Accurate fault location technique for power
transmission lines
Prof. A.T. Johns, DSc, PhD, C.Eng, FlEE
S. Jamali, BSc, MSc
Indexing terms: Fault location, Transmission lines
Abstract: The paper describes a very accurate
fault location technique which uses post-fault
voltage and current derived at both line ends.
Fault location is independent of fault resistance
and the method does not require any knowledge
of source impedance. It maintains high accuracy
for untransposed lines and no fault type identifica-
tion is required. The paper presents the theory of
the technique and the results of simulation studies
to determine its performance.
L i s t of symbols
V, , V, , V, = voltages at fault, sending and receiving ends
I,, I , = currents at sending and receiving ends
Y = line propagation constant
20 = line characteristic impedance
X = distance to fault from sending end S
L = line length
a, b, c = phases a, b, and c of line
A , B,C = phases A , B, C of second circuit of double
circuit line
n = modal component value (n = 1 to 6 )
[Q], [SI = voltage and current eigenvector matrices
1 Introduction
The need for very high accuracy in fault location is gener-
ally becoming more important because, in ehv systems,
there is often little visual evidence of a fault, and post-
fault clearance tests performed at reduced system voltage
can be inconclusive. The degree of accuracy required is
therefore increasing and is much higher than can be
obtained using simple conventional impedance to fault
measuring techniques. Even a small measurement error
may require detailed local examination over several kilo-
metres of a typical line.
For a verv accurate fault location the following
sources of error should be considered :
( a )Line assymmetry
The self and mutual impedances and admittances of each
phase of transmission lines are determined by line
geometry and they are not identical for all phases. Most
previous fault location techniques use symmetrical com-
ponents that are only applicable to transposed lines
[ l , 2, 3, 6, 7, 81, though the fault location technique pro-
Paper 7529C (PS, P l l ) , first received 14th November 1989 and in
revised form 5th April 1990
The authors are with the Power and Energy Systems Research Centre,
The City University, Northampton Square, London E C l V OHB, United
Kingdom
I E E PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . C, N o . 6 , N O V E M B E R 1990
posec in Reference 4 can be applied to untransposed lines
if the impedance for each phase can be set. However, it
has been reported that when using the latter technique
for untransposed lines represented by symmetrical
parameters, a substantial error occurs [SI.
(b)Shunt capacitance
Capacitance current for long lines, particularly under
high resistance fault conditions, can be comparable with
the current in the fault path. Most algorithms do not
consider shunt capacitance, and the vast majority of
those that do, use a lumped model for shunt capacitance
[7, 81. This in turn is not an exact representation of the
line and does not permit very high accuracy in fault loca-
tion.
(c) Fault resistance
Unknown fault resistance, and the phase difference
between the fault current contribution from the local and
remote source ends, introduce error.
( d ) Remote source impedance setting
Some previous fault location algorithms require a setting
for the remote source impedance. In modern transmis-
sion networks, normally several lines and generators are
connected to the line terminals. Switching operations
often change the source operating configuration from
those assumed in setting the fault location equipment,
which in turn can lead to a large error in fault location.
(e) Capacitance voltage transformer
Difficulties are often encountered in the use of capacitor
voltage transformers, which are generally incapable of
passing higher frequency phenomena. Thus, where an
algorithm utilises high frequency components, difficulties
can arise. Tapping the capacitor divider of CVTs can
lead to problems with relaxation transients caused by
other tuning circuits, and additional (separate) capacitor
divider provision is likely to be prohibitively expensive in
most applications.
A fault location technique which takes account of the
foregoing limitations is considered in this paper. In doing
so, many of the fundamental limitations on the accuracy
achievable are reduced. The results of simulation studies
to determine the basic accuracy of the methods are given,
and it will be shown that the technique also has the merit
of not requiring determination of the phase(s) involved in
a particular fault. Previous techniques use different algo-
rithmic routines for different types of fault, thus seriously
impairing accuracy if incorrect fault identification occurs
under contingency or difficult fault situations.
The principles of the method were briefly summarised
in Reference 9. This more rigorous and comprehensive
paper extends the theory and results to the important
case of double-circuit transmission lines, and also con-
siders the effect of setting and hardware errors on the
accuracy likely to be attainable in practice.
395
2 Principles
The voltages and currents measured at each end of a
transmission line are filtered to produce a measure of
the steady-state power frequency voltage and current
phasors. The latter are obtained as data described by
means of postfault processing applied to data captured
during the fault clearance process. A hardware descrip-
tion is given in Reference 9.
2.1 Simple single-phase line
Consider the relationship applicable to an assumed
single-phase line application. With reference to Fig. 1 , the
-H j
source
. IS 4
line
~ f o u
line
l t ~
I k
network section sect ion
I I
Fig. 1 Single-phasefaulted linelsource network
postfault steady-state voltage V, across the fault at a dis-
tance x from end S is readily expressed in terms of the
voltages and currents measured at the line ends
V, = cosh (yx)V, - Z , sinh (yx)Z,
V, = cosh (y(L - x))V, - Z , sinh (y(L - x))IR
The surge (or characteristic) impedance Z , and line pro-
pagation constant y are given by Z , = ( Z / Y ) ' / * and
y = ( Z Y ) ' l 2 ,respectively, where Z is the line series imped-
ance and Y is the line shunt admittance per unit length.
Eqns. 1 and 2 are equated to eliminate any necessity for
defining the fault point network, thereby eliminating any
uncertainties in the precise value of the fault path imped-
ance. Rearrangement of the eqns. 1 and 2 provides an
exact evaluation of the distance to the fault x as given in
eqn. 3
x = [tanh-'( - B/A)]/y
where
A =Z, cosh (yL)I, - sinh (yL)VR Z , I, + 5 into uncoupled or independent single-phase networks
B = cosh (yL)VR- Z , sinh (yL)Z, - V,
If all relevant line parameters could be specified without
error, eqn. 3 would lead to an exact evaluation of the
distance to fault x. In such a hypothetical case, x would
be calculated as a real value. However, in practice the
calculated value of x has a very small imaginary part
which is ignored; the real part is thus taken to represent
the fault distance. Eqn. 3 requires only known line data
( Z and Y ) and known phasor values derived from meas-
urands at the line ends. Therefore, any fault location esti-
mate thereby derived is independent of both the fault
impedance and the source impedance. The method can of
course use superimposed measurands of the type used in
high speed directional comparison protection equipment
[ l o ] , and in this case the voltages and currents used are
taken as the difference between prefault steady-state and
postfault values. In this respect, it has been found that,
generally, the accuracy of fault location is marginally
better for most line configurations when superimposed
396
components are used. Furthermore, the fault location
algorithm relates to a distributed line, and inherently
includes for the effect of shunt capacitance.
2.2 Extension to single -circuit lines
The method described above cannot be applied directly
to a multiphase power line since a number of phases are
involved. Consider a single-circuit 3-phase transmission
line in which the phases are identified by a, b, c as indi-
cated in the single line equivalent of Fig. 2. In this case,
ISa,b.c (.A,B,C) IRa.b,c(.A,B.C)
source h
twoport twoport - - - - -.
network
Fig. 2 Single-line diagram offaulted line described by 2-port matrices
abc = phases of one circuit
ABC = phsaes of second circuit in case of double-circuit line
the vector of the various voltages and currents ([V,,, b , < ] ,
[ I S o , b , c ] , etc.) are related using the two port matrices
[A,], [BSI, [ A R ] , [ B R ] which in turn are 3 x 3 matrices
defined using the line series impedance matrix [ Z ] and
(1) the line shunt admittance matrix [U. With reference to
Fig. 2, the multiconductor equivalent of eqns. 1 and 2 is
(2) (4)
['Fa, b, c l = [ASl[VSa, b, c l - [BSl[zSa, b, c 1
['Fa. b. c 1 [ARIIVR,, b, c 1 - [ B R I [ r R , , b, c 1 (5)
where b , , I , CV,. b , J , [I,,, b , J , etc. are vectors defin-
ing voltages and currents for each phase e.g. [VR/Ro,b,c] =
[V,, , V R b , I / R c I T , [ I T denoting a matrix transpose.
It is important to note that the two port matrices
[A,], [BSI etc. can, if necessary, be formed to include any
discrete line transposition, which in turn is conducive to
maintaining very high levels of measurement accuracy in
long line applications. In most cases, however, it is suffi-
(3) cient to treat each line section as homogeneous.
The basic fault location algorithm can be extended to
multi-phase transmission lines by decoupling eqns. 4 and
of the type shown in Fig. 1 . This is done using the theory
of natural modes and matrix function theory [ I l l as
commonly used in the digital simulation of faulted EHV
transmission systems [ 1 2 ] . The theory of such techniques
is well documented and the reader is therefore referred to
the latter references for further details. It is important to
note that the theory of natural modes (which leads to the
modal transformation) is general and does not presup-
pose that the line is either balanced or properly trans-
posed.. As indicated later, some simplification can,
however, be achieved by assuming that a particular line is
ideally transposed. Briefly, the method involves finding
the matrix of Eigenvectors of the [ Z ] [ Y ] product ( [ Q ]
say) and the [ Y ] [ Z ] product ([SI say). The voltages and
currents are thereby derived from each phase a, b, c and
are transformed to corresponding [ Q ] and [SI eigen-
vector matrices [12]
CV,J = CV,i vS2 & 3 I T = CQI - ' [ G o ~ S GL c l T
['.%I = [IS1 I S 2 IS31 = [IS, ISb zScl (6)
I E E P R O C E E D I N G S , Vol. 137, P t . C , N o . 6 , N O V E M B E R 1990
ADDlication of the transformation to modal auantities 3 Practical considerations
resilts in a multiconductor line being decomposkd into a
number of single-phase uncoupled models of the type 3.1 Use of transposed line parameters for
shown in Fig. 1. For each modal component, there is an untransposed lines
equation pair of the form of eqns. 1 and 2. Thus for a The modal surge impedances and propagation constants
single-circuit line, there are three pairs of such equations are precomputed, as indicated in Section 2.1, from the
corresponding to the modes 1, 2, 3 so that for mode 2 for line impedance and shunt admittance matrices [ Z ] , [Y ] .
example, the equation pair used would take the form of The latter are in turn computed from a knowledge of the
eqns. 7 and 8. line conductor geometry, the earth plane resistivity and
the conductor parameters. They represent basic param-
VF2 =As2 vs2 -4 2 Is2 (7) eters set into the algorithm according to the line applica-
tion involved. However, it has been found that for the
'FZ = 'R2 - B R 2 ' R 2 (8) vast majority of applications, the algorithm is so accurate
Any one or more mode pair equations can be used to that, even if perfect line transposition is assumed, the
determine the fault location. For example, a mode 2 error in typically less than 1%, which is acceptable in
based evaluation given by eqn. 9 yields most practical applications. If perfect line transposition is
assumed, the calculation of the modal surge impedances
x = [tanh-'( - B 2 / A 2 ) ] / y 2 (9) and propagation constants is simplified. For example, the
where mode-2 surge impedance for a single-circuit line can be
expressed directly in terms of the positive phase sequence
A , = Z o 2 cosh (72 L ) ~ R-Zsinh (y2 +
L ) V R ~ 2021.92 line impedance (2,)and shunt admittance (Yl) per unit
and length of line as Z,, = ( Z l / Y l ) ' / 2 . Similarly y , =
( Z l / Y l ) 1 / 2 . The assumption of perfect transposition leads
B 2 = cosh (72 J!A)VR~
- 2 0 2 sinh (72 L)1R2 - vs2 to Eigenvector matrices that are equal [SI = [ Q ] and
Eqn. 9, and any companion equations formed using that are independent of the line geometry. In this case, it
the other modes, is the exact equivalent of eqn. 3. The is unnecessary to calculate the voltage and current eigen-
appropriate modal surge impedances required are vector matrices as it can be shown that, for a single-
readily determined from the matrix product [ Z , , = circuit line, they take the special form given in eqn. 13

=[I -:-!I
[ y l P 1 [ Q ] - ' [ Z ] [ S ] in which [ y ] is a diagonal matrix of c111.

so-called modal propagation constants comprising the 1

square root of the Eigenvalues of the matrix product
[ Z ] [ Y ] , [ l l , 121. Matrix [Z,,] thus takes the diagonal [SI =CQI (1 3)
form of [Z,, Z,, Z , , ] for a 3-phase line, the individual
values being the modal surge impedances.
Perfect transposition can also be assumed for most
2.3 Extension to double-circuit lines double-circuit lines without incurring a serious loss of
The fault location technique can be extended to double- accuracy. For a double-circuit transposed line, the eigen-
circuit applications by using the phasor values from the vector matrices of voltage and current have the following
second circuit e.g., V F a , b , E , A , and Isa, b, E , A , c (see Fig. form :
3a). In this case, the 2-port matrices [ A s ] , [BSI, [ A R ] and
[ B R ] are 6 x 6 matrices. Eqns. 4 and 5 can then be gener-
alised for a double-circuit line, i.e.
IQ1
CQDI= [SDI = CQI [ -CQl
- (14)

,aF'[ b,c. A . B . C I = [ASl[vSa, b.c. A , B . C l where [ Q ] is given in equation 13.

- [BSl[lSa. b. c, A , E . C l (10) Evidently, in the double-circuit line case, there are six
modes of propagation, each having an associated modal
[bo,b , r , A , E . C 1 = [VRl[vRo, b. E, A , E, C l surge impedance. Consequently, there are six possible
basic fault locating algorithms of the form of eqn. 9. It is
- C B R l ['Ro, b, E , A , E , C l (1 1) important to note that it is unnecessary to use all signal
Consequently the modal form of eqn. 6 consists of six pairs, and some computational economy can thereby be

Cb.1 = ["'I
modes of current and voltage in a double-circuit line

vS6
=

=
Cvsl b2ys3 ... vS6y

CQDI - '[bov s b vsc ' ' ' Vscl

gained. For double-circuit line applications, some further
simplification has been found to be possible by using
measurands based upon the aerial-mode components for
an assumed ideally transposed single-circuit line. These
are obtained via the assumed transposed single-circuit
Eigenvector matrices of eqn. 13, i.e. the presence of the

[lsnl =

I:[ 1 = CIs11s2 I s 3 ' . '

= [ S D I '[IS. l S b I S c ' . ' ' S C I T

where [ Q D ] and [S,] are double-circuit eigenvector
ISJT

(12)
second circuit is ignored and each circuit is treated as if it
were a single-circuit line. The fault location algorithm of
eqn. 9 then uses only modes 2 and 3, voltages and cur-
rents in combination given in Eqn. 15, where %: means
Vs or V R. This in turn covers all faults on the circuit abc
(see Fig. 3a).
matrices.
The decoupled form of eqn. 12 results in six pairs of S
', R2 = &,R o - h,Rc
equations, all of the basic form of eqns. 7 and 8. The rest ' S . R2 = ' S . Ra - ' S . Rc
of the fault locating routine for double-circuit lines is as
previously described. In this form, intercircuit faults can 'S, R 3 = 'S, Ra - 2%, R b + &,Rc
also be located. IS, R 3 = l S , R a - 21S, Rb -b IS. Rc (15)
IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . C , N o . 6 , N O V E M B E R 1990 397
Faults on the second circuit, can also be covered by
means of aerial-mode signals derived from the voltages
and currents for that circuit (denoted A , B, C in Fig. 3a)
given in eqn. 16
3.3 Synchronisation of sending and receiving end
data
It will be evident from eqn. 9 that the basic fault location
algorithm involves entering data derived from both ends
of the line, and this in turn requires that the relevant
phasor quantities are related to a common phasor refer-
ence. Time synchronisation of the measurands at both
ends could be achieved by means of a continuous data
channel linking each end, but this approach is unwieldy.

EW EW
The above approach to fault location in double-circuit 7"' 1

applications has the obvious advantage that 'stand-alone'

locator equipment, which requires only voltages and cur-
rents from each circuit, can be used. Thus, the fault
locator applied to circuit abc uses only currents and volt-
ages from that circuit, likewise the second circuit uses
only voltages and currents associated with phases A, B
and C. This is possible on account of the fact that, in
practice, only predominantly common-mode (zero
sequence) coupling exists between each circuit. It is thus
evident from eqns. 15 and 16 that any common-mode
components induced in each circuit are cancelled and do
not appear within the measurands for each circuit.
It is important to note that the simplified form of the
algorithm for double-circuit lines, as described above,
results in some degradation in performance under inter-
circuit fault conditions e.g. conductor clashing between
circuits. This limitation is one that utilities generally EW1*.8.10rn
...-. .
8.10m EW2
accept on account of the relatively low incidence of such
faults, and it is undoubtedly for this reason that previous
work on fault location does not take account of such
faults. However, if in the future inter-circuit faults assume I
I
greater importance, the full algorithm involving deriving I

the measurands from the voltages and currents of both I

circuits i.e. via the inverse of Eqn. 14, can be used. In the
latter form, the new fault locator thus overcomes the lim-
itations which previously existed in the ability of present
generation equipments to deal with contingency faults on
double-circuit lines.
3.2 Mode selection
All types of fault will excite at least one aerial-mode com-
ponent i.e. modes 2 and/or 3 are always excited.
Although the earth-mode (mode 1) can also be used, it is
unnecessary to do so, except in the case of single-circuit
vertical conductor constructed line configurations typi-
cally of the type shown in Fig. 3a. The relatively high
degree of asymmetry in such configurations has been
found to result in a greater degree of accuracy being
attained by using earth-mode signals to locate faults
involving earth. In such applications, the basic fault
locating algorithm is, therefore, applied to all three
modes. The presence of a significant level of residual
current is used to identify the presence of a fault involv-
ing earth, and this in turn is used to display the fault
location as determined by a mode 1 based evaluation of
the basic fault locating algorithm of eqn. 9. Where a fault
does not involve earth, the fault location, as determined
by either the mode 2 or mode 3 based evaluation of the
basic fault locating algorithm, is used; the particular
mode selected is that associated with the largest modal
component. It is important to note that the greater
degree of symmetry associated with double-circuit lines
(see Fig. 3a) eliminates any necessity for mode selection,
and aerial-mode based signals suffice.
398
j 21.00m
I
I
I
I
I
I 1
..............................
b
Fig. 3 Line conjgurotion
U Vertical single-circuit and double-circuit lines
6 Horizontal single-circuit line
In practice, prefault voltage and current data at one end
can be used to provide a common phasor reference to
relate such data to that measured at the receiving end.
For example, the prefault mode-2 voltage at the sending
end can be calculated in the equipment at the receiving
end from the two port network equations for an
unfaulted line given in eqn. 17. This approach obviates
the need for data synchronisation via a communication
link.
Evaluation of eqn. 17 gives the phase angle between the
sending and receiving end voltages, and thereby provides
the time between the prefault zero-crossing of the meas-
urands at each end. The latter time, in turn, is used to
provide a common phasor reference, which in turn relates
the sampled voltage data derived at each end. A similar
process is applied in respect of sampled current data,
where the relevant two port relationship, used to derive a
common current phasor reference, is as given in Eqn. 18.
IS2 = sinh ( 7 2 L)vR2/202 - cosh ( 7 2 L)1R2 (18)
I E E PROCEEDINGS, V o l . 137, P t . C , N o . 6 , N O V E M B E R 195'0
4 Performance evaluation small improvement in accuracy in long line applications
as, the ration BIA, which in turn is used in the determi-
The accuracy of the fault location technique has been nation of fault location estimates (see Equation 3), is
determined by using a steady-state line simulation pro- better numerically conditioned in the long line case. For
gramme. This method of performance evaluation reveals short lines, the measurands B and A tend to a relatively
the inaccuracies in the algorithm itself, and does not small number, and the associated errors due to the use of
include any errors introduced by the hardware and/or
transducers i.e. it reveals the best can be expected by way
of fault location accuracy. The programme uses distrib-
uted line parameters in deriving phase variable relation-
ships, and thereby gives a detailed and realistic line
representation under operating and fault conditions. The
values of voltage and current at the terminating busbars
are produced for any fault type and source condition.
The results presented in this paper relate to single and
double-circuit 400 kV vertical constructed lines of the
type commonly used on the UK supergrid system, and to
a typical single-circuit 500 kV horizontally constructed
line as commonly used in longer distance transmission
applications in the USA. Details of the line configuration
involved are given in Figs. 3a and 3b. A wide range of -O
-0.8 I
line lengths and source conditions have been considered,
and the results presented give an indication of the accur-
acy typically obtained under earth fault conditions. The
accuracy for pure phase faults clear of ground has been
found to be better than that for earth faults, and for
reasons of brevity, only results for earth faults are given
1.0 b
here. Relevant parameters used are
(a) phase conductors are 4 x 541710.33 cm SCA with o.i3[
0.305 m bundle spacing 0.6
(b)earthwire is 54/1/0.33 cm SCA
(c)earth resistivity (assumed homogeneous) = 100 Rm
( d ) source short circuit levels = 5 GVA and X I R
ratio = 40 at both ends
(e)fault path resistance is 100 R
(f)line lengths = 100 and 250 km
(9) prefault line loading is zero.
The lines considered are deliberately untransposed to
adequately reveal the effect on the accuracy of assuming
perfect transposition when setting the parameters into the -0 8
I
locator. -1.01 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
If the locator is set using the exact parameters derived actual fault position (XIO')
from the actual eigenvector/eigenvalues for an untrans- ( % from end 5 on Fig.2)
posed line, the only errors that occur are those due to
hardware i.e. the algorithm error is zero. The results pre-
C
sented are for a locator having approximate settings
derived on the assumption of ideal line transposition in 0.8-
accordance with the details given in Section 3.1. Fig. 4
0-6-
shows the percentage of error in fault location that
occurs for phase-a-to-earth faults on different line con- 5 04-
figurations. It should be noted that, in the double-circuit
line case, the fault is on circuit abc in Fig. 3a and is
located without any data from the other circuit i.e., it
uses only voltages and currents associated with circuit
abc as explained in Section 3.1. The error is expressed as
a percentage of the total line length, i.e.

% error =
[(estimated location)
- (actual location)] x 100
-o.61
-0.8
-1.01 ' I ' I ' ' ' a ' 1
total line length 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
actual fault position (XIOI)
It can be seen from the various results of Fig. 4 that the ( % from end 5 on Fig.2)
locator gives an inherently accurate evaluation of fault Fig. 4 Measuring accuracy for a-earth fault on different line con-
position that is largely independent of the actual fault figurations
point. In particular, it can be seen that the accuracy is (i) for 100 km line application
not unduly affected by the line length; this is a conse- (ii) for 250 km line application
a Single-circuit horizontal line (see Fig. 3b)
quence of the fact that the algorithm takes fully into h Single-circuit vertical line (see Fig. 30)
account the presence of shunt capacitance. There is some c Double-circuit line (see Fig. 3a)

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. C, No. 6, NOVEMBER 1990 399

a finite word length are consequently larger. The consis-
tency of the new algorithm and its relative independence
of line configuration is also apparent, the magnitude of
error always being less than 0.6% for all situations. It is
interesting to note from a comparison of Figs. 4a and 4b
that the accuracy attained for single-phase-to-earth faults
is better for horizontally constructed lines than for verti-
cal lines. Furthermore, a comparison of Fig. 4c with 44
and 4b shows that accuracy for the double-circuit line is
better than for the single-circuit cases.
Fig. 5 shows typical responses for double-phase-to-
earth (a-6-e) faults involving a 100R fault resistance to
earth in each faulted phase. The response for the horizon-
tal line subjected to an a-b-e fault is very similar to that
for an a-earth fault shown in Fig. 4a. A comparison of
Figs. 4b with 5b shows that, for single-circuit vertical
lines, the error for multiphase earth faults is greater than
for corresponding single-phase-to-earth faults. For
double-circuit lines, the error is comparable with single-
phase-to-earth faults and multiphase-to-earth faults
(compare Fig. 4c with Fig. 5b). The largest error is always
less than approximately 1.1% for all fault positions, and
occurs on single-circuit vertical lines.
As mentioned previously, the results presented above
are typical of those obtained. In all cases studied, the
error was found to be less than approximately 1.5%
a In the performance evaluation, all input parameters have
-121 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
when the locator was set, assuming perfect line transposi-
tion.
5 Effect of setting and hardware inaccuracies
In the simulated performance tests carried out in the pre-
vious section, it was assumed that perfect setting data
and perfect input data are available to the algorithm. In
practice this will not be the case, and a number of simula-
tion tests have therefore been run to determine whether
the algorithm is particularly sensitive to any of these
factors. In the following simulation tests, assumed ideally
transposed line parameters are again used when setting
the locator, though the actual lines studied are untrans-
posed.
5. I Remote source impedance setting
The algorithm does not require any source impedance
setting and is independent of source configurations. In
practice, source impedance variations could be a major
source of error since they change, as different com-
binations of plant are connected or disconnected with
changing load situations; the source independence of this
method of location is therefore a useful factor.
5.2 Input parameter errors
been derived from line geometry and electrical param-
eters, which in turn are converted into [ Z ] and [ Y ]
matrices. A good illustration of the effect of setting incor-
rect values for the various parameters into the basic fault
locating algorithm (eqn. 9) can be obtained by varying
the line impedance matrix [ Z ] about the true value for
the actual line. This in turn affects both the modal surge
impedance and propagation values as used in finally
locating the fault. Variations in the mean conductor
height and earth resistivity along the line length have a
much more pronounced effect on the magnitude of the
[ Z ] matrix than on the [ Y ] matrix which is practically
unaffected by the earth and conductor losses. Maximum
'
errors in the magnitude of the [ Z ] matrix are difficult to
J

0 1 2 3 L 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
actual fault position (XIO') quantify exactly, particularly if very unusual situations,
('L from end 5 on Fig.2) such as variations in conductor sag corresponding to
heavy loading on warm days as against light loading on
b cold days together with extreme variations in earth resis-
tivity along the line length, are postulated. However, a

0'41
O
maximum assumed error corresponding to & 10% in the

:"'1
0.3 magnitude of [ Z ] generally gives a fair indication of
worst-case performance under conditions corresponding
to most practical situations. The [ Z ] matrix has therefore
g 0.1 been subjected to a maximum f 10% error, which in turn
has been reflected in setting the parameters into the algo-
rithm. The results of such tests are thus indicative of the
likely error caused by setting incorrect line parameters
into the locator. The results for these tests are shown in
Fig. 6 for an a-phase-to-earth fault on the single-circuit
-0.31
250 km horizontal line configuration. The algorithm per-
-0.41 forms very well, a + 5 % error in the magnitude of [ Z ]
-0.5' I ' ' " " " ' matrix elements resulting in only an additional 0.7% of
0 1 2 3 L 5 6 7 8 9 10 error (in comparison to 0% curve) in distance to fault
(XI01)
actual f a u l t position evaluation; a f 10% error results in a maximum 1.3%
( % from end S on Fig.2)
additional error.
Fig. 5 Measuring accuracy for a-b-earth fault on different line con-
figurations 5.3 Line length setting error
(i) 100 km line application A further source of setting error relates to the line length.
(ii) 250 km line application
a Single-circuit vertical line (see Fig. 3a)
It can be seen from Fig. 7 that if there is a -5% error in
b Double-circuit line (see Fig. 3 4 line length keyed into the algorithm, an error of up to
400 I E E PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, P t . C , N o . 6 , N O V E M B E R 1990
approximately -4.3% will be introduced in the fault Table 1 : Different cases of magnitude error in voltage and
location estimate for an a-earth fault on the 250 km hori- current phasors entered into the locator algorithm
zontal line. In general, it has been found that the
maximum error obtained is less than the setting error. 1 +2% +2% -2% -2%
Similar results are obtained for vertical line construc- 2 -2% -2% +2% +2%
tions. 3 +2% -2% +2% -2%
25 4 -2% +2% -2% +2%

2oi
15 '...+loo/.
'. .. 1.5 -

1.0.'-
__---
_.--
case 2
----------- --__ -_ -.
....
. 0.5- \
1 q . e L *.
-.
----_-
L.

e \
z c
_ / - - -

O--_
---_-_-- -
Y a s Z
U
al \
.. L
-0.5-
ca5e :-----
1
t
3
0 - - _ _ _ _ _ Y-
__-- K
E -1.0-

- 2 50 1 2 23 4 5 6 . 7 8 9 0IO ~

actual fault position

(Yo from end S on F1g.2)
(x101) -1.5
-201
t ' 1 " 1 ' " "
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
(XI01)
Fig. 6 Effect of line series impedance error on the accuracy of mea- actual fault position
surement for 250 km horizontal (single-circuit) line configuration subjected (7. from end 5 on F19.2)
to a-earthfault Fig. 8 Examples of measurement error introduced by error in voltage
Percentage error in magnitude of line series impedance matrix [ Z ] when setting and current magnitudes for a locator applied to 250 km horizontal line
the locator subjected to a-earth fault

be seen that the maximum error occurs for Case 2, and is

approximately 1.5%. Not surprisingly, errors have been
found to be least when all voltage and current phasors
are simultaneously subjected to the same error (not
shown).
Table 2 shows some corresponding cases involving
+ l o " error in the argument of the 3-phase voltage and
current entered into the locator. Fig. 9 shows the mea-
sured error for these cases. Again, it can be seen that the
maximum error is approximately 1.5%

Table 2: Different cases of argument error in voltage and

current phasors entered into the locator algorithm
0 1 2 3 L 5 6 7 8 9 IO
(x101)
actual fault position 1 +IO" +lo" -10" -10"
('/a from end S on Fig 2 ) 2 -10" -10" +lo" +lo"
Fig. 7 Effect of error in line length keyed into the locator for 250 km 3 +IO" -10" +lo" -10"
horizontal line subjected to a-earth fault 4 -10" +lo" -10" +IO"
Percentage error in assumed line length keyed into the locator (5% and -5%)

5.4 Simulated hardware error

Such errors arise due to the combined effect of transducer
errors, locator hardware errors and the calculation
(including filtering) of the voltage and current phasors
which are used in the basic fault locator algorithm. A
.
L

good indication of the likely effect of hardware errors on e

the accuracy of fault location can be obtained by intro- U
al

ducing various combinations of errors in the magnitude 2 I case 1

and phase angle of the voltage and current phasors
entered into the fault location algorithm. With modern -_____-----
F
E -1 0 \
digital processing equipment, it is generally possible to case 2 \
limit overall amplitude and phase errors (including trans-
* -1.5 \

ducer errors) to typically 2% and f loyo,respectively.

Table 1 shows four cases involving a k 2% error in the -201 " " " " "
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO
magnitude of the 3-phase voltage and current of the actual f a u l t position
(x101)
sending end S and receiving end R in an a-phase-to-earth ( % from end S on Fig 2 )
fault study on the 250 km horizontal line. Fig. 8 shows Fig. 9 Examples of measurement error introduced by error in voltage
the corresponding variation in measured error with fault and current arguments for a locator applied for 250 km horizontal line
position for each of the four cases given in Table 1. It can subjected to an a-earthfault

IEE PROCEEDINGS, Vol. 137, Pt. C , No. 6 , NOVEMBER 1990 401

6 Conclusions
The basis of a very accurate method of fault location for
transmission lines has been presented. The method
involves measurement at both ends but does not require
the use of a continuous data channel. It has been shown
that, in spite of simplifying the algorithm by using trans-
posed line parameters, a very high degree of accuracy in
locating faults is possible for practical untransposed lines.
There is some variation in accuracy according to the line
configuration, length and fault type, but under all condi-
tions a high degree of accuracy is nevertheless possible.
Moreover, the accuracy is not significantly affected by
fault resistance and source impedance.
The likely effect of hardware and setting errors has
been investigated and it has been found that the resulting
percentage error in fault location is generally less than
the magnitude of the percentage error involved. In the
case of an error in the argument of the phasors entered
into the algorithm, the percentage error has been found
to be less than a maximum of approximately 1.5% for a
10 data error.
7 Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the use of facilities provided
by the UK Science and Engineering Research Council
and GEC Measurements Limited. The use of facilities at
the City University, London, UK and at GEC Measure-
ments Laboratories, Stafford, UK are also gratefully
acknowledged,
402
8 References
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IEE P R O C E E D I N G S , Vol. 137, P t . C , N o . 6, N O V E M B E R I990