Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

DOI 10.1007/s10494-006-9062-2

Orifice-induced Wall Pressure Fluctuations and Pipe

Vibrations: Theory and Modeling of Fluid Excitations

Mao Qing & Zhang Jinghui

Received: 20 January 2006 / Accepted: 23 November 2006 /

Published online: 28 February 2007
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract The orifice-induced wall pressure fluctuations and pipe vibrations are theoret-
ically studied in this paper. The formulations of pipe vibration responses are deduced using
acceptance integral approach. Based on the previous experimental results, the empirical
equations of the power spectral density of the wall pressure fluctuations are developed,
while the mathematical models of the cross-spectral density are generated when the
longitudinal and circumferential correlation lengths and the convection velocity are
determined. The modeling of the fluid excitations makes the finite element prediction of
the orifice-induced pipe vibration responses become possible.

Key words orifice plate . wall pressure fluctuations . fluid excitation modeling .
random vibration

1 Introduction

Orifice plate is an essential component used to control flow rate in hydraulic circuits.
However, it is also a main singularity in pipelines that disturbs the flow. Orifice-induced
vibration can be troublesome in process and power plant. Several malfunctions caused by
orifice plate have been reported in the literatures [14]. When fluid flows pass the orifice, it
may be throttled. If the pressure after the orifice drops below the vapor pressure of the
liquid, cavitation happens. Well-designed orifice may avoid cavitation, but the orifice-
induced pipe wall pressure fluctuations, which are one of the significant stimulation to the

M. Qing (*) : Z. Jinghui

Xian Jiaotong University, Xian, Peoples Republic of China
e-mail: maoqing@people.com.cn

M. Qing
State Key Lab. of Reactor System Design Tec., Nuclear Power Institute of China, Chengdu,
Peoples Republic of China
26 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

pipe vibration, cannot be eliminated. From the design point of view, the characteristic of the
pressure fluctuations before and after orifice should be understood. However, to authors
knowledge, no mathematical model is available in the literature to describe the fluctuating
pressures as the excitation of random vibration, which makes the direct numerical
calculation of the vibration response become impossible.
Orifice-induced pipe wall pressure fluctuations have been experimentally studied in [5].
Figure 1 is the sketch of the test loop with the number of the pressure transducers in
longitudinal direction.
Regarding the characteristic of the fluctuating pressures before and after orifice, the
following conclusions have been drawn from the test:
& Orifice significantly disturbed the pipe flow and greatly increased the fluctuating
pressure level.
& It is a near field turbulence with the affected area limit in 6 inner diameters downstream
of the orifice and 1 inner diameters upstream of the orifice.
& It is a broadband random process with the dominating energy concentrating at the lower
frequency range less than 400 Hz.
& The fluctuating pressure level increases with the increase of the flow rate and the
decrease of the diameter of the orifice hole.
& In axial direction, the highest fluctuating pressure level appears at measure point 5,
which is 1.7 inner diameters downstream of the orifice.
& In radial direction, the Power Spectrum Density (PSD) and the root mean square (rms)
of the pressure fluctuations at the same cross section do not show significant difference.
Appreciating the test results from [5], this paper builds the mathematical model of the
fluctuating pressures caused by orifice from flow-induced random vibration point of view,
which can be used as the input of fluid excitation when the pipe system designer wants to
predict the vibration caused by the orifice with finite element method. First, the fluid
mechanics description of the fluctuating pressures and fluctuating velocities are presented.
Then, the pipe vibration responses caused by the fluctuating pressures are derived using
acceptance integral. Mathematical models of the PSD are developed by collapsing the test
data. The cross-spectral density models are generated by the coherence function, which is
described by the correlation lengths and convection velocity. Finally, the rms and PSD
spectrum of the vibration responses have been given to be able to compare with the coming
numerical prediction results.

Fig. 1 Sketch of the test loop

Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 27

2 The Description of Fluctuating Pressure

2.1 The Possion equation of the fluctuating pressure

Turbulence in pipeline contains many eddies with different sizes. The eddies continually
vary with the spatial positions and time, resulting in the pressure and velocity fluctuations.
Pressure and velocity are two most important variables in the dynamic equations of fluid
motion. They depend on each others. The equations of motion for the Newton fluid with
viscosity, which relate the fluctuating pressures to the fluctuating velocities, are Navier
Stokes equations. If we consider constant density and viscosity, the NavierStokes
equations can be written as the following vector form:

DV @V 1
VrV  rP rdivV r2 V 1
Dt @t 3

where V is the velocity vector, P is the pressure, and are the density and the viscosity.
For incompressible fluid, the divergence of (1) is:

1 2
divVrV r P 2

In Cartesian coordinate, V=(Vi) and x=(xi), so:


@2P @ 2 Vi Vj
r 3
@x2i @xi @xj

Using Reynolds decomposition, the velocity and pressure of a statistically stationary

flow can be expressed as mean and fluctuating part:

Vx; t Ux vx;t 4

Px; t p0 x px; t 5
If U=(Ui) and v=(vi), we may give:


@2p @Ui @vj @ 2 vi vj  vi vj
2r  r 6
@x2i @xj @xj @xi xj

This is the Possion equation of the fluctuating pressures. Together with the flow
boundary conditions and other fluid mechanics equations, theoretically, the analytical
solutions of the fluctuating pressures can be obtained. Unfortunately, great difficulties exist
in mathematical method to solve these nonlinear equations no matter how simple the
geometries of the flow path and flow boundary conditions are. So far, the analytical
solutions are still not available. With the rapid development of Computational Fluid
Dynamics methodology, numerical calculation becomes one of the important approaches to
research the pressure fluctuations. In our study, experimental approach is used to measure
the characteristics of the pressure fluctuations and mathematical models are generated by
collapsing the test data.
28 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

2.2 The statistical description of the fluctuating pressure

The fluctuating pressure of the flow field is defined as a random process p(x,t).
Customarily, the spacetime correlation function, the PSD, and the cross-spectral density
are the statistical description of p(x,t). If p(x,t) is a stationary random process, the space
time correlation of fluctuating pressure signals in the pressure field at point x at time t and
that at point x+ at time t+t can be defined as:

Rp ; t hpx; tpx ; t t i 7

where the brackets h i denote an ensemble average.

The spacetime correlation provides the statistical information of the stationary random
process in the time domain, and it can be moved into the frequency domain through Fourier
transform:
Z 1
1
Sp w; z Rp z; t exp iwt dt 8
2p 1
Sp(w, ) is the cross-spectral density. When z x; h 0; 0, cross-spectral density
reduces to PSD:
Z 1
1
Sp w; 0 p w Rp 0; t exp iwt dt 9
2p 1
Define the second-order moments of p(x,t), which is the mean square of the fluctuating
pressure, as:
Z 1
 2
p p2 f pdp 10
1

where f(p) is the probability density function. The square root of the mean square value is
called rms. It is used to express the energy level of the fluctuating pressure.

3 Pipe Vibration Responses to the Fluctuating Pressure Excitation

3.1 Cross-spectral density and rms of the vibration responses

The sample solution of the equation of motion for the pipe conveying fluid can be
expressed as the linear combination of the mode shape function y a x and generalized
coordinates qa(t) in modal decomposition method:
X
1
yx; t y a xqa t 11
a1

So, the equation of motion in generalized coordinates can be written as:

ma qa t 2wa m a qa t ma w2a qa t Pa t 12

where a is the mode of vibration, wa and a are respectively, the natural frequency and the
modal damping ratio, ma and Pa(t) are the generalized mass and force.
Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 29

Using Fourier transforming, Parseval Theorem, the definition of the correlation function
and the cross-spectral density in (7) and (8), the displacement power spectral density of the
pressure-induced pipe vibration response can be expressed as:
X
Sd x; w y a xy *b xHa* wHb wJab w 13
a;b

where Jab w is acceptance integral.

The mean square displacement of the pipe in radial direction is given by integrating
Sd(x,) over the frequency range:
Z1 Z1
w2 x Sd x; wdw 2 Sd x; wdw 14
1 0

3.2 Acceptance integral

The acceptance integral Jab w in (13) is first introduced by Powell [6]:

Z Z  0   00   0 00  0 00
Jab w y a x y b x Sp x ; x ; w dx dx 15
A A

If the turbulence flow field is homogeneous, we may use coherence function to describe
the acceptance integral. The general definition of the coherence function is:

 0 00 
0 00 
Sp x ; x ; w
* x ; x ; w p
16
Sp x0 ; wSp x00 ; w
00 0
For homogeneous flow field, if x  x , (16) can be written as:
Sp ; w
*; w 17
p w
The displacement power spectral density can be expressed by non-dimensional
acceptance integral as:
X
Sd x; w Ap w y a xy *b xHa* wHb wJab w 18
a;b

If we separate (32) into joint (a =b) and cross (a b) terms, we get:

X 2
Sd x; w Ap w y 2a xjHa wj Jaa w
a
X h i
2Ap w y a xy b xRe Ha* wHb wJab w 19
a6b

where Jaa w and Jab w are the joint and cross acceptances, which have been extensively
studied by Au-Yang [7].
30 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

4 Mathematical Models of the Fluctuating Pressure Excitations

4.1 Basic form of the model

To predict the pipe vibration response due to the fluctuating pressure excitation, the
mathematical model of the cross-spectral density between two points and the PSD at one
single point are needed.
The empirical model of the PSD can be collapsed from the experimental PSD curves.
The cross-spectral density is much more complex and can not be collapsed from the
experimental curves directly. We use the following Corcos approach [8] as the basic form
of the model.

Sp w; x; p wC w; x; exp iw; x 20

where C(w, , ) is the function of frequency, which shows the decay of coherence of the
pressure field long the longitudinal and circumferential direction. The function (w, ) is the
phase function, which shows the phase difference in the longitudinal direction.
During the past 40 years, Corcos approach has been widely used to model the
fluctuating pressure for fully developed air flow [9] and water flow [10] inside smooth
pipeline, coolant flow inside pressure water reactor [11, 12], and external flow over wings
[13]. In this paper, Corcos approach has been applied to model the fluctuating pressure
caused by orifice disturbance inside pipeline.

4.2 Power spectral density

4.2.1 Non-dimensional PSD

The test data have been put into dimensionless form so that it is applicable to a
geometrically similar structure together with the flow similarity.
The non-dimensional PSD is plotted as a function of Strouhal number:

Gp f fd
p f 2
F 21
4q d=V V

where Gp( f ) is the dimensional PSD, q V 2 2 is the dynamic head, is the fluid density,
d and V are the characteristic length and the characteristic velocity, respectively.
In the literature, characteristic length d can be physically regarded as the dimension of the
largest eddy in the turbulent flow, while characteristic velocity V is the free stream velocity. So,
d/V represents the time for the largest turbulent eddy to flow past the characteristic length. In our
case, we use the diameter of the orifice hole as the characteristic length and the free stream
velocity as the characteristic velocity.

4.2.2 Empirical equations of the PSD

Figure 2 shows two very similar PSD curves measured from two transducers located at the
same cross section but at different circumferential position after the orifice plate. Figure 3 is
the rms values given by four circumferentially mounted pressure transducers.
Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 31

Fig. 2 Pressure PSD curves of

two circumferentially mounted
pressure transducers

Regardless of the individual peak (see the explanation in [5]), the PSD curves and rms
values are close to each other at the same cross section, which means that the fluctuating
pressure induced by the orifice plate can be considered as homogeneous by random in the
radial direction. Hence, we consider the PSD is only the function of axial coordinate x in
spatial axis.

p F; x p F; x 22

where x=(x, y)
In axial direction, the highest fluctuating pressure level appears at measure point 5. Therefore,
we firstly generate the PSD equation 5p F for point 5 to fit the test data in Fig. 4.
At lower frequency range, the exponential form seems to fit the data well, while polynomial
form can be used to fit the data at higher frequency range. So, two equations have been used:

A5 exp B5 F when F  Ft
5p F 23
C 5 F  Ft D when F > Ft
5

Concerning the varieties of the PSD as the function of axial coordinate x, we generate
the empirical equations by studying the varieties of the mean square of the fluctuating

Fig. 3 rms values of the fluctu-

ating pressure at circumferentially
mounted pressure transducers
32 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

Fig. 4 Pressure PSD at measure point 5

pressure as the function of the axial coordinate x. The mean square of the fluctuating
pressure has the following formula:
Z1
 2
p 2 p F; xdF 24
0

which means that the mean square is equal to the twice of the area under the single-sided
PSD curve. Approximately, we consider the PSD curve as rectangle where the long side is
F and the short side is the height of the curve. The product (area of the rectangle) of the
length of the long side and the short side is an approximation of mean square. If the lengths
of the long side are regarded as the same for all the PSD curves, the varieties of the mean
square as the function of the axial coordinate x approximately represent the changes of the
height of the PSD curves as the function of axial coordinate x.

Fig. 5 Mean square of the fluctuating pressure at axial mounted pressure transducers: the number of the
measure points, from left to right, are point 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 x=0 is the position of the orifice
Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 33

Figure 5 shows the variety of the mean square of the fluctuating pressure as the function
of the axial coordinate x:
The mean square value increases exponentially from point 1 to 5 and decays
exponentially from point 5 to 8, which shows the near field characteristic of the orifice-
induced pressure fluctuations. Since the mean square values of point 2 and 7 are very close
to the values of point 1 and 8, we consider point 2 and 7 are out of the influence area of the
orifice disturbance. In order to simplify the model as well as to be conservative, we assume
that the height of the PSD curve linearly decays from the maximum value (point 5) to the
minimum values (point 2 and 7). Collapse the test data of point 2 and 7 as (23):


A2 exp B2 F when F  Ft
2p F 25
C 2 F  Ft D when F > Ft
2


A7 exp B7 F when F  Ft
7p F 26
C 7 F  Ft D
7
when F > Ft

Therefore, the PSD empirical equation is:

p F; x 5p F k x  1:76D 27

where:
8 7
< p F p F
5
>
4D when x  1:76D
k 28
: p F p F
> 5 2

2:53D when x < 1:76D

D is the inner diameter of the pipe.

Fig. 6 Empirical curves for the non-dimensional Pressure PSD and their comparison with the test data
34 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

Fig. 7 Transient fluctuating pressure signal

To simplify the calculation, the mean square value of point 2, 5, and 7 may be used to
replace 2p F ; 5p F , and 7p F when calculate the k value.
The constants A2, B2, C2, D2, A5, B5, C5, D5, A7, B7, C7, D7 and Ft have been determined
from the test data so that the PSD empirical equations of the fluctuating pressure can be
generated. This has been done under different flow conditions for different orifice plates to
establish a database of the mathematical model of PSD for orifice-induced pressure
fluctuations. Figure 6 shows a example of the model with flow rate of 25 m3/h and orifice
hole ratio (the ratio of orifice hole diameter and pipe inner diameter) of 0.304. The
measured and predicted fluctuating pressure PSD curves are plotted in the same figure for
point 2, 5, and 7.
The test data of point 2 and 7 can be fit with one empirical curve, which gives:

0:08 exp 0:7F when F  2:0
2p F 29
0:003F  2:00:35 when F > 2:0


1:7 exp 0:8F when F  2:0
5p F 30
0:008F  2:00:7 when F > 2:0


0:08 exp 0:7F when F  2:0
7p F 31
0:003F  2:00:35 when F > 2:0
7

From these empirical equations we obtain the value of the constants as: A2 =0.08, B2 =
0.7, C2 =0.003, D2 =0.35, A5 =1.7, B5 =0.8, C5 =0.008, D5 =0.7, A7 =0.08, B7 =0.7, C7 =
0.003, D7 =0.35 and Ft =2.0. Constants for other flow conditions and orifice plates can be
derived in the same way. For practical engineering piping system, one can choose a group
Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 35

of constants that satisfy the hydrodynamic similitude and structural similitude and use (23),
(25), (26), and (27) to generate the model of PSD for fluctuating pressure excitation.

4.3 Cross-spectral density

4.3.1 Assumptions of the fluctuating pressure

Assume the local pressure fluctuations of the turbulence flow field are statistically:
& Stationary random process for time parameter, which means that the probability structures
of the random process may remain unchanged when the starting time shift arbitrarily.
& Homogeneous random process for spatial coordinate, which means that the probability
structures of the random process keep unchanged when the spatial coordinate is moved.
Theoretically, the definition of the stationary random process requires the sample
function to be infinitely long, while the definition of the homogeneous random process
requires the random field to keep uniformity in the infinite spatial area. However, the
practical physical phenomenon cannot be infinitely long and it is also limited in space.
When the actual random process and random field has very small variety in time or spatial
coordinate, they can be approximately regarded as stationary and homogeneous.
Concerning the orifice-induced turbulence field, the fluctuating pressure signals have
been collected from any time point when the test system is in steady state. Figure 7 is one
of the examples of the transient fluctuating pressure signal, which shows that the orifice-
induced fluctuating pressure can be regarded as stationary random process.
The test results show that the PSD and the rms of the fluctuating pressure do not show
significant difference in radial direction, but vary in axial direction. Therefore, orifice-
induced pressure fluctuations are not strictly homogeneous random process. However, Au-
Yang studied the acceptance integrals for the beam or pipe structure and concluded that
acceptance integrals are either insensitive to the boundary conditions or insensitive to small
local variations in the mass density or stiffness when the correlation length is less than 0.1
times the length of the beam or pipe [7]. Therefore, we assume the pressure fluctuations are
homogeneous within a small local area so that the mathematical model of the cross-spectral
density can be simplified for engineering application.
The homogeneous random process has:

 0   00 
Sp x ; w Sp x ; w Sp w 32

The cross-spectral density is only the function of the distance between two spatial points
regardless the actual position of the points:
 0 00 
Sp x ; x ; w Sp z; w 33

So, the coherence function is simplified as:

Sp ;
*; 34
Sp
36 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

4.3.2 Mathematical model

Assume the spatial variables are separable. Function C(w, , ) in (34) can be written as:
C w; x; h Aw; xBw; h 35
Substituting (35) to (34) gives:

Sp w; x; p wAw; xBw; exp iw; x 36

The coherence function is expressed as:

*; ; A; B; exp i; 37

The coherence function should satisfy the following conditions to corresponding to its
definition:

*w; x; ** w; x;
*w; x; ) 1 when x; ) 0 38
*w; x; ) 0 when x; ) 1

where *(, , ) is the complex conjugate of (, , ).

Assume:

x
Aw; x exp  39
Lx w

h
Bw; h exp  40
Lh w

wx
q w; x exp 41
Uc w; x

Therefore, the coherence function has the following form:

i
*; ; exp  exp  exp  42
L L Uc ;

If the L(w) and L(w) tend towards infinite, the excitation function is 100% coherence;
While if they are tend towards 0, the excitation function is not coherent. Hence the L(w)
and L(w) are respectively called the longitudinal and circumferential correlation length of
the excitation function, which shows the correlated distance of the turbulence flow field in
longitudinal and circumferential directions. The Uc(w, ) is called convection velocity of the
flow field. It shows the phase difference of the fluctuating pressure between two spatial
Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 37

Fig. 8 L w=d as the function of the dimensionless frequency (Strouhal number)

points. Physically, it is the velocity of the turbulence eddies convecting downstream of the
flow field.

4.3.3 Convection velocity and correlation length

The correlation lengths are the length scales of the correlation zone of the fluctuating
pressure field. Test data is used to calculate the coherence function (w, , ), and then the
relationship of the correlation length and the frequency can be obtained.
The correlation length and frequency are treated into non-dimensional form using
characteristic length d and characteristic velocity V. So, the L(w)/d and L(w)/d are
expressed as the function of Strouhal number.
Figures 8 and 9, respectively, show the relationship between the non-dimensional
correlation length and Strouhal number for two axial layout pressure transducers and two
radial layout pressure transducers. It can be realized that the correlation lengths almost keep
constant along the frequency range, being equal to the half of the characteristic length. The
peaks appeared in the lower frequency range corresponds to the acoustic waves transmitted
in the test loop.
Many authors have studied the convection velocity. Some of the empirical equations
have been derived. Such as Bull [13]:
U
0:59 0:3 exp 8:9w*=V 43
V
where * is the thickness of the boundary layer.
Other authors may present it in different ways [9, 10, 14, 15]. However, the convection
velocity is fairly constant, practically it is about 0.60.8 times the flow velocity.

Fig. 9 L w=d as the function of the dimensionless frequency (Strouhal number)

38 Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540

Fig. 10 rms of the vibration acceleration response for three different orifice plates and orifice free condition

The correlation length Lx w; Lh w, and the convection velocity Uc(w, ) are de-
termined from the test results to build the mathematical model of the flow excitation usable
to predict the random vibration response of the pipe structure. By comparing the prediction
results of the response with the measurements of the response, the accuracy of the
excitation model may be validated.

5 Pipe Vibration Responses

The pipe vibration response caused by the fluctuating pressure has been measured by
accelerometers and strain gauges, simultaneously with the measurement of fluctuating
pressure. These results will only be used for comparison with numerical simulation results
of the pipe vibration in further studies.
Figure 10 is the rms of the vibration acceleration response for three different orifice
plates and orifice free condition, which has been measured under the same flow rate (40 m3/h)
Fig. 11 PSD spectrum of the
vibration acceleration response
Flow Turbulence Combust (2007) 79:2540 39

and at the same point (34 mm after the orifice plate). It shows that the intensity of the
vibration responses reduces with the increase of the orifice hole ratios. It is straightforward
to understand that the small-hole orifice causes higher pipe vibration.
Figure 11 is the PSD spectrum of the vibration acceleration response measured under
flow rate of 10 m3/h and orifice ratio of 0.355. The frequencies of the first four peaks in this
figure are 8.0 Hz, 24.0 Hz, 44.0 Hz, and 80.0 Hz, which are very close to the first four
modes of the structure. This can be explained by the characteristic of the fluid excitation. If
the excitation is a broadband random process, the response PSD curve may only show
peaks at the locations of the structure natural frequencies.

6 Conclusions

The analytical solutions of the Possion equation of the pressure fluctuations caused by the
orifice are still not available due to the great difficulties in solving the nonlinear equations.
Computational Fluid Dynamics methodology and experimental approach are two possible
ways to study the characteristics of the pressure fluctuations. Orifice-induced pipe vibration
responses are expressed with the acceptance integral, which has been extensively studied in
the literatures. Once we have developed the mathematical model of the PSD and cross-
spectral density of the fluctuating pressures, it becomes possible to apply the commercial
finite element model to calculate the random vibration responses of the pipe.
The previous experimental studies show the characteristics of the orifice-induced wall
pressure fluctuations and provide extensive test data. Based on that, the empirical equations
of the PSD of the fluctuating pressure as the function of the Strouhal number are developed
by directly collapsing the test data. The varieties of the PSD as the function of axial
coordinate x are generated by studying the varieties of the mean square of the fluctuating
pressure as the function of the axial coordinate x. The longitudinal and circumferential
correlation lengths are the half of the characteristic length and the convection velocity is
about 0.60.8 times the flow velocity. Then the mathematical models of the coherence
function and the cross-spectral density can be determined by Crocos approach.
Under different flow conditions for different orifice plates, a database of the
mathematical model of the PSD and the cross-spectral density has been developed. This
database provides a modeling of the fluid excitation caused by orifice-induced wall pressure
fluctuations. It can be used to calculate the pipe vibration responses and compare with the
test results showing in this paper. The application of this database may allow pipe designer
to predict the orifice-induced pipe vibration responses. Together with other service loads,
the integrity of the structure can be validated at the design stage.

Acknowledgements Financial supports of the National Natural Science Fund (10272087) and the Youth
Science and Technology Fund of Sichuan Province, Peoples Republic of China are greatly appreciated. The
authors also wish to express their gratitude to Prof Luo Yushan and Dr Wang Haijun of XJTU and Mr. Zhang
Yixiong of NPIC for their help in preparing this paper.

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