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This project proposes the actual grid code requirements for the grid connection
of distributed generation systems, mainly wind and photovoltaic (PV) systems, are
becoming very demanding. The transmission system operators (TSOs) are especially
concerned about the low-voltage-ride-through requirements. Solutions based on the
installation of STATCOMs and dynamic voltage regulators (DVRs), as well as on
advanced control functionalities for the existing power converters of distributed
generation plants, have contributed to enhance their response under faulty and
distorted scenarios and, hence, to fulfill these requirements.
In order to achieve satisfactory results with such systems, it is necessary to
count on accurate and fast grid voltage synchronization algorithms, which are able to
work under unbalanced and distorted conditions.
This paper analyzes the synchronization capability of three advanced
synchronization systems: the decoupled double synchronous reference frame phase-
locked loop (PLL), the dual second order generalized integrator PLL, and the three-
phase enhanced PLL, designed to work under such conditions. Although other
systems based on frequency-locked loops have also been developed, PLLs have been
chosen due to their link with dq0 controllers.
In the following, the different algorithms will be presented and discretized,
and their performance will be tested in an experimental setup controlled in order to
evaluate their accuracy and implementation features.
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION:
The power share of renewable energy-based generation systems is supposed to
reach 20% by 2030, where wind and photovoltaic (PV) systems are assumed to be the
most outstanding examples of integration of such systems in the electrical network
In the actual grid code requirements (GCRs), special constraints for the
operation of such plants under grid voltage fault conditions have gained a great
importance. These requirements determine the fault boundaries among those through
which a grid-connected generation system shall remain connected to the network,
giving rise to specific voltage profiles that specify the depth and clearance time of the
voltage sags that they must withstand. Such requirements are known as low voltage
ride through (LVRT) and are described by a voltage versus time characteristic.
Although the LVRT requirements in the different standards are very different,
the first issue that generation systems must afford when a voltage sag occurs is the
limitation of their transient response, in order to avoid its protective disconnection
from the network. This is the case, for instance, of fixed speed wind turbines based on
squirrel cage induction generators, where the voltage drop in the stator windings can
conduct the generator to an over speed tripping, Likewise, variable speed wind power
systems may lose controllability in the injection of active/reactive power due to the
disconnection of the rotor side converter under such conditions, Likewise, PV systems
would also be affected by the same lack of current controllability. Solutions based on
the development of auxiliary systems, such as STATCOMs and dynamic voltage
regulators (DVRs), have played a decisive role in enhancing the fault ride through
(FRT) capability of distributed generation systems, as demonstrated in Likewise,
advanced control functionalities for the power converters have also been proposed . In
any case, a fast detection of the fault contributes to improving the effects of these
solutions; therefore, the synchronization algorithms are crucial.
In certain countries, the TSOs also provide the active/reactive power pattern to
be injected into the network during voltage sag. This trend has been followed by the
rest of the TSOs; moreover, it is believed that this operation requirement will be
extended, and specific demands for balanced and unbalanced sags will arise in the
following versions of the grid codes worldwide. Regarding the operation of the
distributed generation systems under balanced and unbalanced fault conditions,
relevant contributions, such], can be found in the literature. These solutions are based
on advanced control systems that need to have accurate information of the grid
voltage variables in order to work properly, something that has prompted the
importance of grid synchronization algorithms.
In power systems, the synchronous reference frame PLL (SRF PLL) is the
most extended technique for synchronizing with three-phase systems .Nevertheless,
despite the fact that the performance of SRF PLL is satisfactory under balanced
conditions, its response can be inadequate under unbalanced, faulty, or distorted
conditions .In this paper, three improved and advanced grid synchronization systems
are studied and evaluated: the decoupled double synchronous reference frame PLL
(DDSRF PLL), the dual second order generalized integrator PLL (DSOGI PLL), and
the three-phase enhanced PLL (3phEPLL). Their performance, computational cost,
and reliability of the amplitude and phase detection of the positive sequence of the
voltage, under unbalanced and distorted situations, have been evaluated according to
experimental grid fault patterns extracted, which have been reproduced in a real
scaled electrical network.
Most plants are built this way environmental, geographical and geological
factor for example, coal power plants are built away from cities to prevent their heavy
air pollution from affecting the populace. In addition, such plants are often built
near collieries to minimize the cost of transporting coal. Hydroelectric plants are by
their nature limited to operating at sites with sufficient water flow. Most power plants
are often considered to be too far away for their waste heat to be used for heating
buildings due to a number of economic, health & safety, logistical,
One popular source is solar panels on the roofs of buildings. The production
cost is $0.99 to 2.00/W (2007) plus installation and supporting equipment unless the
installation is Do it yourself (DIY) bringing the cost to $6.50 to 7.50 (2007). This is
comparable to coal power plant costs of $0.582 to 0.906/W (1979), adjusting for
inflation. Nuclear power is higher at $2.2 to $6.00/W (2007). Some solar cells ("thin-
film" type) also have waste disposal issues, since "thin-film" type solar cells often
contain heavy-metal electronic wastes, such as Cadmium telluride (CdTe) and Copper
indium gallium selenide (CuInGaSe), and need to be recycled. As opposed to silicon
semi-conductor type solar cells which is made from quartz. The plus side is that
unlike coal and nuclear, there are no fuel costs, pollution, mining safety or operating
safety issues. Solar also has a low duty cycle, producing peak power at local noon
each day. Average duty cycle is typically 20%.
Another source is small wind turbines. These have low maintenance, and low
pollution. Construction costs are higher ($0.80/W, 2007) per watt than large power
plants, except in very windy areas. Wind towers and generators have substantial
insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. In some areas of
the US there may also be Property Tax costs involved with wind turbines that are not
offset by incentives or accelerated depreciation. Wind also tends to be complementary
to solar; on days there is no sun there tends to be wind and vice versa. Many
distributed generation sites combine wind power and solar power such as Slippery
Rock University, which can be monitored online.
Co-generators are also more expensive per watt than central generators. They
find favor because most buildings already burn fuels, and the cogeneration can extract
more value from the fuel.
In countries with high pressure gas distribution, small turbines can be used to
bring the gas pressure to domestic levels whilst extracting useful energy. If the UK
were to implement this countrywide an additional 2-4 GW would become available.
(Note that the energy is already being generated elsewhere to provide the high initial
gas pressure - this method simply distributes the energy via a different route.)
Future generations of electric vehicles will have the ability to deliver power
from the battery into the grid when needed. This could also be an important
distributed generation resource. Recently interest in Distributed Energy Systems
(DES) is increasing, particularly onsite generation. This interest is because larger
power plants are economically unfeasible in many regions due to increasing system
and fuel costs, and more strict environmental regulations. In addition, recent
technological advances in small generators, Power Electronics, and energy storage
devices have provided a new opportunity for distributed energy resources at the
distribution level, and especially, the incentive laws to utilize renewable energies has
also encouraged a more decentralized approach to power delivery.
There are many generation sources for DES: conventional technologies (diesel
or natural gas engines), emerging technologies (micro turbines or fuel cells or energy
storage devices), and renewable technologies (small wind turbines or
solar/photovoltaics or small hydro turbines). These DES are used for applications to a
standalone, a standby, a grid-interconnected, a cogeneration, peak shavings, etc. and
have many advantages such as environmental-friendly and modular electric
generation, increased reliability, high power quality, uninterruptible service, cost
savings, on-site generation, expandability, etc. So many utility companies are trying to
construct small distribution stations combined with several DES available at the
regions, instead of large power plants.
Basically, these technologies are based on notably advanced Power Electronics
because all DES require Power Converters, interconnection techniques, and electronic
control units. That is, all power generated by DES is generated as DC Power, and then
all the power fed to the DC distribution bus is again converted into an AC power with
fixed magnitude and frequency by control units using Digital Signal Processor (DSP).
So improved power electronic technologies that permit grid interconnection of
asynchronous generation sources are definitely required to support distributed
generation resources
The research works in the recent papers about DES focus on being utilized
directly to a standalone AC system or fed back to the utility mains. That is, when in
normal operation or main failures, DES directly supply loads with power (standalone
mode or standby mode), while, when DES have surplus power or need more power,
this system operates in parallel mode to the mains. Therefore, in order to permit to
connect more generators on the network in good conditions, a good technique about
interconnection with the grid and voltage regulations should overcome the problems
due to parallel operation of Power Converter for applications to DES.
CHACPTER-2
MICRO GRID
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
CERTS Micro grid has two critical components, the static switch and the
micro source. The static switch has the ability to autonomously island the micro grid
from disturbances such as faults, IEEE 1547 events or power quality events. After
islanding, the reconnection of the micro grid is achieved autonomously after the
tripping event is no longer present. This synchronization is achieved by using the
frequency difference between the islanded micro grid and the utility grid insuring a
transient free operation without having to match frequency and phase angles at the
connection point. Each micro source can seamlessly balance the power on the
islanded Micro grid using a power vs. frequency droop controller. This frequency
droop also insures that the Micro grid frequency is different from the grid to facilitate
reconnection to the utility.
Basic micro grid architecture consists of a group of radial feeders, which could
be part of a distribution system or a buildings electrical system. There is a single
point of connection to the utility called point of common coupling. Some feeders,
(Feeders A-C) have sensitive loads, which require local generation. The non-critical
load feeders do not have any local generation. Feeders A-C can island from the grid
using the static switch that can separate in less than a cycle. In this example there are
four micro sources at nodes 8, 11, 16 and 22, which control the operation using only
local voltages and currents measurements.
When there is a problem with the utility supply the static switch will open,
isolating the sensitive loads from the power grid. Non sensitive loads ride through the
event. It is assumed that there is sufficient generation to meet the loads demand.
When the micro grid is grid-connected power from the local generation can be
directed to the non-sensitive loads.
Fig.2.1 Micro Grid Architecture Diagram
Fig.2.2 shows the single-line diagram of the standalone MG used in the studies
presented in this paper. This MG consists of two converter-based MSs, MS1 and
MS2, four loads L1L4, along with connecting lines Z1and Z2, and transformers
T1and T2. The parameters associated with this system are given in Table I. The LCL
lter at the output stage of MSs results in better harmonic attenuation as compared
Table- I
Parameter For The System Shown In Fig 2.1.1
3
p= ( v d i d + v q i q )
2 (1)
3
q= ( v d i qv q i d )
2 (2)
where vd , vq , id ,and iq are shown in Fig. 2.3 Consequently, average active (P) and
reactive (Q) power is calculated by low-pass ltering of p and q. The appropriate
control laws are then implemented and the controller outputs are eventually applied to
the power converter after being transformed to abc quantities.
The active/reactive power at the output terminals in Fig. 2.3 are regulated
using droop characteristics as discussed in above Fig. The main objective of using
droop characteristic is proper sharing of P and Q associated with each MS while
keeping the global frequency within the permissible range and maintaining an
acceptable voltage prole across MG buses. The above mentioned objectives are
achieved by controlling the output voltage amplitude and phase. Conventional droop
characteristics are P and QV characteristics and expressed by
max min
V maxV min
V =V max n ( QQmin ) , n= (4)
Q maxQ min
where Pmin, Pmax, Qmin, Qmax, Vmin, Vmax, min, max, m, and n are droop characteristics parameters,
which are selected based on system performance criteria. In Fig. 2.3. the output
voltage regulation is performed by the voltage control loop. An internal current loop is
also necessary to improve dynamic stability and damp oscillations resulted from the
output LCL lter.
The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as
well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost,
specialized, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder
cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA
demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related to the total kVA demand. As
the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is inversely proportional to the overall
power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA for the same kW load.
Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the terminal.
Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power
factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power
factor correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common
bus location in the terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment,
transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper
sizes are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger, etc.
2. EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY:
Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the
life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells
are all power quality problems and are all interdependent.
Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce harmonics, the
same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR variable speed
drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power factor of
the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion,
harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed
filters.
3. POWER SYSTEM ADEQUACY:
When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power
distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the
adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective
actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems to
which new or relocated cranes are to be connected.
4. ENVIRONMENT:
No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our
environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction in
the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant emissions.
2.4 FACTS:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a
well known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power
electronic devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various
applications worldwide. In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid
cost intensive or landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like
upgrades or additions of substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better
adaptation to varying operational conditions and improve the usage of existing
installations. The basic applications of FACTS-devices are:
Voltage control,
Stability improvement,
Power conditioning,
Flicker mitigation,
Figure 2.4 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems.
Fig 2.4 Operational limits of transmission lines for different voltage levels.
The devices work electrically as fast current, voltage or impedance. The power
electronic allows very short reaction times down second.
For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some
explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-
devices provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation
factors from the conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no
moving parts like mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability.
Therefore most of the FACTS-devices can equally be static and dynamic.
The left column in Figure 2.5 contains the conventional devices build out of
fixed or mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or
capacitance together with transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as
well but use additional power electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in
smaller steps or with switching patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The
left column of FACTS-devices uses Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or
converters are well known since several years. They have low losses because of their
low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the
Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.
A. SHUNT DEVICES:
The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source
Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power
compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial
networks are:
B. SVC:
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the
transmitted load varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power
balance in a grid varies as well. A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can
continuously provide the reactive power required to control dynamic voltage
oscillations under various system conditions and thereby improve the power system
transmission and distribution stability.
1. In transmission systems
2. In traction systems
a. To balance loads
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Basically, STATCOM is comprised of three main parts (as seen from Figure
below): a voltage source converter (VSC), a step-up coupling transformer, and a
controller. In a very-high-voltage system, the leakage inductances of the step-up power
transformers can function as coupling reactors. The main purpose of the coupling
inductors is to filter out the current harmonic components that are generated mainly by
the pulsating output voltage of the power converters.
3.3.1 INTRODUCTION:
There are two modes of operation for a STATCOM, inductive mode and the
capacitive mode. The STATCOM regards an inductive reactance connected at its
terminal when the converter voltage is higher than the transmission line voltage.
Hence, from the systems point of view, it regards the STATCOM as a capacitive
reactance and the STATCOM is considered to be operating in a capacitive mode.
Similarly, when the system voltage is higher than the converter voltage, the system
regards an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. Hence, the STATCOM
regards the system as a capacitive reactance and the STATCOM is considered to be
operating in an inductive mode
In other words, looking at the phasor diagrams, when I, the reactive current
component of the STATCOM, leads (THVE1) by 90, it is in inductive mode and
when it lags by 90, it is in capacitive mode.
The charged capacitor Cdc provides a DC voltage, Udc to the converter, which
produces a set of controllable three-phase output voltages, U in synchronism with
the AC system. The synchronism of the three-phase output voltage with the
transmission line voltage has to be performed by an external controller. The amount
of desired voltage across STATCOM, which is the voltage reference, Uref, is set
manually to the controller. The voltage control is thereby to match U T with Uref
which has been elaborated. This matching of voltages is done by varying the
amplitude of the output voltage U, which is done by the firing angle set by the
controller. The controller thus sets UT equivalent to the Uref. The reactive power
exchange between the converter and the AC system can also be controlled. This
reactive power exchange is the reactive current injected by the STATCOM, which is
the current from the capacitor produced by absorbing real power from the AC
system.
U rU eq
I q=
X eq
Xeq is the equivalent Thevenin reactance of the power system seen by the STATCOM
Even though several works are published within the field of grid
synchronization, almost all of them are centered on analyzing the individual dynamic
performance of each proposal, without first determining a time response window
within the dynamic behavior of the system under test, which would be considered to
be satisfactory.
Despite the fact that the detection of the fault can be carried out with simpler
algorithms, the importance of advanced grid synchronization systems lies in the
necessity of having accurate information about the magnitude and phase of the grid
voltage during the fault, in order to inject the reactive power required by the TSO. A
similar condition is given in the Spanish grid code, where the wind power plants are
required to stop drawing inductive reactive power within 100 ms of a voltage drop
and be able to inject full reactive power after 150 ms, as shown in Fig. 2. Considering
these demands, this paper will consider that the estimation of the voltage conditions
will be carried out within 2025 ms, as this target permits it to fulfill the most
restrictive requirements, in terms of dynamical response, available in the grid codes.
This condition will be extended to frequency estimation; although this parameter is
more related to secondary control algorithms than LVRT, the same time window
between 20 and 25 ms will be considered in this work for the detection of the
disturbance.
Fig 3.7 REE. on voltage support requirement in the event of grid fault.
Fig 3.8 REE voltage support requirement in the event of grid fault.
CHAPTER-4
DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE SYNCHRONIZATION
SYSTEMS
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
A. DDSRF PLL:
The DDSRF PLL, was developed for improving the conventional SRF PLL.
This synchronization system exploits two synchronous reference frames rotating at
the fundamental utility frequency, one counterclockwise and another one clockwise,
in order to achieve an accurate detection of the positive- and negative-sequence
components of the grid voltage vector when it is affected by unbalanced grid faults.
The diagram of the DDSRF PLL is shown in Fig. When the three-phase grid voltage
is unbalanced, the fundamental positive-sequence voltage vector appears as a dc
voltage on the dq+1 axes of the positive-sequence SRF and as ac voltages at twice
the fundamental utility frequency on the dq1 axes of the negative-sequence SRF. In
contrast, the negative-sequence voltage vector will cause a dc component on the
negative-sequence SRF and an ac oscillation on the positive-sequence SRF. Since the
amplitude of the oscillation on the positive-sequence SRF matches the dc level on the
negative-sequence SRF and vice versa, a decoupling network is applied to signals on
the dq positive/negative SRF axes in order to cancel out such ac oscillations. Low-
pass filters (LPFs) in Fig. are responsible for extracting the dc component from the
signal on the decoupled SRF axes. These dc components collect information about the
amplitude and phase angle of the positive- and negative-sequence components of the
grid voltage vector.
Finally, the PI controller of the DDSRF PLL works on the decoupled q-axis
signal of the positive-sequence SRF (vq+1 ) and performs the same function as in an
SRF PLL, aligning the positive-sequence voltage with the d-axis. This signal is free of
ac components due to the effect of the decoupling networks; the bandwidth of the
loop controller can be consequently increased.
B. DSOGI PLL:
The operating principle of the DSOGI PLL for estimating the positive- and
negative-sequence components of the grid voltage vectors is based on using the
instantaneous symmetrical component (ISC) method on the stationary reference
frame as explained in . The diagram of the DSOGI PLL is shown in Fig. As it can be
noticed, the ISC method is implemented by the positive-sequence calculation block.
A. DDSRF-PLL DISCRETIZATION:
The discrete model of this PLL can be easily obtained since the continuous
representation of several parts does not change in the discrete domain. This is the case
for the transformation blocks T , Tdq+1 , and Tdq1 , whose description can be found
in general scope literature .
In the DDSRF PLL, the decoupling network appears embedded in the classical
SRF-PLL loop However, this does not affect the discretization of the phase and
magnitude estimator since vd+1 and vq+1 act as the input of this block
Fig 4.4 Phase and magnitude estimation loop of the DDSRF PLL.
The discrete controller and the integrator can be built using a backward
numerical approximation. The frequency and phase can then be represented in the z-
domain (2), considering vq+1 as the error to be minimized. In this equation, a
feedforward of the nominal frequency is given by means of ff
Finally, sample-based representation gives rise to (3), which are the expressions
to be implemented
B. DSOGI-PLL DISCRETIZATION:
Fig 4.5 Quadrature signal generator based on a second order generalized integrator (SOGI QSG).
The discretization of this system has been performed using trapezoidal integrators, as
they offer a better detection of the phase, which is important when dealing with
sinusoidal signals. The symbolic values of each matrix of (7) are detailed in (6),
shown at the bottom of the page. In these matrices, Ts is the sampling time of the
discrete system, _[n] is the estimated frequency magnitude, which comes from the
estimation made at the SRF-PLL block at each computation step, and k is the SOGI
gain
The discrete state space of (6) is obtained from the continuous representation by
means of the mathematical procedure presented
The resulting discrete system is the best option as it reduces the need of using
additional delays for breaking algebraic loops that appear using other methods which
do not consider the SOGI QSG as a whole.
The frequency and phase detection is obtained by means of the SRF PLL
shown in Fig. 8. The discretization of the controller and the integrator is performed
using the backward numerical approximation. The frequency and phase can then be
represented in the z-domain, where v+q constitutes the error to be minimized
It can be noticed that the previous equations in (9) are equal to (2), as, in both cases,
an SRF PLL is implemented. Likewise, the sample-based representation of (9) can be
written as shown in
Fig 4.6 State variables of the SRF-PLL block.
C. 3phEPLL Discretization:
According to this diagram, the state space representation of the EPLL in the
continuous domain can be written as shown in
The discrete state space variable representation was described in using a forward
Euler approximation to reach satisfactory results; therefore, the same method has been
implemented here
Finally, after the state variables are calculated, the EPLL output can be obtained by
(13), generating the two quadrature signals
This type of discretization method needs a more accurate tuning, due to the fact that
the stable regions of the s-plane and z-plane are different . computational speed of this
block.
The description for this block is the same in both discrete and continuous
domains. Nevertheless, specific equations are used.
This element is based on another EPLL, which is responsible for estimating the
phase and the magnitude of the positive-sequence fundamental component. Its
discretization is equal to that shown in
However, for the phase and magnitude detection block, the outputs are the
positive sequence magnitude and phase, which correspond directly with the states _
and A_, respectively.
CHAPTER-5
Above figure shows two types of PWM signals, symmetric and asymmetric
edge-aligned. The pulses of a symmetric PWM signal are always symmetric with
respect to the center of each PWM period. The pulses of an asymmetric edge-aligned
PWM signal always have the same side aligned with one end of each PWM period.
Both types of PWM signals are used in this application.
It has been shown that symmetric PWM signals generate fewer harmonic in
the output current and voltage. Different PWM techniques, or ways of determining the
modulating signal and the switch-on/switch-off instants from the modulating signal,
exist. The Technique that we use is Natural PWM technique. This technique is
commonly used with three phase Voltage Source power inverters for the control of
three-phase AC induction motors.
An example of PWM as shown in Fig 5.2 the supply voltage (blue) modulated
as a series of pulses results in a sine-like flux density waveform (red) in a magnetic
circuit of electromagnetic actuator. The smoothness of the resultant waveform can be
controlled by the width and number of modulated impulses (per given cycle)
Pulse-
width modulation
(PWM) of a signal or
power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle, to either convey information
over a communications channel or control the amount of power sent to a load.
5.1 PRINCIPLE:
Pulse-width modulation uses a square wave whose duty cycle is modulated
resulting in the variation of the average value of the waveform. If we consider a
y min y max
square waveform f (t) with a low value , a high value and a duty cycle
D shown in Fig 5.3 the average value of the waveform is given by:
T
1
y = f (t )dt
T 0 .
(5.1)
Fig 5.3 A square wave, showing the definitions of
y min ,
y max and D
y max y min
As f (t) is a square wave, its value is for 0 < t < D.T and for D.T < t <
. (5.3)
y min =0
This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where
y =D . y max
as . From this, it is obvious that the average value of the signal ( y ) is
Fig 5.4 Simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the interceptive
PWM
The simplest way to generate a PWM signals is the interceptive method,
which requires only a saw tooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a
simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the green
sine wave in Fig 5.4) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal
(magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.
5.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE DELTA PWM:
The output signal (blue) is compared with the limits (green). These limits
correspond to the reference signal (red), offset by a given value as shown in Fig 5.5.
Every time the output signal reaches one of the limits, the PWM signal changes state.
The resulting spectra (of the three cases) are similar, and each contains
a dc component a base sideband containing the modulating signal and phase
modulated carriers at each harmonic of the frequency of the pulse. The amplitudes of
the harmonic groups are restricted by a envelope (sinc function) and extend to
infinity. The infinite bandwidth is caused by the nonlinear operation of the pulse-
width modulator. In consequence, a digital PWM suffers from aliasing distortion that
significantly reduce its applicability for modern communications system. By limiting
the bandwidth of the PWM kernel, aliasing effects can be avoided.
5.2 APPLICATIONS
5.2.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS:
The inclusion of a clock signal is not necessary, as the leading edge of the data
signal can be used as the clock if a small offset is added to the data value in order to
avoid a data value with a zero length pulse.
PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without
incurring the losses that would result from linear power delivery by resistive means.
Drawbacks to this technique are that the power drawn by the load is not constant but
rather discontinuous (see Buck converter), and energy delivered to the load is not
continuous either. However, the load may be inductive, and with a sufficiently high
frequency and when necessary using additional passive electronic filters, the pulse
train can be smoothed and average analog waveform recovered. Power flow into the
load can be continuous. Power flow from the supply is not constant and will require
energy storage on the supply side in most cases. (In the case of an electrical circuit, a
capacitor to absorb energy stored in (often parasitic) supply side inductance.)
High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realizable with
semiconductor switches. As explained above, almost no power is dissipated by the
switch in either on or off state. However, during the transitions between on and off
states, both voltage and current are nonzero and thus power is dissipated in the
switches. By quickly changing the state between fully on and fully off (typically less
than 100 nanoseconds), the power dissipation in the switches can be quite low
compared to the power being delivered to the load.
Light dimmers for home use employ a specific type of PWM control. Home-
use light dimmers typically include electronic circuitry which suppresses current flow
during defined portions of each cycle of the AC line voltage. Adjusting the brightness
of light emitted by a light source is then merely a matter of setting at what voltage (or
phase) in the AC half-cycle the dimmer begins to provide electric current to the light
source (e.g. by using an electronic switch such as a triac). In this case the PWM duty
cycle is the ratio of the conduction time to the duration of the half AC cycle defined
by the frequency of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the country).
These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used with inert (or
relatively slow reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for
which the additional modulation in supplied electrical energy which is caused by the
dimmer causes only negligible additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other
types of light sources such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off
extremely rapidly and would perceivably flicker if supplied with low frequency drive
voltages. Perceivable flicker effects from such rapid response light sources can be
reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If the light fluctuations are sufficiently
rapid (faster than the flicker fusion threshold), the human visual system can no longer
resolve them and the eye perceives the time average intensity without flicker.
In electric cookers, continuously variable power is applied to the heating
elements such as the hob or the grill using a device known as a simmer stat. This
consists of a thermal oscillator running at approximately two cycles per minute and
the mechanism varies the duty cycle according to the knob setting. The thermal time
constant of the heating elements is several minutes, so that the temperature
fluctuations are too small to matter in practice.
One method measures the output voltage. When it is lower than the desired
voltage, it turns on the switch. When the output voltage is above the desired voltage, it
turns off the switch.
Historically, a crude form of PWM has been used to play back PCM digital
sound on the PC speaker, which is driven by only two voltage levels, typically 0 V
and 5 V. By carefully timing the duration of the pulses, and by relying on the speaker's
physical filtering properties (limited frequency response, self-inductance, etc.) it was
possible to obtain an approximate playback of mono PCM samples, although at a very
low quality, and with greatly varying results between implementations.
In more recent times, the Direct Stream Digital sound encoding method was
introduced, which uses a generalized form of pulse-width modulation called pulse
density modulation, at a high enough sampling rate (typically in the order of MHz) to
cover the whole acoustic frequencies range with sufficient fidelity. This method is
used in the SACD format, and reproduction of the encoded audio signal is essentially
similar to the method used in class-D amplifiers.
With 1[0] = 0, 2[0] = -2 /3, 3[0] = - 4/3, Ts, being the sampling
period of the control algorithm. When one of these angles becomes
higher than 2, 2 is subtracted to it to keep it between 0 and 2.
A sine table is the used to compute the three voltages that
should be applied to the stator,
A slight improvement can be obtained by adding to the pure sine wave of the
sine table a third harmonic, sita() = sin() + 1/6 sin(3) , since it has no effect on the
motor behavior and it allows to generate a signal whose first harmonic has an
amplitude which is 15.47% higher (2/3) than the signal maximum as shown in
Fig5.8. With this improvement, we can generate more AC voltage with the same DC
bus voltage, so we can increase the speed of the motor with keeping constant the V/F
ratio.
Fig 5.8 Use of a Non-sinusoidal Waveform to Increase the Ratio Between the First Harmonic
Magnitude and the Waveform Maximum
highest value of the stator voltage magnitude and the dead time of the inverter
switches. The resulting data-flow diagram is shown on Fig 5.9.
The natural PWM algorithm requires a sine table to compute for all values of
between 0 and 2. Thanks to the properties of the trigonometric functions, several
solutions are possible to reduce the length of this look-up table. The most efficient
uses a look up table of the values of the sinus function for between 0 and /3 only,
since,
Sin () = sin ( - /3) + sin (2/3 - ) for between and for /3 and 2/3.
Sin () = sin ( - ) for between 2/3 and .
Sin () = -sin ( - ) for between and 4/3.
Sin () = -sin ( - 4/3) + sin (5/3 - ) for between 4/3 and 5/3.
Sin () = -sin (2 - ) for between 5/3 and 2
However, this solution does not easily allow adding a third harmonic to the
sinus function, as explained in the previous section. This is the reason to use a look-up
table sita() with the values of either sin() or sin() + 1/6 sin(3) for between 0 and
/2 , and to use the following relationships to compute sita() between /2 and 2 :
sita() = sita(-) for between /2 and .
sita() = -sita(-) for between and 3/2.
sita() = -sita(2-) for between 3/2 and 2.
5.4 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION:
Voltage sags:
According to the EN50160 standard, the THD of the voltage wave-forms at the
output of a generation facility cannot be higher than 8%., Table II shows the harmonic
composition used for evaluating the performance of the grid synchronization systems
under test when the grid voltages become distorted.
In the following section, the responses of the DDSRF PLL, DSOGI PLL, and
3PhEPLL under these transient conditions will be compared.
CHAPTER-6
6.2.a
6.3.a
Fig 6 .3.b Voltge in grid after clearing fault
The DDSRF PLL and the DSOGI PLL allow estimating the ISCs of a three-
phase system working in the reference frame, while the 3phEPLL uses the abc
reference frame, thus working with three variables. As has been shown, this feature
simplifies the structure of the DSOGI PLL and the DDSRF PLL, which allows
reducing the computational burden, as com-pared to the 3phEPLL, without affecting
its performance.
The synchronization capability of the three PLLs under test has been shown to
be fast and accurate under faulty scenarios, allowing the detection of the positive
sequence of the voltage in 2025 ms in all cases; however, the simpler structure of the
DDSRF and the DSOGI affords an easier tuning of their control parameters and,
therefore, a more accurate control of their transient response. The immunity of the
analyzed PLLs in the possibility of a polluted network is better when using the
3phEPLL and the DDSRF, due to their greater band pass and low-pass filtering
capabilities. Although the DSOGI also gives rise to reasonably good results, due to its
inherent band pass filtering structure, its response is more affected by harmonics.
Although all three have been shown to be appropriate for synchronizing with
the network voltage in distributed power generation applications, mainly PV and wind
power, the lower computational cost of the DDSRF PLL and the DSOGI PLL,
together with their robust estimation of the voltage parameters, offers a better tradeoff
between the presented systems, making them particularly suitable for wind power
applications.