Equation of state
For the use of this in cosmology, see Equation of state
(cosmology). For the use of this concept in optimal
control theory, see Optimal control General method.
In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is
a thermodynamic equation relating state variables which
describes the state of matter under a given set of physi-
cal conditions.[1] It is a constitutive equation which pro-
vides a mathematical relationship between two or more
state functions associated with the matter, such as its
temperature, pressure, volume, or internal energy. Equa-
tions of state are useful in describing the properties of
uids, mixtures of uids, solids, and the interior of stars.
1 Overview
The most prominent use of an equation of state is to cor-
relate densities of gases and liquids to temperatures and
pressures. One of the simplest equations of state for this
purpose is the ideal gas law, which is roughly accurate for
weakly polar gases at low pressures and moderate temper-
atures. However, this equation becomes increasingly in-
accurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and
fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid. There-
fore, a number of more accurate equations of state have
been developed for gases and liquids. At present, there
is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air ex-
properties of all substances under all conditions.
Measurements of equation-of-state parameters, espe- interval. Later, in 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac pub-
cially at high pressures, can be made using lasers.[2][3][4] lished results of similar experiments, indicating a linear
In addition, there are also equations of state describing
solids, including the transition of solids from one crys-
talline state to another. There are equations that model
the interior of stars, including neutron stars, dense mat- V1 = V2 .
ter (quarkgluon plasmas) and radiation elds. A related T1
concept is the perfect uid equation of state used in cos-
mology.
In practical context, the equations of state are instrumen-
tal for PVT calculation in process engineering problems
and especially in petroleum gas/liquid equilibrium calcu-
lations. A successful PVT model based on a tting equa-
tion of state can be helpful to determine the state of the
ow regime, the parameters for handling the reservoir u-
ids, piping and sizing.
2 Historical
2.1 Boyles law (1662)
Boyles Law was perhaps the rst expression of an equa-
tion of state. In 1662, the Irish physicist and chemist
Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employ-
ing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end.
Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a xed quan-
tity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the
volume of gas was measured as additional mercury was
added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be de-
termined by the dierence between the mercury level in
the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end.
Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas vol-
ume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical
form, this can be stated as:
pV = constant.
The above relationship has also been attributed to Edme
Mariotte and is sometimes referred to as Mariottes law.
However, Mariottes work was not published until 1676.
2.2 Charless law or Law of Charles and
Gay-Lussac (1787)
In 1787 the French physicist Jacques Charles found that
pand to roughly the same extent over the same 80 kelvin
relationship between volume and temperature:
T2
2.3 Daltons law of partial pressures
(1801)
Daltons Law of partial pressure states that the pressure
of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures
of all of the constituent gases alone.
Mathematically, this can be represented for n species as:
1
2 4 CUBIC EQUATIONS OF STATE

3.1 Classical ideal gas law

n
ptotal = p1 + p2 + + pn = ptotal = pi . The classical ideal gas law may be written:
i=1

2.4 The ideal gas law (1834) pV = nRT .

In 1834 mile Clapeyron combined Boyles Law and In the form shown above, the equation of state is thus
Charles law into the rst statement of the ideal gas law. f (p, V, T ) = pV nRT = 0 .
Initially, the law was formulated as pVm = R(TC + 267)
If the calorically perfect gas approximation is used, then
(with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius), where R
the ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows
is the gas constant. However, later work revealed that the
number should actually be closer to 273.2, and then the
Celsius scale was dened with 0 C = 273.15 K, giving:
p = ( 1)e

where is the density, = Cp /Cv is the adiabatic index

pVm = R(TC + 273.15).
(ratio of specic heats), e = Cv T is the internal energy
per unit mass (the specic internal energy), Cv is the
2.5 Van der Waals equation of state (1873) specic heat at constant volume, and Cp is the specic
heat at constant pressure.
In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the rst equation
of state derived by the assumption of a nite volume
occupied by the constituent molecules.[5] His new for- 4 Cubic equations of state
mula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and
was most famously continued via the RedlichKwong Cubic equations of state are called such because they can
equation of state and the Soave modication of Redlich- be rewritten as a cubic function of V .
Kwong.

4.1 Van der Waals equation of state

3 Major equations of state
The Van der Waals equation of state may be written:
For a given amount of substance contained in a system,
the temperature, volume, and pressure are not indepen- ( )
a
dent quantities; they are connected by a relationship of p + 2 (Vm b) = RT
the general form: Vm

where Vm is molar volume. The substance-specic con-

stants a and b can be calculated from the critical proper-
f (p, V, T ) = 0. ties pc , Tc and Vc (noting that Vc is the molar volume at
In the following equations the variables are dened as fol- the critical point) as:
lows. Any consistent set of units may be used, although SI
units are preferred. Absolute temperature refers to use of
the Kelvin (K) or Rankine (R) temperature scales, with a = 3pc Vc2
zero being absolute zero.
Vc
b= .
p = pressure (absolute) 3
V = volume Also written as
n = number of moles of a substance
Vm = Vn = molar volume, the volume of 1 27(R Tc )2
mole of gas or liquid a=
64pc
T = absolute temperature
R Tc
R = ideal gas constant (8.3144621 J/(molK)) b= .
8pc
pc = pressure at the critical point
Proposed in 1873, the van der Waals equation of state
Vc = molar volume at the critical point was one of the rst to perform markedly better than the
Tc = absolute temperature at the critical point ideal gas law. In this landmark equation a is called the
4.3 Soave modication of Redlich-Kwong 3

attraction parameter and b the repulsion parameter or the 0.4278 R2 Tc 5/2

a=
eective molecular volume. While the equation is de- pc
nitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the
0.0867 R Tc
formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with exper- b=
imental data is limited for conditions where the liquid pc
forms. While the van der Waals equation is commonly Introduced in 1949, the Redlich-Kwong equation of state
referenced in text-books and papers for historical rea- was a considerable improvement over other equations of
sons, it is now obsolete. Other modern equations of only the time. It is still of interest primarily due to its rela-
slightly greater complexity are much more accurate. tively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals
equation of state, it performs poorly with respect to the
The van der Waals equation may be considered as the
liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately cal-
ideal gas law, improved due to two independent rea-
culating vaporliquid equilibria. However, it can be used
sons:
in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for
this purpose.
1. Molecules are thought as particles with volume, not
material points. Thus Vm cannot be too little, less The Redlich-Kwong equation is adequate for calculation
than some constant. So we get ( Vm b ) instead of of gas phase properties when the ratio of the pressure to
Vm . the critical pressure (reduced pressure) is less than about
one-half of the ratio of the temperature to the critical
2. While ideal gas molecules do not interact, we con- temperature (reduced temperature):
sider molecules attracting others within a distance
of several molecules radii. It makes no eect inside
the material, but surface molecules are attracted into p < T .
the material from the surface. We see this as dimin- pc 2Tc
ishing of pressure on the outer shell (which is used
in the ideal gas law), so we write ( p+ something)
instead of p . To evaluate this something, lets ex-
4.3 Soave modication of Redlich-Kwong
amine an additional force acting on an element of RT a
gas surface. While the force acting on each surface p =
Vm b Vm (Vm + b)
molecule is ~ , the force acting on the whole ele-
2 1
ment is ~ ~ V 2 . 0.42747 R2 Tc2
m a=
Pc
With the reduced state variables, i.e. V=V /V , P=P/P 0.08664 R Tc
and T=T/T , the reduced form of the Van der Waals b = Pc
equation can be formulated: ( ( )( ))2
= 1 + 0.48508 + 1.55171 0.15613 2 1 Tr0.5
( ) T
3 Tr =
Pr + 2 (3Vr 1) = 8Tr Tc
Vr
Where is the acentric factor for the species.
The benet of this form is that for given T and P, the This formulation for is due to Graboski and Daubert.
reduced volume of the liquid and gas can be calculated The original formulation from Soave is:
directly using Cardanos method for the reduced cubic
form:
( ( )( ))2
= 1 + 0.480 + 1.574 0.176 2 1 Tr0.5
( )
1 8Tr 3Vr 1 for hydrogen:
Vr
3
+ Vr2 + =0
3 3Pr Pr Pr

For P<1 and T<1, the system is in a state of vaporliquid

equilibrium. The reduced cubic equation of state yields in = 1.202 exp (0.30288 Tr ) .
that case 3 solutions. The largest and the lowest solution
We can also write it in the polynomial form, with:
are the gas and liquid reduced volume.

aP
4.2 Redlich-Kwong equation of state A=
R2 T 2
RT a bP
p= B=
Vm b T Vm (Vm + b) RT
4 4 CUBIC EQUATIONS OF STATE

then we have:
( )
0 = Z 3 Z 2 + Z A B B 2 AB
where R is the universal gas constant and Z=PV/(RT) is
the compressibility factor.
In 1972 G. Soave[6] replaced the 1/(T) term of the
Redlich-Kwong equation with a function (T,) involv-
ing the temperature and the acentric factor (the result-
ing equation is also known as the Soave-Redlich-Kwong
equation). The function was devised to t the va-
por pressure data of hydrocarbons and the equation does
fairly well for these materials.
Note especially that this replacement changes the deni-
tion of a slightly, as the Tc is now to the second power. 4.5
3. The mixing rules should not employ more than a sin-
gle binary interaction parameter, which should be
independent of temperature pressure and composi-
tion.
4. The equation should be applicable to all calculations
of all uid properties in natural gas processes.
For the most part the PengRobinson equation exhibits
performance similar to the Soave equation, although
it is generally superior in predicting the liquid densi-
ties of many materials, especially nonpolar ones.[8] The
departure functions of the PengRobinson equation are
given on a separate article.
PengRobinson-Stryjek-Vera equa-
tions of state

4.4 PengRobinson equation of state 4.5.1 PRSV1

RT a A modication to the attraction term in the Peng

p= Robinson equation of state published by Stryjek and Vera
Vm b Vm2 + 2bVm b2
in 1986 (PRSV) signicantly improved the models accu-
0.45724 R2 Tc2 racy by introducing an adjustable pure component param-
a=
pc eter and by modifying the polynomial t of the acentric
factor.[9]
0.07780 R Tc
b= The modication is:
pc
( ( ))2
= 1 + 1 Tr0.5 ( )
= 0 + 1 1 + Tr0.5 (0.7 Tr )
= 0.37464 + 1.54226 0.26992 2

T 0 = 0.378893+1.4897153 0.17131848 2 +0.0196554 3

Tr =
Tc where 1 is an adjustable pure component parameter.
In polynomial form: Stryjek and Vera published pure component parameters
for many compounds of industrial interest in their orig-
inal journal article. At reduced temperatures above 0.7,
ap they recommend to set 1 = 0 and simply use = 0
A= . For alcohols and water the value of 1 may be used
R2 T 2
up to the critical temperature and set to zero at higher
B=
bp temperatures.[9]
RT
Z 3 (1B) Z 2 +(A2B3B 2 ) Z(ABB 2 B 3 ) = 0 4.5.2 PRSV2
where is the acentric factor of the species, R is the
A subsequent modication published in 1986 (PRSV2)
universal gas constant and Z=PV/(RT) is compressibility
further improved the models accuracy by introducing
factor.
two additional pure component parameters to the previ-
The PengRobinson equation was developed in 1976 at ous attraction term modication.[10]
The University of Alberta by Ding-Yu Peng and Donald
The modication is:
Robinson in order to satisfy the following goals:[7]

1. The parameters should be expressible in terms of the = +[ + ( T ) (1 T 0.5 )] (1 + T 0.5 ) (0.7 T )

0 1 2 3 r r r r
critical properties and the acentric factor.
0 = 0.378893+1.4897153 0.17131848 2 +0.0196554 3
2. The model should provide reasonable accuracy near
the critical point, particularly for calculations of the where 1 , 2 , and 3 are adjustable pure component
compressibility factor and liquid density. parameters.
4.6 Elliott, Suresh, Donohue equation of state 5

PRSV2 is particularly advantageous for VLE calcula- c = 1 + 3.535 + 0.533 2 where is the
tions. While PRSV1 does oer an advantage over the acentric factor
PengRobinson model for describing thermodynamic be-
havior, it is still not accurate enough, in general, for The reduced number density is dened as

phase equilibrium calculations.[9] The highly non-linear = vVn
behavior of phase-equilibrium calculation methods tends
to amplify what would otherwise be acceptably small er- where
rors. It is therefore recommended that PRSV2 be used
for equilibrium calculations when applying these models
to a design. However, once the equilibrium state has been v
determined, the phase specic thermodynamic values at n
equilibrium may be determined by one of several simpler
models with a reasonable degree of accuracy.[10] V
The characteristic size parameter is related to the shape
One thing to note is that in the PRSV equation, the pa-
parameter c through
rameter t is done in a particular temperature range which
is usually below the critical temperature. Above the crit-
ical temperature, the PRSV alpha function tends to di- kTc
verge and become arbitrarily large instead of tending to- v =
Pc
wards 0. Because of this, alternate equations for alpha
where
should be employed above the critical point. This is espe-
cially important for systems containing hydrogen which 2
= 0.0312+0.087(c1)+0.008(c1)
1.000+2.455(c1)+0.732(c1)2 and k is
is often found at temperatures far above its critical point.
Boltzmanns constant.
Several alternate formulations have been proposed. Some
well known ones are by Twu et all or by Mathias and
Noting the relationships between Boltzmanns constant
Copeman.
and the Universal gas constant, and observing that the
number of molecules can be expressed in terms of
4.6 Elliott, Suresh, Donohue equation of Avogadros number and the molar mass, the reduced
number density can be expressed in terms of the molar
state
volume as
The Elliott, Suresh, and Donohue (ESD) equation of state
was proposed in 1990.[11] The equation seeks to correct RTc 1
a shortcoming in the PengRobinson EOS in that there = .
Pc Vm
was an inaccuracy in the van der Waals repulsive term.
The shape parameter q appearing in the Attraction term
The EOS accounts for the eect of the shape of a non-
and the term Y are given by
polar molecule and can be extended to polymers with the
addition of an extra term (not shown). The EOS itself
was developed through modeling computer simulations
q = 1 + k3 (c 1)
and should capture the essential physics of the size, shape, ( )
and hydrogen bonding. Y = exp k2
kT
where is the depth of the square-well potential and is
pVm given by
= Z = 1 + Z rep + Z att
RT
where: 1.000 + 0.945(c 1) + 0.134(c 1)2
=
k 1.023 + 2.225(c 1) + 0.478(c 1)2
4c
Z rep = zm , k1 , k2 and k3 are constants in the equation
1 1.9 of state:
zm qY zm = 9.49 for spherical molecules (c=1)
Z att =
1 + k1 Y k1 = 1.7745 for spherical molecules (c=1)
and k2 = 1.0617 for spherical molecules (c=1)
k3 = 1.90476.
c is a shape factor, with c = 1 for spherical
molecules The model can be extended to associating components
For non-spherical molecules, the following re- and mixtures of nonassociating components. Details are
lation is suggested: in the paper by J.R. Elliott, Jr. et al. (1990).[11]
6 8 OTHER EQUATIONS OF STATE OF INTEREST

5 Non-cubic equations of state Values of the various parameters for 15 substances can be
found in K.E. Starling (1973). Fluid Properties for Light
Petroleum Systems. Gulf Publishing Company.
5.1 Dieterici equation of state
p(V b) = RT ea/RT V
where a is associated with the interaction between 7 Multiparameter equations of
molecules and b takes into account the nite size of the state
molecules, similar to the Van der Waals equation.
The reduced coordinates are: 7.1 Helmholtz Function form

a a Multiparameter equations of state (MEOS) can be used to

Tc = , pc = 2 2 , Vc = 2b. represent pure uids with high accuracy, in both the liq-
4Rb 4b e
uid and gaseous states. MEOSs represent the Helmholtz
function of the uid as the sum of ideal gas and residual
6 Virial equations of state terms. Both terms are explicit in reduced temperature
and reduced density - thus:
ao (T,)+ar (T,)
6.1 Virial equation of state a(T,)
RT = RT = o (, ) + r (, )
Where:
Main article: Virial expansion
Tr
= T , = r
pVm B C D
=1+ + 2 + 3 + ... The reduced density and temperature are typically,
RT Vm Vm Vm
though not always, the critical values for the pure uid.
B = Vc Other thermodynamic functions can be derived from the
Vc2 MEOS by using appropriate derivatives of the Helmholtz
C= function; hence, because integration of the MEOS is not
3
Although usually not the most convenient equation of required, there are few restrictions as to the functional
state, the virial equation is important because it can be de- form of the ideal or residual terms. Typical MEOS use
rived directly from statistical mechanics. This equation is upwards of 50 uid specic parameters, but are able
also called the Kamerlingh Onnes equation. If appropri- to represent the uids properties with high accuracy.
ate assumptions are made about the mathematical form MEOS are available currently for about 50 of the most
of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be common industrial uids including refrigerants. Mixture
developed for each of the coecients. In this case B cor- models also exist.
responds to interactions between pairs of molecules, C to
triplets, and so on. Accuracy can be increased indenitely
by considering higher order terms. The coecients B, C, 8 Other equations of state of inter-
D, etc. are functions of temperature only.
est
It can also be used to work out the Boyle Temperature
(the temperature at which B = 0 and ideal gas laws apply)
from a and b from the Van der Waals equation of state, if 8.1 Stiened equation of state
you use the value for B shown below:
When considering water under very high pressures, in
situations such as underwater nuclear explosions, sonic
a shock lithotripsy, and sonoluminescence, the stiened
B =b .
RT equation of state is often used:

6.2 The BWR equation of state

p = ( 1)e p0
Main article: BenedictWebbRubin equation
( ) ( where e is the
) internal(energy per
) unit mass, is an empir-
C0 D0 E0 ically d d c3 (to be about
) ( )
p = RT + B0 RT A0 2 + 3 4 2 + bRT adetermined
constant
3 + a + typically
6 +taken
2
1 + 2 exp6.1, 2
T T T T
and p0 is another T T the molecular at-
constant, representing
where traction between water molecules. The magnitude of the
correction is about 2 gigapascals (20,000 atmospheres).
p = pressure The equation is stated in this form because the speed of
= molar density sound in water is given by c2 = (p + p0 )/ .
 7

Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is al- 9 Equations of state for solids and
ready under about 20,000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure,
and explains why water is commonly assumed to be in-
liquids
compressible: when the external pressure changes from 1
1/3 dK0
atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the Common abbreviations: := (V /V0 ) , K0 := dp
water behaves as an ideal gas would when changing from
20,001 to 20,002 atmospheres (2000.1 MPa to 2000.2 Tait equation for water and other liquids. Several
MPa). equations are referred to as the Tait equation.
This equation mispredicts the specic heat capacity of
Murnaghan equation of state
water but few simple alternatives are available for severely
nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks.
K0 [ 3K0 ]
p(V ) = 1
K0
8.2 Ultrarelativistic equation of state
BirchMurnaghan equation of state
An ultrarelativistic uid has equation of state
( ){ ( )}
3K0 1 2 3 1 2
p(V ) = 1 + (K0 4)
2 7 4 2
p = m c2s
Stacey-Brennan-Irvine equation of state[14]
where p is the pressure, m is the mass density, and cs is
(falsely often refer to Rose-Vinet equation of state
the speed of sound.
( )
1 [3 ]
p(V ) = 3K0 exp (K0 1) (1 )
8.3 Ideal Bose equation of state 2 2

The equation of state for an ideal Bose gas is Modied Rydberg equation of state[15][16][17]
(more reasonable form for strong compression)
( ) ( )
Li+1 (z) T 1 [3 ]
pVm = RT
() Tc p(V ) = 3K0 exp 2 (K0 3) (1 )
5
where is an exponent specic to the system (e.g. in the
absence of a potential eld, =3/2), z is exp(/kT) where Adapted Polynomial equation of state[18] ( sec-
is the chemical potential, Li is the polylogarithm, is ond order form = AP2, adapted for extreme com-
the Riemann zeta function, and Tc is the critical tempera- pression)
ture at which a BoseEinstein condensate begins to form. ( )
p(V ) = 3K0 1
5 exp [c0 (1 )] {1 + c2 (1 )}
8.4 Jones-Wilkins-Lee equation of state with
( )
for explosives (JWL-equation) c0 = ln 3K0
, pFG0 =
pFG0
( )5
The equation of state from Jones-Wilkins-Lee is used a0 Z 3
, c2 = 3
(K0 3) c0
V0 2
to describe the detonation products of explosives.
where a0 = 0.02337 GPa.nm5 . The total num-
( ) ( ) ber of electrons Z in the initial volume V0 de-
Fermi
termines the e0 gas pressure pFG0 , which
p = A 1 exp(R1 V )+B 1 exp(R2 V )+
R1 V R2 V provides forVthe correct behavior at extreme
compression. So far there are no known sim-
The ratio V = e / is dened by using e = density of ple solids that require higher order terms.
the explosive (solid part) and = density of the detona-
tion products. The parameters A , B , R1 , R2 and are
Adapted polynomial equation of state[18] (third
given by several references.[12] In addition, the initial den-
order form = AP3)
sity (solid part) 0 , speed of detonation VD , Chapman
Jouguet pressure PCJ and the chemical energy of the ex- ( )
plosive e0 are given in such references. These parameters 1 { }
p(V ) = 3K0 exp [c0 (1 )] 1 + c2 (1 ) + c3 (1 )2
are obtained by tting the JWL-EOS to experimental re- 5

sults. Typical parameters for some explosives are listed

in the table below. JohnsonHolmquist equation of state
8 11 REFERENCES

{
k1 + k2 2 + k3 3 + p Compression [8] Pierre
V0Donnez (2007). Essentials of Reservoir Engineer-
p(V ) = := 1:1
; ing.
k1 Tension V 151.
[9] Stryjek, R.; Vera, J. H. (1986). PRSV: An improved
MieGruneisen equation of state (for a more de- PengRobinson equation of state for pure compounds and
tailed discussion see ref.[19] ) mixtures. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineer-
ing. 64 (2): 323333. doi:10.1002/cjce.5450640224.

p(V ) p0 = (e e0 ) [10] Stryjek, R.; Vera, J. H. (1986). PRSV2: A cubic equa-
V
tion of state for accurate vaporliquid equilibria calcu-
Anton-Schmidt equation of state lations. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering.
64 (5): 820826. doi:10.1002/cjce.5450640516.
( )n ( )
p(V ) = V
V0 ln V
V0 [11] J. Richard, Jr. Elliott; S. Jayaraman Suresh; Marc D.
Donohue (1990). A Simple Equation of State for Non-
where = K0 is the bulk modulus at equilib- spherical and Associating Molecules. Ind. Eng. Chem.
K
rium volume V0 and n = 20 typically about Res. 29 (7): 14761485. doi:10.1021/ie00103a057.
2 is often related to the Grneisen parameter
by n = 16 G [12] B. M. Dobratz; P. C. Crawford (1985). LLNL Explosives
Handbook: Properties of Chemical Explosives and Explo-
sive Simulants. University of California; Lawrence Liver-
more National Laboratory; Report UCRL-5299; Rev.2;.
10 See also
[13] Wilkins, Mark L. (1999), Computer Simulation of Dy-
namic Phenomena, Springer, p. 80
Gas laws
[14] Stacey, F. D.; Brennan, B. J.; Irvine, R. D.
Departure function
(1981). Finite strain theories and comparisons
Table of thermodynamic equations with seismological data. Surveys in Geophysics.
4 (4): 189232. Bibcode:1981GeoSu...4..189S.
Real gas doi:10.1007/BF01449185.

Cluster Expansion [15] Holzapfel, W. B. (1991). Equations of states and scal-

11 References
[1] Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
[2] Solem, J. C.; Veeser, L. (1977). Exploratory
laser-driven shock wave studies (PDF). Los
Alamos Scientic Laboratory Report LA-6997. 79.
Bibcode:1977STIN...7914376S.
[3] Veeser, L. R.; Solem, J. C. (1978). Studies of Laser-
driven shock waves in aluminum. Physical Review Let-
ters. 40 (21): 1391. Bibcode:1978PhRvL..40.1391V.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.40.1391.
[4] Veeser, L.; Solem, J. C.; Lieber, A. (1979).
Impedance-match experiments using laser-driven
shock waves. Applied Physics Letters. 35 (10): 761.
Bibcode:1979ApPhL..35..761V. doi:10.1063/1.90961.
[5] van der Waals; J. D. (1873). On the Continuity of the
Gaseous and Liquid States (doctoral dissertation). Univer-
siteit Leiden.
ing rules for molecular solids under strong compression in
Molecular systems under high pressure ed. R. Pucci and
G. Piccino. North-Holland: Elsevier. pp. 6168.
[16] Holzapfel, W. B. (1991). Equations of state for solids
under strong compression. High Press. Res. 7: 290293.
[17] Holzapfel, Wi. B. (1996). Physics of solids under
strong compression. Rep. Prog. Phys. 59: 29
90. Bibcode:1996RPPh...59...29H. doi:10.1088/0034-
4885/59/1/002.
[18] Holzapfel, W. B. (1998). Equation of state for solids un-
der strong compression. High Press. Res. 16: 81126.
[19] Holzapfel, W. B. (2004). Equations of state and ther-
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