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Concepts to be learned:
Pre-lab Question: Are there waves in nature whose value are never
negative? Can you name a few?
One of the strange facts of quantum waves is that their amplitudes are
complex numbers, not just real numbers. These amplitudes are related to
probability not displacement!
Question: Can you try to imagine a wave which moves not only in the up (+)
and down (-) directions, but somehow in an imaginary (I) and negative
imaginary (-I) directions? Can you think of something that can be described
by a probability amplitude?
Pre-lab Question: Can you think of some examples in your experience where
waves added together to form a wave that is the sum of the original two?
Elastic string
travels over
pulley
Pre-lab Question: Think of a State Function of a rock not as a thing but as the
probability of finding a rock at a point. Think of the State Function of a tree as
the probability of finding a tree at a point. What expression combining these
state functions would describe the probability of the rock and tree being at the
same point in space?
2h 2
2 h
(1)
=v
t 2 x 2
where h(x,t) is the amplitude as a function of x, the position along the string,
and t , the time. For an elastic string, the wave velocity,v, is a function of the
linear mass density, ,(mass per unit length) and the tension, T, on the
string:
T (2)
v=
Pre-lab Question: Show that if h1(x,t) and h2(x,t) satisfy the wave equation,
then so does their sum h(x,t) = h1(x,t) + h2(x,t).
While the wave equation reflects Newton's law at each point on the string, the
constraints of clamping the string down at the ends is expressed
mathematically in the form of boundary conditions. For instance, the
boundary conditions h(0,t) = 0 or h(L,t) = 0 says that the ends of the string at
x = 0 and x = L are prevented from moving up or down.
An elastic string has normal modes that are characteristic of the string
properties, as well as the particular boundary conditions.
h( x, t) = f (x)g(t) (3)
n=1: =2L
n=2: =L
n=3: =2L / 3
n=4: =L/2
For a finite length of elastic string with fixed end boundary conditions
h(0,t) = 0 and h(L,t) = 0, the spatial shape functions are also sine functions,
f ( x) = sin(2x / ) , where is the wavelength. (See Fig. 2 above.)
Note that to satisfy the boundary conditions here, an integer multiple of half-
wavelengths need to fit exactly into the length L.
Other wave motions are possible on a string besides the normal modes
(which are the special oscillating motions). These other motions will typically
involve the familiar "travelling" of a waveform along the string. Nonetheless,
these travelling waves (and any allowed wave) can still be mathematically
decomposed into a linear combination of the normal modes.
Try generating travelling waves in the lab room with the bungee cord
stretched across the room. Do wave pulses appear to superpose and pass
through each other when travelling in opposite directions?
Since the derivation of the classical wave equation involved only Newton's
laws and a harmonic (Hookean) restoring force, most waves that are
relatively small disturbances in an equilibrium system obey the classical wave
equation. Thus water waves, sound waves, mechanical waves (as long as
they are not too strong) as well as electromagnetic (e.g. light) waves all obey
the classical wave equation.
II. Experimental
You will need the information you collect during the experiment to complete the
report at the end of this module. No separate report is required for this
experiment.
1) Be sure the clamps are all tightened after moving a part of the
experimental assembly. The string will be under tension, and can yank the
mechanical oscillator off the table if not properly secured.
2) Securely fasten weights to the end of the string so that vibrations do not
shake the weight loose.
3) Do not leave the strobe running for more than a period of a few minutes.
Afterwards, allow the strobe to cool off for about ten minutes before turning on
again.
General:
Question: What have we assumed about the weight of the string in the above
statement? What have we assumed about frictional forces?
Since the pulley is not perfectly frictionless, there is some hysteresis in the
degree of stretching of the string for a given weight.
The pulley acts to clamp the vertical string motion at that boundary. Without a
second clamp, the string is attached directly to the mechanical oscillator. This
end does not correspond to a fixed boundary since it is free to move up and
down. Therefore, without a fixed second boundary, the wavelength is not
constrained to fit a half-integer multiple in the length of vibrating string, and so
the wavelength can take continuous values.
Hint: The measurements are more easily made when the oscillations have the
highest amplitude. This can be found by tuning the frequency 1 Hz at a time.
CH351L Wet Lab 1/ page 8
In this first part we will fix the tension by hanging a 500-g weight off the free end
of the string. To be consistent, use the maximum extension of the string at this
weight.
1. Pick a frequency between 10 Hz and 500 Hz, and observe the formation
of a stable normal mode oscillation. What is the spatial envelope
function? Identify the nodes and antinodes, if any. View the results with a
strobe.. (See below for strobe hints).
4. Plot (at home if you choose) your vs. data on a log-log plot. This is a
common method for detecting a power-law dependence: If = c n ,
then log( ) = n log( ) + log(c)a linear relationship on a log-log plot.
The slope of the line is the exponent n. Do you find your data support a
power-law dependence of vs. ? If so, what is your best value of n, or
the nearest integer? Plot vs. n , for this value of n.
5. Given Eq. (3) above for the functional form of the normal mode, with the
appropriate choices of f(x) and g(t), use the classical wave equation,
Eq. (1), to determine a theoretical relationship between , , and v (the
wave speed). How do your measurements compare with theory?
CH351L Wet Lab 1/ page 9
In this second part, you will fix the frequency while varying the weight attached to
the free end of the string. You may want to choose a frequency that is low
enough that the wavelength is not too different from, L, the length between the
pulley and the mechanical oscillator, when there is a 500 g mass hanging. You
will vary the weight while measuring the wavelength.
The tricky part here is that while changing the weight alters the tension, it also
alters the linear mass density, since the same string (of constant mass, mstring) is
stretched over a longer or shorter distance. Thus the mass is distributed over a
total length Ltot, even though only the length L is vibrating.
1) With the 500 g weight still on, measure the wavelength at your chosen
frequency. Also measure the total length of stretched string. Be sure you
are measuring the total stretched string--from the weight to the
mechanical oscillator. This can be done by measuring the length of the
string that is hanging vertically, and adding it to L, which is fixed. You will
need to estimate how much string is in the pulley, and record this value.
2) Vary the hanging weight, mweight, (again using the maximum extension for
reproducibility against hysteresis) between 100g and 500g, and record the
wavelength, tension, and total linear extension of the stretched portion of
string. Make at least 5 different weight measurements.
3) For the curious: You may wish to plot the total extension of the stretched
portion of the string, Ltot, versus the mass mweight. If the string were
perfectly Hookean, what would be the expected relationship between the
two? What do you observe and why?
4) Given the relation between , , and v you derived from Part I, write an
T mweightg
expression relating to = . Note mstring and g are not
mstring / Ltot
being varied in this equation.
5) Plot vs. mweight Ltot . Consider how this compares with your theoretical
expression above?
6) Since you know Ltot, calculate a value for mweight based on your
wavelength measurements. Weigh your string on a balance, and estimate
what fraction of your string was stretched (i.e. between the knots). From
this, you may estimate the mass of the string that was stretched and
determine how it compares to your calculated value of mweight?
CH351L Wet Lab 1/ page 10
Part III. Normal modes for a vibrating string with two fixed ends
[Skip Part III]
In the previous parts, only one end (the pulley) was truly fixed. Here we will look
for the appearance of discrete normal modes when both ends are fixed.
Return to using a 500-g hanging weight. Using another clamp attached to the
clamp stand holding the mechanical oscillator, clamp down (pinch) the string
slightly away from the attachment point to the mechanical oscillator.
1) Measure the distance between the two fixed ends of the vibrating string.
Observe the normal modes for the circular drumhead and sphere (water balloon).
Make rough sketches of these modes identifying nodal surfaces. Can you find a
relationship between frequency and the number of nodal surfaces?
If the strobe frequency is slightly off from the oscillating motion frequency, the
snapshots captured by the strobe will slowly lag behind or get ahead of the last
snapshot. This creates the illusion of slow-motion viewing of the cyclic motion.
This can be effective for viewing the various phases of the cyclical motion, which
is ordinarily blurred out due to the high speeds.
In lab, the instructor may also present other vibrating or oscillating systems for
you to examine under the strobe, and to discuss in terms of normal mode motion.
CH351L Wet Lab 1/ page 11