazards, exclude, moisture, pervert corrosion, and to fill gaps and smooth discontinuities
on the aircraft exterior. All of this sealing function are important and affect the performance of the aircraft. For
example, fuel tank sealing is critical because leakage is a safety item that can result in grounding the aircraft
until the problem is corrected. Sealing for corrosion prevention must be done properly or in-service problems
requiring extensive maintenance may occur. These considerations indicate how important the sealer's job is. It
directly affects the quality and reliability of our airplanes.

2.12.1 Definition of Sealing


Sealing is a process that confines liquids and gases within a given area or prevents them from entering areas
from which they must be excluded. Sealing is accomplished by closing all structural passages that these~ fluids
can penetrate. The material used to seal these passages is applied as wet squeeze paste. After a period of time,
the sealant "cures': to form a rubbery solid that adheres firmly to the surfaces it contacts.

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Function of seals

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2.12.2 Sealant Application Areas
(1) Fuel areas: In integral fuel tanks, seals must contain fuel for the life of the airplane under varying
conditions of temperature, pressure and structural loadings.
(2)Pressurized areas: Seals maintain pressure at a predetermined minimum level under all flight
conditions.
(3) Environmental areas: Seals on exterior surfaces prevent water and fluids from entering, and also
function as aerodynamic smoothers. Sealants must maintain adhesion to the structure and have sufficient
flexibility to function effectively under a variety of environmental and stress conditions. Differential pressures
may vary from small negative values to positive values of approximately 11 lb/ln2. The operating temperature
rang is approximately -65F to 400F. Structural loads during ground operation cause deflections, which the
sealant must be able to withstand at all operating temperatures.
(4) Corrosion areas: Seals protect the structure by preventing entry of corrosive fluids.
(5) Electrical areas: Seals provide protection for electrical components
(6) Fire wall areas: Seals prevent spread of flames beyond the fire wall until fire can be extinguished.
(7) Acid areas: Seals protect structure from attack by battery acids.

2.13 TYPES OF SEALING


2.13.1 Fillet Seals
Fillet seals are applied at the edge of joins. They consist of beach of sealant that must adhere firmly to the
structure on both sides of the seam being sealed must conform to the dimensional requirements of the process
specification. Fillet seals are used where maximum protection from fluid leakage is required, such as in fuel and
pressure areas.

2.13.2 Injection Seals


Injection seals are applied to fill channels and holes that occur as result of the structural design. Quite often
injection is required to continue or to back up a fillet seal.

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2.13.3 Faying Surface Seals
Faying surface seals form a layer of sealant sandwiched between two fastened mating surfaces. These seals
are used primarily to prevent corrosion of aircraft structure and to facilitate leak tracing in the fuel tank.

2.13.4 Prepack Seals


Prepack seals are used to fill structural cavities that at are enclosed after assembly and cannot be properly
injected.

2.13.5 Brush Coat Seals


Brush coat seals, as the name implies, are formed by brushing the sealant into place. The sealant is a low
viscosity material that easily applied in this manner. The method is principally used in applying a sealant pre-
coat prior to fillet sealing the, integral fuel tank. Brush coating is commonly used to seal exposed ends fasteners
against corrosion.

2.14 SOLVENTS
Solvents are used for cleaning structure prior to sealing. Solvents used for cleaning must be approved by the
applicable sealing process, specification. Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) is commonly used. Approved metal safety
cans are to be used for solvent storage.

2.15 APPLICATION EQUIPMENT


2.15.1 Sealant Gun
Initial application of sealants is generally made with a standard air-operated sealant gun. Sealant is extruded
when trigger is depressed to open an air valve, allowing pressure to be applied against tile plunger.

2.15.2 Nozzles
Nozzles are available in assorted sizes and shapes for various sealing requirements and are made of the same
type of plastic material as the cartridge

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2.15.3 Scrapers
Plastic scrapers are also used to spread sealant over a surface. These are recommended for situations where
using a roller would be awkward because of access or other considerations.

2.16 SEALING COMPOUNDS


2.16.1 Description
Sealing compounds are synthetic rubber material that are applied in a flowable consistency and cure by
chemical reaction to a solid with elastromeric properties. Most of the sealants are known chemically as some
silicone sealants are used where their special properties are required. All Polysulfides are two-part materials, and
cure is initiated when the rubber polymer base is combined with an accelerator.
Logistical considerations, such as maintenance of sealing inventories in the shops, usually make it ,
impractical, to use a sealant immediately after mixing. When thawed for use on the airplane, the sealant is then
essentially in the same condition as when it was first mixed.

2.16.2 Sealant Life Definition


A- Squeeze out life: Squeeze out life is the time in hours thawing during which a faying surface sealant can
be squeezed out of a joint when fasteners are installed.
B- Tack Free Time: Tack free time is the time in hours after thawing (after application for one part silicone)
that is required for the sealant to cure sufficiently so that it will not transfer to the finger or to plastic film.
C- Cure Time: The cure time is the time in. hours after thawing (after application for one part silicone) that is
required for the sealant to cure firmly enough to be handled without damage or deformation. After cure time has
elapsed manufacturing operation such as drilling and fastening can be performed without damage to the sealant.
Typical cure time for most sealants is given in process specifications.

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Effect of temperature and humidity on cure time

2.16.3 Environmental Effects


The cure rate is strongly influenced by temperature and humidity, and is directly proportional to both; i.e.
lower than normal temperature and humidity, and the cure rate and higher than normal temperature and humidity
increase the cure time.

2.16.4 Special Precautions for Silicones


When applying silicone sealant, do not contaminate adjacent areas applied finished. Tools used for silicone
sealants shall be used for these sealants only. Do not use for any other materials

WARNING
Components of some sealants are toxic and can be absorbed through the skin. Skin contact
should be avoided. Use gloves as required. When skin contact occurs, remove the sealant and
wash the affected area. Never use your fingers to smooth fillets. Always use a fairing tool.

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2.16.5 SEALANT TYPES
Sealant type depends on its purpose, integral fuel tank, corrosion prevention, surface smoothing or heat
resistance the most common type are RTV and PR series like PR1422, PR147.
A- RTV
It is conventional sealant has many classification depending on purpose smoothing, sealing requirement or
heat resistance.
B-PR1422
PR1422 is a fuel resistant sealant for use on integral fuel tanks and pressurized cabins as well as other areas
subject to contact with aircraft fuels, lubricants, oils, water and/or weathering.
PR1422 is a two-part polysulfide base compound which cures at room temperature to a flexible, resilient
rubber with excellent adhesion to aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel, and numerous other materials.
PR1422 is designed to withstand the attack of sulpher compounds that are present in jet fuels. When mixed,
PR1422 Class A is a self leveling liquid. PR1422 Class B is a thixotropic paste that will not flow or sag on vertical
or overhead surfaces.

2.17 SEALANT APPLICATION


2.17.1 Surface Preparation
A-Clean up
To obtain good adhesion, the surfaces must be free of all traces of oil, wax, grease, dirt or other
contamination. Working in small area segments, wipe the surface using a clean rag doused in an oil free solvent.
Before the solvent evaporates, wipe the surface dry with a second clean rag. Maintain a clean solvent supply by
pouring the solvent on the washing cloth.PR1422 will adhere tenaciously to most substrates providing the
surface to be sealed is clean and sound.
For surface preparation as well as removing fresh or cured PR1422 Methylene Chloride can be used. Cured
PR1422 will require a soaking period in Methylene Chloride bases stripper for satisfactory removal.

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B-Mixing Instructions
PR1422 parts sealant and accelerator are carefully matched at the time of manufacture to provide optimum
performance when cured. Care should be taken to assure that parts sealant and accelerator are combined as
recommended on the container label. Prior to combining with the sealant component stir the accelerator
component until the contents of the container are uniform gray color is achieved. There should be no white or
black streaks in the properly blended material. Periodically scrape the sides and bottom of the container as well
as the mixing tool to assure proper mixing. When using a mechanical mixer, avoid high speeds since the heat
generated will reduce the application time of the mixed PR1422.

C- Application
The work life of PR1422 is indicated by the number following the class designation and varies from 1/4 hour to
4 hours. Work life is the minimum amount of time the material will maintain its application properties.
Time tack free curing rate are as follows:
1/4 1/4 Hour 6 Hours 16 Hours
Hour 8 Hours 30 Hours
1 1 Hour 15 Hours 40 Hours

2 2 Hours 24 Hours 72 Hours


4 4 Hours 36 Hours 90 Hours
** PR1422 Class B-1/4 may be fuel immersed within two hours of application when cured at standard conditions
of 77 mF 5% Relative Humidity

D- Cure
Specified application and cure schedules are based on the standard conditions of 77F and 50% relative
humidity. Increased temperature and relative humidity will reduce the work life and speed up the cure while
reduced temperatures and relative humidity will extend the work life and slow the cure. Cure may be accelerated
by heating up to 120F.Howeve care must be exercised to avoid the entrapment of solvent when heat is applied.
The following graph indicates the effect of temperature and humidity on cure time.

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2.18 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASS-A AND CLASS-B
Class A sealants are a brushable material and generally used as first layer for sealant application.
Class B sealants are fillet material for sealing gaps, voids, and seams.

(A) R1422 Class A


PR-1422 Class A is an aircraft integral fuel tank sealant. It has a service temperature range from -65F (-54C) to
250F (121C), with intermittent excursions up to 275F (135C). This material is designed for brush sealing of
fasteners in fuel tanks and other aircraft fuselage sealing applications. The cured sealant maintains excellent
elastomeric properties after prolonged exposure to both jet fuel and aviation gas.

(B) PR1422 Class B


PR-1422 Class B is an aircraft integral fuel tank sealant. It has a service temperature range from -65F (-54C) to
250F (121C), with intermittent excursions up to 275F (135C). This material is designed for fillet sealing of fuel
tanks and other aircraft fuselage sealing applications. The cured sealant maintains excellent elastomeric
properties after prolonged exposure to both jet fuel and aviation gas.
PR-1422 Class B is a two part, dichromate cured polysulfide compound. The uncured material is a low sag,
thixotropic paste suitable for application by extrusion gun or spatula. It cures at room temperature to form a
resilient sealant having excellent adhesion to common aircraft substrates.

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CHAPTER 3
LINE OPERATIONS AND RAMP SAFETY
INTRODUCTION
One of the busiest, most important and dangerous divisions is the line division. A plane captain has many
responsibilities in flight operations and the day-to-day maintenance and upkeep of modern aircraft. You will be
required to handle, secure, and service aircraft. You must also be aware of the related safety precautions to
reduce personal injury, aircraft and equipment damage, and prevent a loss of operational readiness due to
ground accidents. This chapter outlines some of these crucial factors.

3.1 OPERATING EQUIPMENT AROUND AIRCRAFT


LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the proper procedures for monitoring ground support equipment near or
around aircraft, the safety precautions and hazards involved.

When mobile equipment is used around aircraft, certain operating techniques, handling procedures, and
safety precautions are followed to reduce the number of accidents, to prevent damage to aircraft and equipment,
and to ensure the safety of personnel. The following operating techniques and handling procedures should be
followed:
Vehicles should not pass under any part of a parked aircraft. Where such passing is absolutely necessary,
the vehicle must come to a complete stop and, before proceeding, a visual check must be made to ensure
that sufficient clearance exists.
Vehicles carrying passengers must stop only at the boarding entrance and clear of aircraft while loading or
unloading passengers.
Riding on fenders, hoods, running boards, or any place not intended for passengers is strictly prohibited.
Personnel involved in the towing of aircraft must be alert and exercise extreme care.
Tractor drivers must always maintain a safe distance from parked aircraft and be on the alert for
movements of other aircraft.
Motorized vehicles used to service aircraft or those used near aircraft must be driven or parked adjacent to
aircraft so that inadvertent movement of the vehicle will not result in a collision.

141
When aircraft are serviced, all refueling vehicles should be parked forward of the aircraft and parallel to the
wing. The refueling vehicle should be parked at a point as distant from the aircraft as the length of hose
permits, and preferably to the windward (upwind) side of the aircraft.
If it is necessary to park near a parked aircraft, the hand brake of a motorized vehicle must be set and the
ignition turned off. If the service being rendered requires running the motor, the motorized vehicle must be
manned.
The speed limit for operating vehicles on airfields in the vicinity of aircraft and hangars must be at the limit
according company policy and instructions..
On runways, taxiways, parking areas, ramps, and work areas, the speed limit is 20 km/h.
When aircraft are towed, the towing speed should never be faster than the slowest person can walk or
exceed 5 miles per hour.
Sudden starts and stops must be avoided. Extreme caution must be exercised when an aircraft is towed
over unprepared surfaces or into or through a congested area.

3.2 HAZARDS OF SUPPORT EQUIPMENT


Tow tractors, electrical power units, pneumatic aircraft start units, air conditioners, nitrogen carts, work
stands, jacks, floodlight carts and utility vehicles are mostly big, heavy, clumsy, noisy, and dangerous. You
should always be aware of the following hazards.
Smoking or having an open flame around or near aircraft and fueling equipment is strictly prohibited.
Never operate support equipment that you are not licensed and qualified to operate.
High pressure air or hydraulics can blow up hoses, equipment, aircraft systems, or personnel.
Contamination, (water, dirt, grease, oil, trash, FOD) when introduced to the wrong system, can ruin an
aircraft, support equipment, or injure personnel.
Unfamiliar controls on support equipment can cause you to go in directions you didn't intend.
Avoid breathing fuel vapors and noxious gases that can make you sick or kill you.
Defective, nonstandard, or jury-rigged hoses, cables, plugs, and devices that can kill you or damage an
aircraft.
Avoid loud noises by wearing appropriate hearing protection.
Driver's seats that restrict visibility can cause you to run over people, equipment, or aircraft.
Jacks or work stands that collapse because of neglect or improper use can spoil your day.

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Note
You should exercise caution when using wheel chocks. If aircraft chocks are not loosened
during fueling operations, they will be close to impossible to remove after the aircraft is fueled
because of the added weight. The opposite occurs when the aircraft is defueled; chocks must
then be tightened.

3.3 MULTI ENGINE AIRCRAFT HANDLING


Because each type of multiengine aircraft requires slightly different handling procedures, such aircraft have a
means of steering the nose wheel from the cockpit. While this provides more effective control when the aircraft is
taxied, it also limits the radius of turns. When an aircraft equipped with cockpit steering is being directed, allow
sufficient space as a turn is being made. The nose wheel steering system should be disengaged, if possible,
when an aircraft is towed by the nose wheel.
Special towing equipment is provided for each type of multiengine aircraft. This consists of a nose wheel
towing and steering bar for forward towing. Large aircraft should be towed slowly and carefully. Sudden starts,
stops, and turns must be avoided. When an aircraft is towed, the brakes should be engaged only in an
emergency. If a quick stop is necessary, the brakes of the tractor and aircraft should be applied at the same time.
In addition to the above handling instructions, the following safety precautions should be observed:
During towing operations, have a qualified operator in the pilot's seat to operate the brakes when
necessary. Ensure that there is sufficient hydraulic pressure for brake operation.
When aircraft are moved in close spaces, a taxi director and sufficient walkers should be placed to provide
centralized control and to ensure clearance of obstructions.
Ensure that the landing gear safety lock pins or down locks are installed before the aircraft is towed.
Do not turn the nose wheel beyond the nose wheel turn limits. Structural damage will result.

3.4 FUEL SPILLAGE


Fuel spills can be caused by ruptured fuel lines. These spills should be swept clear of the aircraft. Use water
streams and follow up with a layer of foam to halt vaporization. An aircraft should never be dragged or moved
unnecessarily. There is great danger that friction will ignite the fuel.

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3.5 AIRCRAFT ENGINE FIRES
Use the following procedures for extinguishing fires in high bypass turbofan engines:
Call the airport fire fighting staff.
1. Engine accessory section fire extinguished by aircraft fire system.
2. Engine fire turbine section engine core. When the engine is shutdown, apply Halon or CO2 into the aircraft
exhaust section only until the fire is extinguished.

CAUTION
The source of this fire will probably be burning titanium, and can be identified by the sparking
effect of this material when it is burning. This fire is potentially destructive and may possibly
burn through the engine casing if immediate fire suppression measures are not taken.

3.5.1 Internal Engine Fire


Internal engine fires usually result when residual fuel is dumped into the engine on shutdown. When starting
equipment and qualified starting personnel are immediately available, these fires may be controlled by wind
milling the engine. If this procedure fails or if the equipment and personnel are not available, an extinguishing
agent must be directed into the engine. Halon or CO2 is the primary agent for internal fires. Application of Halon
or CO2 must be accomplished at a distance so that the Halon or CO2 enters the fire area in gaseous form.

CAUTION
When CO2 or Halon is expelled directly into an engine, thermal shock may result, causing engine
damage. High bypass turbofan engines require unique techniques to extinguish engine core
fires.

Halon or CO2 may be introduced into the engine intake, exhaust, or accessory section.
Refer to aircraft maintenance manual to find the correct action should be taken.

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3.5.2 Tail Pipe Fire
When a fire occurs in the tailpipe of an aircraft during shutdown, the aircraft engine should be started
by authorized personnel in order to attempt extinguishing through exhaust pressures. If this operation does not
extinguish the fire, the following should be performed:
1. Inform the cockpit man (pilot or engineer) to shut down the engine.
2. Direct fire-extinguishing agents Halon or CO2 into the tailpipe.

3.6 HOT BRAKES


During a normal or an emergency landing, the landing gear is an item of considerable concern. With the added
weight and landing speeds of modern aircraft, and because of the extreme braking required on shorter runways,
overheated brakes and wheels are a common occurrence. You must have a thorough understanding of the
hazards created by overheated brakes, as well as the techniques and equipment used with this type of
emergency.
Overheated aircraft wheels and tires present a potential explosion hazard because of built-up air pressure in
the tires, which is greatly increased when fire is present. To avoid endangering the crews needlessly, all
nonessential personnel should evacuate the area. The recommended procedure for cooling overheated wheel,
brake, and tire assemblies is to park the aircraft in an isolated area and allow the assemblies to cool in the
surrounding air. Using cooling agents, such as water, is not recommended unless absolutely necessary due to
increased hazards to personnel near the overheated assembly. Most major jet, propeller-driven, and turboprop
aircraft now have fusible plugs incorporated in the wheel rims. These fusible plugs are designed to automatically
deflate the tires. (Failure of fusible plugs to function properly has occurred). Releasing the tire pressure reduces
the pressure on the wheel, and thus eliminates the possibility of explosion.
When responding to a wheel fire or hot brakes as a member of the emergency crew, you should approach the
wheel with extreme caution in a fore or aft direction, never from the side in line with the axle. Peak temperatures
may not be reached until 15 to 20 minutes after the aircraft has come to a complete stop.

CAUTION
The use of Co2 for rapid cooling of a hot brake or wheel assembly is extremely dangerous.
Explosive fracture may result because of the rapid change in temperature.

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3.7 WHEEL ASSEMBLY FIRES
The following types of fires and hazards may occur around an aircraft wheel assembly:
The heating of aircraft wheels and tires presents a potential explosion hazard, which is greatly increased
when fire is present. The combination of increased stress on the brake wheel assembly, additional tire
pressure, and the deterioration of components by heat may cause an explosion. This explosion is likely to
propel pieces of the tire and/or metal through the air at high speeds.
Materials that may contribute to wheel assembly fires are grease, hydraulic fluid, bearing lubricants, and
tire rubber.
1- Grease and bearing lubricant fires. When ignited, wheel grease fires can be identified by long flames
around the wheel brake/axle assembly. These fires are usually small and should be extinguished quickly with
Halon .
2-Rubber tires. Rubber from the tires may ignite at temperatures from 500F (260C) to 600F(315C) and
can develop into an extremely hot and destructive fire. Halon should be used as early as possible to
extinguish the fire. 3-Re-ignition may occur if the rubber sustains its auto-ignition temperature or if the
rubber is abraded and the fire is deep-seated.
4- A broken hydraulic line may result in the misting of petroleum-based fluids onto a damaged or hot wheel
assembly. Upon ignition, misting fluid will accelerate a fire, resulting in rapid fire growth and excessive
damage to the aircraft if it is not extinguished rapidly.

WARNING
A broken hydraulic line that causes misting of petroleum-based fluids around an overheated
brake assembly can cause a potentially dangerous and destructive fire. Intermittent application
of water fog should be used to extinguish this type of wheel assembly fire. Rapid cooling of a hot
inflated aircraft tire/wheel assembly presents an explosion hazard. Therefore, fire-fighting
personnel must exercise good judgment and care to prevent injuries. The vaporized products of
hydraulic fluid decomposition will cause severe irritation to the eyes and respiratory tract.

The following safety information pertains to all aspects of wheel assembly fire-fighting operations:

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Rapid cooling may cause an explosive failure of a wheel assembly.
The effectiveness of Halon may be severely reduced under extremely windy conditions if the Halon cannot
be maintained on the fire source.
You must take protective measures to prevent hydraulic fluid from coming into contact with the eyes. Seek
medical attention immediately should the fluid come in contact with the eyes.
Positive-pressure, self-contained breathing apparatus must be worn in fighting fires associated with
hydraulic systems.
Although Halon may extinguish hydraulic fluid fires, re-ignition may occur because this agent lacks an
adequate cooling effect.
Because heat is transferred from the brake to the wheel, agent application should be concentrated on the
brake area. The primary objective is to prevent the fire from spreading upward into wheel wells, wing, and
fuselage areas.

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APPENDIX I
FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE
Challenges to Airport Ramp Debris Control

Airport FOD
It Can Be a Bolt, a Concrete Chip, a Piece of Paper, a Paint Can, a Hat, a Passenger, Tire Tread....

Impacts of Airport FOD


Engine Ingestion on the Aircraft
Aircraft damage
Velocity Impact of Debris Launched by Jet Blast Into Other Aircraft, Personnel (Ramp/Passengers), and
Buildings
FOD = MONEY

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Effect of FOD on Aircraft

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Effect of FOD on Aircraft

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The Cleanliness of Ramp is the responsibility of everyone on the ramp.
Recommendations
Airlines should generate much of the FOD found on the Airside through their operations and those of their
support functions.

How is it Generated?
A- Infrastructure
Physical degradation of the Airport surfaces and facilities
Airside Maintenance/Construction Activities
B-Operational Activities
Servicing & Maintenance of Aircraft
Windborne debris from adjacent areas
Operation of Aircraft (Jet Blast)
Personnel
Weather Phenomena

Infrastructure FOD Sources


Broken pieces of pavement collect at edge of gate area, and then are carried out via vehicle tires.
Loose pieces of construction material can be blown from the gate area onto the maneuvering areas.

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Loose Pieces of Construction

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This is not an optional cargo storage area!

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How to Control the Problem?
1-Training
Both airline and airport personnel need training to:
Identify FOD
Know the potential results of ignoring FOD
Know how to eliminate FOD
Recurrent training
Key to this effort Is the active participation of all personnel, especially airline station management and flight
crews

2-Inspection by airline and airport personnel


Airline personnel should participate, when able, with the airport staff during the daily airside inspections
(This will ensure that the local airline staff know what Is happening on the airfield)
FOD inspections must be carried out at regular intervals
Airlines should designate individuals to ensure that the gate areas are acceptable prior the aircraft
dispatch

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APPENDIX II
THE DIRTY DOZEN
The followings are the DIRTY DOZEN which deeply affecting your safety and production quality.

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