AN

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
REPORT
ON

BASICS OF CDMA TECHNOLOGY AND

GSM TECHNOLOGY

TATA TELESERVICES LTD.

JAIPUR(RAJASTHAN)

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

ECE Dept. Dipanshu Kumar Mittal
(3rd year,B.tech,ECE)
CONTENTS:
Acknowledgement
Preface
Company Profile
1. Mobile Network And Its Components
1.1. The Mobile Station (MS)
1.2. The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
1.3. The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
1.4. The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
2. GSM TECHNOLOGY
2.1. Introduction
2.2. GSM-specification
2.3. GSM-operation
2.4. GSM-security and encryption
3. CDMA TECHNOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
3.2. CDMA-multiple access method
3.3. CDMA-technology
3.4. Spread spectrum
3.5. CDMA-handoff
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In any project that calls for study of particular aspects in any organization one needs supports
from number of persons who directly or indirectly by the way of discussion, interaction and
response.It is impossible to thank all those who helps in this project, but we must express heartily
gratitude to few of them.
I would like to thank Mr. Sudhir Ojhawho involved us in the network
department for training.
I have great pleasure in expressing our profound sense of gratitude to Mr. Ajay
Rana , Mr. Ajay Chodhary, Mr. Anand, Mr. virendra, Mr. Amit Tiwari for their continuous
guidance and support.
I am also thankful to the management and staff of tata telesevices ltd(TTSL)
,jaipur for granting us permission for this training and for their help and cooperation.
 PREFACE
As part of the curriculum for bachelors degree, the students of B.Tech 3rd year have to undergo
on the job practical training for 45 days.
The object of training is to provide the students with an insight to the practical aspects of
organizations working and environment. Such type of training helps students to work in real
industrial environment, and to gain practical knowledge and build confidence, which helps in
their personality development.
As a part of our training I Dipanshu Kumar Mittal carried out a study on GSM and CDMA basics
at TTSL, a division of TATA group. It was a new experience for me. It helped me to get an
insight into CDMA and GSM technology. We also learnt about the technical management and
planning by mobile service provider to strengthen its networks and cover as much area as
possible for large coverage area.
 COMPANY PROFILE
Tata Group is an Indian multinational conglomerate holding company headquartered
in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. It was founded in 1868 by Jamsedji Tata and gained
international recognition after purchasing several global companies. It is one of India's largest
conglomerates. In 2014-15, the revenue of Tata companies, taken together, was $108.78
billion. These companies collectively employ over 600,000 people. Each Tata company or
enterprise operates independently under the guidance and supervision of its own board of
directors and shareholders. There are 30 publicly-listed Tata enterprises with a combined market
capitalisation of about $134 billion (as on March 31, 2015). Tata companies with significant
scale include Tata Steel, Tata Motors, Tata Consultancy Services, Tata Power, Tata
Chemicals, Tata Global Beverages, Tata Teleservices, Titan, Tata Communications and Indian
Hotels Company.
One Tata project brought together Tata Group companies (TCS, Titan Industries and Tata
Chemicals) was developing a compact, in-home water-purification device. It was called Tata
swach which means "clean" in Hindi and would cost less than 1000 rupees (US$21). The idea
of Tata swachwas thought of from the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, which left thousands of
people without clean drinking water. This device has filters that last about a year long for a
family of five. It is a low-cost product available for people who have no access to safe drinking
water in their homes. The advantage of this device is that it does not require the use of electricity.
TCS also designed and donated an innovative software package that supposedly teaches illiterate
adults how to read in 40 hours. "The children of the people who have been through our literacy
program are all in school", says Pankaj Baliga, global head of corporate social responsibility for
TCS.

TATA IN TELECOM INDUSTRY

The tata group operates business in seven key industry sectors. The table that follows shows the
group sector wise financial performance.
Tata Teleservices Limited (TTSL) is an Indian broadband and telecommunications service
provider based in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. It is a subsidiary of the Tata Group, an Indian
conglomerate. It operates under the brand name Tata DoCoMo in various telecom circles of
India.
In November 2008, Japanese telecom giant NTT Docomo picked up a 26 per cent equity stake in
Tata Docomo, a subsidiary of Tata Teleservices, for about 130.7 billion (US$1.9 billion) or
an enterprise value of 502.69 billion (US$7.5 billion). NTT DOCOMO announced on 25 April
2014 that they are going to sell 100% of their shares in Tata DOCOMO to Tata Teleservices
and exit Indian Telecom. The reason for exit is because of huge loss of $1.3 billion.
In February 2008, TTSL announced that it would provide CDMA mobile services targeted
towards the youth, in association with the Virgin Group on a franchisee model basis. By April 1,
2015, all Virgin Mobile CDMA & GSM customers have been migrated into the umbrella Tata
Docomo brand (Tata Indicom for Delhi NCR).
Tata Teleservices provides mobile services under the following brand names:
Tata DoCoMo (CDMA & GSM mobile operator, wireless broadband)
Virgin Mobile (CDMA & GSM mobile operator)
T24 Mobile (GSM mobile operator)
1. MOBILE NETWORK AND ITS COMPONENTS
A network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are explained in
this chapter. The network can be broadly divided into:
1.1 The Mobile Station (MS)
1.2 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
1.3 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
1.4 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
Given below is a simple pictorial view of the architecture.

1.1 The Mobile Station

The additional components of the architecture comprise of databases and messaging systems
functions:
Home Location Register (HLR)
Visitor Location Register (VLR)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
Authentication Center (AuC)
SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
Gateway MSC (GMSC)
Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
The following diagram shows the network along with the added elements:

The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air
interface or the radio link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching (NSS)
center across the A interface.

Network areas
In a network, the following areas are defined:
Cell : Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell
Global Identity (CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
Location Area : A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is
paged when a subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area
Identity (LAI). Each LA is served by one or more BSCs.
MSC/VLR Service Area : The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR
service area.
PLMN : The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile
Network (PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.
1.2 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The BSS is composed of two parts:
1.2.1 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
1.2.2 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations
between components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS may
consist of four to seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The BSS uses
the Abis interface between the BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then
connected from the BSS to the Mobile MSC.

1.2.1 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link protocols
with the MS. In a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A BTS
is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell. Each
BTS has between 1 and 16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell. Each BTS
serves as a single cell. It also includes the following functions:
Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the
antenna
Transcoding and rate adaptation
Time and frequency synchronizing
Voice through full- or half-rate services
Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals
Random access detection
Timing advances
Uplink channel measurements
1.2.2. The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup,
frequency hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the
MSC. The BSC also translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the
standard 64 Kbps channel used by the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or ISDN.
It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell
handover. It controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of the
BSC is to allocate the necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a switching
device that handles the radio resources. Additional functions include:
Control of frequency hopping
Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
Time and frequency synchronization
Power management
Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS
1.3. Network Switching Center
The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching Center
(MSC), performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network
users, as well as the management of mobile services such as authentication. The switching
system includes the following functional elements:
1.3.1.Home Location Register (HLR)
The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is
considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including
a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys
a subscription in the form of SIM, then all the information about this subscription is registered in
the HLR of that operator.
1.3.2. Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the switching
of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the management
of mobile services such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call
routing to a roaming subscriber. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signaling, and others. Every MSC is identified by a unique ID.
1.3.3. Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by
the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC.
When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request
data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.
1.3.4.Authentication Center (AUC)
The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in
each subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel.
The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular
world.
1.3.5. Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile
equipment on the network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies
each MS. An IMEI is marked as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.

2. GSM TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Introduction

If you are in Europe or Asia and using a mobile phone, then most probably you are using GSM
technology in your mobile phone.

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented
globally.
 GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz
time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz
in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900
MHz.
GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.
GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for
transmitting signals.
GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120
Mbps of data rates.
Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210
countries throughout the world.
GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.

GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other
streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.

Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.

Improved spectrum efficiency

International roaming
Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
High-quality speech
Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone
company services
Support for new services

2.2 GSM-Specification

2.2.1 Modulation
Modulation is the process of transforming the input data into a suitable format for the
transmission medium. The transmitted data is demodulated back to its original form at the
receiving end. The GSM uses Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation method.

2.2.2 Access Methods

Radio spectrum being a limited resource that is consumed and divided among all the users, GSM
devised a combination of TDMA/FDMA as the method to divide the bandwidth among the
users. In this process, the FDMA part divides the frequency of the total 25 MHz bandwidth into
124 carrier frequencies of 200 kHz bandwidth.
Each BS is assigned with one or multiple frequencies, and each of this frequency is divided into
eight timeslots using a TDMA scheme. Each of these slots are used for both transmission as well
as reception of data. These slots are separated by time so that a mobile unit doesnt transmit and
receive data at the same time.

2.2.3 Transmission Rate

The total symbol rate for GSM at 1 bit per symbol in GMSK produces 270.833 K
symbols/second. The gross transmission rate of a timeslot is 22.8 Kbps. GSM is a digital system
with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.

2.2.4 Frequency Band

The uplink frequency range specified for GSM is 933 - 960 MHz (basic 900 MHz band only).
The downlink frequency band 890 - 915 MHz (basic 900 MHz band only).

2.2.5 Channel Spacing

Channel spacing indicates the spacing between adjacent carrier frequencies. For GSM, it is 200
kHz.

2.2.6 Speech Coding

For speech coding or processing, GSM uses Linear Predictive Coding (LPC). This tool
compresses the bit rate and gives an estimate of the speech parameters. When the audio signal
passes through a filter, it mimics the vocal tract. Here, the speech is encoded at 13 kbps.

2.2.7 Duplex Distance

Duplex distance is the space between the uplink and downlink frequencies. The duplex distance
for GSM is 80 MHz, where each channel has two frequencies that are 80 MHz apart.

Misc
Frame duration : 4.615 mS
Duplex Technique : Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) access mode previously
known as WCDMA.
Speech channels per RF channel : 8

Once a Mobile Station initiates a call, a series of events takes place. Analyzing these events can
give an insight into the operation of the GSM system.
2.3 GSM operation
2.3.1 Mobile Phone to Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
When a mobile subscriber makes a call to a PSTN telephone subscriber, the following sequence
of events takes place:
The MSC/VLR receives the message of a call request.
The MSC/VLR checks if the mobile station is authorized to access the network. If so, the
mobile station is activated. If the mobile station is not authorized, then the service will be
denied.
MSC/VLR analyzes the number and initiates a call setup with the PSTN.
MSC/VLR asks the corresponding BSC to allocate a traffic channel (a radio channel and
a time slot).
The BSC allocates the traffic channel and passes the information to the mobile station.
The called party answers the call and the conversation takes place.
The mobile station keeps on taking measurements of the radio channels in the present
cell and the neighbouring cells and passes the information to the BSC. The BSC decides
 if a handover is required. If so, a new traffic channel is allocated to the mobile station
and the handover takes place. If handover is not required, the mobile station continues to
transmit in the same frequency.

2.3.2 PSTN to Mobile Phone

When a PSTN subscriber calls a mobile station, the following sequence of events takes place:
The Gateway MSC receives the call and queries the HLR for the information needed to
route the call to the serving MSC/VLR.
The GMSC routes the call to the MSC/VLR.
The MSC checks the VLR for the location area of the MS.
The MSC contacts the MS via the BSC through a broadcast message, that is, through a
paging request.
The MS responds to the page request.
The BSC allocates a traffic channel and sends a message to the MS to tune to the
channel. The MS generates a ringing signal and, after the subscriber answers, the speech
connection is established.
Handover, if required, takes place, as discussed in the earlier case.
To transmit the speech over the radio channel in the stipulated time, the MS codes it at the rate
of 13 Kbps. The BSC transcodes the speech to 64 Kbps and sends it over a land link or a radio
link to the MSC. The MSC then forwards the speech data to the PSTN. In the reverse direction,
the speech is received at 64 Kbps at the BSC and the BSC transcodes it to 13 Kbps for radio
transmission.
GSM supports 9.6 Kbps data that can be channelled in one TDMA timeslot. To supply higher
data rates, many enhancements were done to the GSM standards (GSM Phase 2 and GSM Phase
2+).
2.4 GSM - Security and Encryption
GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system available today. GSM has its
security methods standardized. GSM maintains end-to-end security by retaining the
confidentiality of calls and anonymity of the GSM subscriber.
Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the subscribers number to maintain the
privacy of the user. The privacy of the communication is maintained by applying encryption
algorithms and frequency hopping that can be enabled using digital systems and signalling.
This chapter gives an outline of the security measures implemented for GSM subscribers.

2.4.1 Mobile Station Authentication

The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use of a challenge-
response mechanism. A 128-bit Random Number (RAND) is sent to the MS. The MS computes
the 32-bit Signed Response (SRES) based on the encryption of the RAND with the
authentication algorithm (A3) using the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki). Upon
receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the GSM network repeats the calculation to verify the
identity of the subscriber.
The individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the radio channel, as
it is present in the subscriber's SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR databases. If the
received SRES agrees with the calculated value, the MS has been successfully authenticated and
may continue. If the values do not match, the connection is terminated and an authentication
failure is indicated to the MS.
The calculation of the signed response is processed within the SIM. It provides enhanced
security, as confidential subscriber information such as the IMSI or the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never released from the SIM during the authentication process.

2.4.2 Signaling and Data Confidentiality

The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that is used to produce the 64-bit
ciphering key (Kc). This key is computed by applying the same random number (RAND) used
in the authentication process to ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) with the individual
subscriber authentication key (Ki).
GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to change the ciphering key,
making the system more resistant to eavesdropping. The ciphering key may be changed at
regular intervals as required. As in case of the authentication process, the computation of the
ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the SIM. Therefore, sensitive information such
as the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never revealed by the SIM.
Encrypted voice and data communications between the MS and the network is accomplished by
using the ciphering algorithm A5. Encrypted communication is initiated by a ciphering mode
request command from the GSM network. Upon receipt of this command, the mobile station
begins encryption and decryption of data using the ciphering algorithm (A5) and the ciphering
key (Kc).

2.4.3 Subscriber Identity Confidentiality

To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
is used. Once the authentication and encryption procedures are done, the TMSI is sent to the
mobile station. After the receipt, the mobile station responds. The TMSI is valid in the location
area in which it was issued. For communications outside the location area, the Location Area
Identification (LAI) is necessary in addition to the TMSI.

3. CDMA TECHNOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as cdmaOne, CDMA-2000,
and WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are deemed superior to FDMA and TDMA,
which is why CDMA plays a critical role in building efficient, robust, and secure radio
communication systems.

3.1.1. A Simple Analogy

Lets take a simple analogy to understand the concept of CDMA. Assume we have a few
students gathered in a classroom who would like to talk to each other simultaneously. Nothing
would be audible if everyone starts speaking at the same time. Either they must take turns to
speak or use different languages to communicate.
The second option is quite similar to CDMA students speaking the same language can
understand each other, while other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly, in
radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel,
but only those users associated with a particular code can communicate.

3.1.2. Salient Features of CDMA

CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum technique has following salient features

In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.

Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence and then
transmitted using a wide frequency range.
CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications,
allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. For 3G, CDMA
uses 1x EV-DO and EV-DV.

3.1.3. Third Generation Standards

CDMA2000 uses Frequency Division Duplexing-Multicarrier (FDD-MC) mode. Here,

multicarrier implies N 1.25 MHz channels overlaid on N existing IS-95 carriers or deployed
on unoccupied spectrum. CDMA2000 includes

1x uses a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps.

3x uses a spreading rate of 3 1.2288 Mcps or 3.6864 Mcps.
1xEV-DO (1x Evolution Data Optimized) uses a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps,
optimized for the data.
WCDMA/FDD-DS Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) Frequency Division Duplexing-
Direct Sequence spreading (FDD-DS) mode. This has a single 5 MHz channel.
WCDMA uses a single carrier per channel and employs a spreading rate of 3.84 Mcps.

3.2. CDMA-Multiple Access Methods

The possibility to operate in either FDD or TDD mode is allowed for efficient use of available
spectrum according to frequency allocation in different regions.

Frequency Division Duplex

A duplex method whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use two separate
frequency bands
Uplink 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz
Downlink 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz
Bandwidth Each carrier is located on the center of a 5 MHz wide band
Channel Separation
Nominal value of 5 MHz that can be adjusted.
Channel Raster
200 kHz (center frequency must be a multiple of 200 kHz).
Tx-Rx Frequency Separation
Nominal value of 190 MHz This value can be either fixed or variable (minimum of 134.8 and
maximum of 245.2 MHz).
Channel Number
The carrier frequency is designated by the UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number
(UARFCN). This number is sent by the network (for the uplink and downlink) on the BCCH
logical channel and is defined by Nu = 5 * (Frequency uplink MHz) and ND = 5 * (Frequency
downlink MHz).
Time Division Duplex
Time division duplex is a technique by which the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions are
carried over the same frequency by using synchronized time intervals. The carrier uses a 5 MHz
band, although there is a low chip rate solution under study by the 3GPP (1.28 Mcps). The
available frequency bands for TDD will be 19001920 MHz and 20102025 MHz.

Duplex Methods of Radio Links

In case of Time Division Duplex, the forward link frequency is same as the reverse link
frequency. In each link, signals are transmitted continuously in turns just like a ping-pong
game.
Example of TDD System
TDD uses a single frequency band for both to transmit and to receive. Further, it shares the band
by assigning alternate timeslots for transmitting and receiving operations. The information to be
transmitted can be voice, video, or computer data in bit-serial format. Each time interval can be
1 byte long or may be a part of several bytes.
TDD alternates the transmission and reception station data over time. Timeslots can be of
variable length. Due to the nature of high-speed data, the communicating parties cannot mean
that the transmissions are intermittent.
Transmissions that appear as simultaneous are actually competing each other. Digitally
converted into analog voice, no one can say that it is not a full duplex.

In some TDD systems, alternative time intervals are of same duration or having both DL and
UL; however, the system does not need to be symmetric 50/50. The system may be
asymmetrical as required.
For example, while accessing the Internet, the download speed is usually higher than the upload
speed. Most of the equipment work on asynchronous mode where the download speed is higher
than the upload speed. When the download speed is higher than the upload speed, less timeslots
are needed for uploading. Some TDD formats offer dynamic bandwidth allocation when the
number of time intervals or durations is changed on the fly as needed.
The real advantage of TDD is that it is only a single channel of the frequency spectrum and it
doesnt require band guards or channel separations as the intervals take place using timeslots.
The disadvantage is that the successful implementation of TDD requires a timing system. The
precise timing to both the transmitter and the receiver is needed to ensure that the time intervals
do not overlap or interfere with another.
Timing is often synchronized to GPS atomic clock standards specific derivative. The guard time
is also needed between timeslots to avoid duplication. This time is generally equal to the
transmission-reception processing time (transmission-reception switching time) and the
transmission delays (latency) on the communications channel.

Frequency Division Duplex

In Frequency Division Duplex (FDD), the forward link frequency is not the same as the reverse
link frequency. In each link, signals are continuously transmitted in parallel.

Example of FDD System

FDD requires two symmetrical segments of spectrum for the uplink and downlink channels. In a
cell phone with a transmitter and receiver, operating simultaneously in such close proximity, the
receiver has to filter as much of the signal from the transmitter as possible. More separation of
the spectrum, the most effective filters.
FDD uses a lot of frequency spectrum, generally twice of the required TDD spectrum. In
addition, there must be adequate spectrum separation between transmission and reception of the
channels. These bands keep saying it cannot be used, they are unnecessary. Given the scarcity
and cost of the spectrum, they are real disadvantages.

Use of FDD
FDD is widely used in different cellular telephone systems. In some systems, the band 869-894
MHz is used as the downlink (DL) spectrum from the cell site tower to the device. And, the
band 824-849 MHz is used as the uplink (UL) spectrum of the handset at the cell site.
FDD also works on a cable where transmit and receive channels are given different parts of the
cable spectrum, as in cable TV systems. And, filters are used to keep the channels separate.

Disadvantage of FDD
The drawback of FDD is that it does not allow special techniques like multiple antennas,
multiple input-output (MIMO), and beamforming. These technologies are an essential element
of the new strategies Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G cell phone to increase the data rate. It is
difficult to make broad enough bandwidth to cover both sets of antenna spectrum. Circuit
complex dynamic adjustment is required.

Multiple Access Methods

The radio channel is a communication medium shared by several users in a geographic area.
Mobile stations are in competition with one another for the frequency resource to transmit their
information flow. Without other measures to control concurrent access of several users,
collisions can occur. Since collisions are undesirable for connection-oriented communication
such as mobile phones, personal/mobile subscriber stations need to be allocated the dedicated
channels on request.
The mobile communication, sharing wireless resources on all users, must be communicated to
identify the user. While identifying the user, it is referred to as "multiple access" (Multiple
Access) that is receiving a radio wave of a number of transmitting stations in a receiving station
(as shown in the following image).

3.3. CDMA - Technology

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various signals
to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The
technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands
ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.
3.3.1. How Does CDMA Work?
CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each voice
packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate between calls and
theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the maximum number of
calls somewhat lower than this value.
In fact, many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be modulated on
the same carrier to allow many different users to be supported. Using different orthogonal codes,
interference between the signals is minimal. Conversely, when signals are received from several
mobile stations, the base station is capable of isolating each as they have different orthogonal
spreading codes.
The following figure shows the technicality of the CDMA system. During the propagation, we
mixed the signals of all users, but by that you use the same code as the code that was used at the
time of sending the receiving side. You can take out only the signal of each user.
3.3.2. CDMA Capacity
The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are
Processing Gain
Signal to Noise Ratio
Voice Activity Factor
Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are separated by
code. This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and interference.
In addition, neighboring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So, CDMA
capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell, multiplied by no cell. But
it is not that simple. Although not available code channels are 64, it may not be possible to use a
single time, since the CDMA frequency is the same.
3.3.3. Centralized Methods
The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz separation).
Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.
3.3.4. Processing Gain
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique. Each data bit is spread by a code sequence. This means,
energy per bit is also increased. This means that we get a gain of this.
P (gain) = 10log (W/R)
W is Spread Rate
R is Data Rate
For CDMA P (gain) = 10 log (1228800/9600) = 21dB
This is a gain factor and the actual data propagation rate. On an average, a typical transmission
condition requires a signal to the noise ratio of 7 dB for the adequate quality of voice.
Translated into a ratio, signal must be five times stronger than noise.
Actual processing gain = P (gain) SNR = 21 7 = 14dB
CDMA uses variable rate coder
The Voice Activity Factor of 0.4 is considered = -4dB.
Hence, CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of same frequency in surrounding cells causes
some additional interference.
In CDMA frequency, reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73dB
3.3.5.1. Advantages of CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of users. It
has the following advantages
CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other words, a
user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the signal latter.
All signals must have more or less equal power at the receiver
Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time (a chip
or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make decisions at
the bit level.
Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing
operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals from
the two base stations.
Transmission Burst reduces interference.

3.3.5.2. Disadvantages of CDMA

The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows
The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or may
cause interference.
Time synchronization is required.
Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs constant
tight power control. This can result in several handovers.
3.4. Spread Spectrum

All technical modulation and demodulation strive for greater power and/or efficiency of
bandwidth in a white Gaussian additive stationary noise channel. Since bandwidth is a limited
resource, one of the primary design goals of all the modulation schemes is to minimize the
bandwidth required for transmission. On the other hand, spread spectrum techniques use a
transmission bandwidth that is order of the magnitude greater than the bandwidth required the
minimum signal.
The advantage of spread spectrum technique is that many users can simultaneously use the
same bandwidth without interfering with each other. Therefore, spread spectrum is not economic
when the number of users is less.
Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which the frequency of the
transmitted signal is deliberately varied resulting higher bandwidth.
Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity theorem
C = B log2 (1 + S/N)
In the given equation, `C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which is the
maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER). B is the required channel
bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio.
Spread spectrum uses wideband, noise-like signals that are hard to detect, intercept, or
demodulate. Additionally, spread-spectrum signals are harder to jam (interfere with)
than narrow band signals.
Since spread-spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much lower spectral power
density, measured in watts per hertz, than narrow band transmitters. Spread-spectrum
and narrowband signals can occupy the same band, with little or no interference. This
capability is the main attraction for all the interest in spread spectrum today.

Points to Remember
The transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the minimal information bandwidth,
which is needed to transmit the signal successfully.
Some function other than the information itself is normally employed to determine the
resultant transmitted bandwidth.
Following are the two types of spread spectrum techniques
Direct Sequence and
Frequency Hopping.
Direct Sequence is adopted by CDMA.

Direct Sequence (DS)

Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) is a technique to multiplex users
by different codes. In this technique, the same bandwidth is used by different users. Each user is
assigned with one its own spreading code. These sets of codes are divided into two classes
Orthogonal Codes and
Non-Orthogonal Codes
Walsh sequences come into the first category which is Orthogonal Codes whereas other
sequences i.e. PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences.
Orthogonal codes are assigned to the users, the output of the correlator in the receiver will be
zero except the desired sequence. In synchronous direct sequence, the receiver receives the same
code sequence which was transmitted so that there is no time shift between the users.

Demodulating DS Signals 1

In order to demodulate DS signals, you need to know the code that was used at the time of
transmission. In this example, by multiplying the code used in the transmission to the reception
signal, we can get the transmitted signal.
In this example, multiple codes were used at the time of transmission (10,110,100) to the
received signal. Here, we have calculated by using the law of two additives (Modulo 2
Addition). It is further demodulated by multiplying the code that was used at the time of this
transmission, called the reverse diffusion (de-spreading). In the diagram given below, it can be
seen that during the transmission of the data to the narrow band (Narrow Band) spectrum, the
spectrum of the signal is dispread.
Demodulating DS Signals 2
On the other hand, if you do not know the code that was used at the time of transmission, you
will not be able to demodulate. Here, you are trying to demodulation in the code of different
(10101010) and the time of transmission, but it has failed.
Even looking at the spectrum, it is spreading during the time of transmission. When it is passed
through a band-pass filter (Band Path Filter), only this small signal remains and these are not
demodulated.
Features of Spread Spectrum

As shown in the following figure, the power density of Spread Spectrum signals could be lower
than the noise density. This is a wonderful feature that can keep the signals protected and
maintain privacy.
By spreading the spectrum of the transmitted signal, one can reduce its power density such that
it becomes less than the power density of the noise. In this way, it is possible to hide the signal
in the noise. It can be demodulated if you know the code that was used to send the signal. In
case the code is not known, then the received signal will remain hidden in the noise even after
the demodulation.

DS-CDMA

DS code is used in CDMA. So far, it has been explained basic part of the spread spectrum
communication. From here, we will explain how Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple
Access (DS-CDMA) works.
The signal which is spread spectrum, can be demodulated only by a code used for transmission.
By using this, the transmission signal of each user can be identified by the separate code when it
receives the signal. In the given example, the spread signal of the user A at the code A, and
diffused signal of user B at code B. Each of the signal when it receives are mixed. However, by
the inverse diffuser (Despreadder), it identifies the signal of each user.
DS-CDMA System - Forward Link

DS-CDMA System - Reverse Link

Spreading Code
Cross-Correlation
Correlation is a method of measurement of how precisely a given signal matches with a desired
code. In CDMA technology, each user is assigned with a different code, the code which is being
assigned or chosen by the user is very important to modulate the signal because it is related to
the performance of the CDMA system.
One will get best performance when there will be clear separation between the signal of desired
users and signals of the other users. This separation is made by correlating the desired signal
code which was locally generated and other received signals. If the signal matches with the code
of the user, then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If
the user's desired code has nothing in common with the signal, the correlation should be as close
to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); also known as cross correlation. So, there is
a self-correlation (Self-Correlation) andcross-correlation (Cross-Correlation).
Properties of self-correlation and code are shown in the diagram given below where correlation
between spreading code A and spreading code B is shown. In this example, the calculated
correlation of spreading code A (1010110001101001) and spreading code B
(1010100111001001) is given, while performing calculations in below example, the result has
come to 6/16.

Preferable Codes
Preferable code is used in CDMA. There are different codes that can be used depending on the
type of a system of CDMA. There are two types of system
 Synchronous (Synchronous) System and
Asynchronous (Asynchronous) System.
In a synchronous system, orthogonal codes (Orthogonal Code) can be used. In asynchronous
system for this, such as pseudo-random code (Pseudo-random Noise) or Gold code is used.
In order to minimize mutual interference in DS-CDMA, the spreading codes with less cross-
correlation should be chosen.

Synchronous DS-CDMA
Orthogonal Codes are appropriate. (Walsh code etc.)
Asynchronous DS-CDMA
Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes/Maximum sequence
Gold Codes
Synchronous DS-CDMA
Synchronous CDMA Systems are realized in Point to Multi-point Systems. For example,
Forward Link (Base Station to Mobile Station) in Mobile Phone.

Synchronization system is used in one-to-many (Point to Multipoint) systems. For example, at a

given time, in a mobile communication system, a single base station (BTS) can communicate
with multiple cell phones (forward link/downlink).
In this system, a transmission signal for all the users can communicate in synchronization.
Means, "Synchronization" on this point is a sense that can be sent to align the top of each user
signal. In this system, it is possible to use orthogonal codes and it is also possible to reduce
mutual interference. And orthogonal codes, it is the sign, such as cross-correlation i.e. 0.

Asynchronous DS-CDMA
In asynchronous CDMA system, orthogonal codes have bad cross-correlation.
Unlike the signal from the base station, the signal from the mobile station to the base station,
becomes the asynchronous system.
In an asynchronous system, somewhat mutual interference increases, but it uses the other codes
such as PN code or Gold code.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Since the signal is spread over a wide frequency band, the power spectral density becomes very
low, so other communication systems do not suffer from this kind of communication. However,
the Gaussian noise increases. Given below is a list of a few major advantages of Spread
Spectrum

Multipath can be agreed with, as a large number of codes can be generated, allowing a
large number of users.
In spread spectrum, there is no limit of users whereas there is limitations of users in
FDMA technology.
Security without knowing the spreading code, it is hardly possible to recover the
transmitted data.
Descending rejection as large bandwidth is used the system; it is less susceptible to
deformation.

PN Sequence
The DS-CDMA system uses two types of spreading sequences, i.e., PN
sequences and orthogonal codes. As mentioned above, the PN sequenc is generated by the
pseudo-random noise generator. It is simply a binary linear feedback shift register, consisting of
XOR gates and a shift register. This PN generator has the ability to create a sequence identical
for both the transmitter and the receiver, and retaining the desirable properties of the noise
randomness bit sequence.
A PN sequence has many features such as having an almost equal number of zeros and ones,
very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, and very low cross-correlation
with other signals such as interference and noise. However, it is able to correlate well with itself
and its inverse. Another important aspect is the autocorrelation of the sequence as it determines
the ability to synchronize and lock the spreading code for the received signal. This fight
effectively effects the multiple interference and improves the SNR. M-sequences, Gold codes,
and Kasami sequences are the examples of this class of sequences.
A Pseudo-random Noise (PN) sequence is a sequence of binary numbers, e.g. 1, which
appears to be random; but it is in fact, perfectly deterministic.
PN sequences are used for two types of PN spread spectrum techniques
o Direct Signal Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) and
o Frequency Hop spread Spectrum (FH-SS).
If u uses PSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in DS-SS.
If u uses FSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in FH-SS.

Frequency Hopping Technology

Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum in which the propagation takes place by hopping in
frequency over a wide band. The precise order in which the break occurs is determined by a
hopping table generated by using a pseudo-random code sequence.
Hopping rate is a function of the speed information. The order of frequencies is selected by the
receiver and is dictated by the pseudo-random noise sequence. Although the transmission of a
frequency hopping signal spectrum is quite different from that of a direct sequence signal, it
suffices to note that the data is distributed over a signal band is larger than necessary to carry. In
both the cases, the resulting signal will appear as noise and the receiver uses a similar technique,
which is used in the transmission to recover the original signal.

3.5. CDMA-HANDOFF
Whenever a cellular subscriber passes through one base station to another, the network
automatically switches to the other respective base station and maintains the coverage
responsibility. This behavior called "hand-off" (Handoff) or "hand-over" (Handover).
Whereas in FDMA and TDMA systems, it uses a different frequency to communicate with the
base station of that area. It means, there will be a frequency switch from one frequency to
another, and during the switching, there will be slightly communication cut, which is called
as "hard handoff" (Hard Handoff) or "hard handover" (Hard Handover).
3.5.1. Hard Handoff
In FDMA or TDMA cellular system, a new communication can be established after breaking the
current communication at the moment of handoff. Communication between MS and BS breaks
at the time of switching the frequency or timeslot.
Soft Handoff
Cellular systems track mobile stations in order to maintain their communication links. When
mobile station goes to a neighbor cell, the communication link switches from the current cell to
the neighbor cell.
When a mobile enters in a new area (from the base station to another base station), the mobile is
the second pilot of sufficient power by sending the message to the strength of the driver to the
first base station. The base station notifies the MTSO and then the MTSO requests new Walsh
code assignmentof the second base station.
The first base station controls with new progressive transfer Walsh assignment MTSO
then sends land link to the second base station. Mobile is powered by two base stations
and MTSO selects the best quality status for every 20 ms.
The power goes low at the mobile station by the first BS and mobile sends a pilot
strength message then the first BS transmission stops and releases the channel. And,
traffic channel continues on the second base station.
In CDMA cellular system, communication does not break even at the moment doing
handoff, because switching frequency or timeslot is not required

REFFERENCES
www.tutorialspoint.com
www.howcdmaworks.com
En.wikipedia.org
www.complextoreal.com