NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Limbic System (emotions and memory)

- Septum
- Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology and neurology that aims to
- Amygdala
understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific
psychological processes. - Hippocamusc (learning and memory)
- Cingulate gyrus
- the study of the relationship between behavior, emotion, and
cognition on the one hand, and brain function on the other. Cerebral Cortex (heocortext)
a. Oxypetal visual processing mediates perceptions of terms,
5 MAJOR DIVISION AND SUBDIVISIONS
patterns and color. If damage, agnosia aphrasia.
b. Paraythal touch sensitive parts lips, face, fingers. If damage,
asomatognosias.
c. Temporal (cant distinguish an open faucet)
1. Heschls gyrus
2. Superior
3. Middle
4. Inferion
d. Frontal Lobes
a. Motor area
Forebrain b. Pre frontal Area
c. Arbital area
The brain is made up of three elements: the forebrain, the midbrain, and
d. Boas
the hindbrain. The forebrain, also called the prosencephalon, is the upper
'thinking' brain and has two main parts: the telencephalon and 2. Diencephalon
the diencephalon. The diencephalon simply includes the thalamus and the Hypothalamus.
1. Telencephalon
Thalamus
The telencephalon includes the two cerebral hemispheres that make up - Is the brains primary relaying station merely to the nerves coming
the cerebral cortex. It also includes the basal ganglia and most of from the sense organs go to thalamus before terminating highest level
the limbic system. of brain (cerebral)
- Olfactory information is only the sensory information thalamus.
Basal forebrain (movement)
Neurons or the usual tracks has to connect.
- This is a set of structures at the bottom front of the cortex and in
Hypothalamus
front of the striatum.
- Is the cluster of nerve lying below the thalamus. Aspects of behavior
- This system is important in the production of the neurotransmitter
including feeling, drinking, sexual behavior as well as psychological
acetylcholine, which is important in memory and learning.
functions such as temperature, regulation secretion of glans and
- Degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's typically registration of vital organs.
affect this area.
Midbrain
The midbrain, or mesencephalon is made up of two main structures and including the hypothalamus, thalamus, basal
surrounds the cerebral aqueduct. ganglia, amygdala, neocortex and spinal cord.

3. Mesencephalon
Tectum
- The tectum is in the dorsal part of the midbrain.
- The superior colliculi are a part of the visual system and are involved
in visual reflexes and reactions to moving stimuli.
- The inferior colliculi appear as four bumps on the dorsal surface of the
brain stem and are a part of the auditory system.
Tegmentum
- The tegmentum sits beneath the tectum.
5. Myelencephalon
Medulla
The medulla oblongata ('oblong marrow') is involved in vital functions
such as cardiovascular regulation and respiration.
It includes a section of the reticular formation.
Area postrema
The area postrema is an area within the medulla that controls
vomiting. The blood-brain barrier is weaker in this area of the brain. In this
way toxins in the blood can be monitored and the vomit reaction triggered
as needed.

Hindbrain
The hindbrain, or rhombencephalon surrounds the fourth ventricle. NEURONS

4. Metencephalon Neurones: Structures and Functions

The metencephalon is made up of the cerebellum and the pons.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum ('little brain') has two hemispheres and resembles a small
cerebrum. It is connected to the pons by bundles of axons called
the cerebellar peduncles ('little feet').
Damage to the cerebellum affects standing, walking and coordinated
movements.
Neurones (also written neurons*) are nerve cells.
Nerve cells together with neuroglia form the tissues of the nervous
system (i.e. nervous tissue).
There are many different types of nerve cells. Here are notes about words used to
refer to some functional types of neurones e.g. motor neurones vs. relay
neurones, and some structures of neurones, e.g. axons, dendrites, synapses.

Pons
The pons is a large bulge on the side of the brain stem. It includes a
section of the reticular formation. It is involved in sleep and arousal.
The locus coeruleus is a nucleus in the dorsal pons made up
of noradrenergic neurons. Axons from these cells project to many areas
 Neurons. Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by
transmitting electrochemical signals. Neurons look quite different from other cells in
the body due to the many long cellular processes that extend from their central cell
body. The cell body is the roughly round part of a neuron that contains the nucleus,
mitochondria, and most of the cellular organelles. Small tree-like structures called
dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up stimuli from the environment, other
neurons, or sensory receptor cells. Long transmitting processes called axons extend
from the cell body to send signals onward to other neurons or effector cells in the
body.

There are 3 basic classes of neurons: afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and
interneurons.
1. Afferent neurons. Also known as sensory neurons, afferent neurons transmit sensory
signals to the central nervous system from receptors in the body.

2. Efferent neurons. Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons transmit signals
from the central nervous system to effectors in the body such as muscles and glands.

3. Interneurons. Interneurons form complex networks within the central nervous system
to integrate the information received from afferent neurons and to direct the function
of the body through efferent neurons.

3 DOMINANT OF NEURONS
Axon
Doma
Dentrites

2 Characteristic of Neuron
Irritability- ability to respond stimulation. A fundamental activity of living
matter (neurons) that govern responses.
Conductivity- ability of neuron or nerve to transmit neurons impulses.
Conductility varies of size and metabolic condition of the neuron.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS 6. Lipids and Gases
- Nitric acid
- Carbon Dioxide
- Cannabinoids

ANATOMICAL AND FUNCTIONAL

Chemical Classifications of Neurotransimtters

1. Acetylcholine
2. Monoamines
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
- Dopamine Neuroanatomy: the structure of the nervous system. To learn how the nervous
- Histamine system functions, you must learn how the nervous system is put together.
- Serotin
The nervous system can be divided into several connected systems that function
3. Amino
together. Let's start with a simple division:
- Gaba
- Glycine The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and peripheral
- Aspartate nervous system.
- Glutamate
4. Neuropeptide Let's break the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system into
more parts.
- Substance P
- Endorphins and Enkephalins Central Nervous System
- Oxytocin, vasopressin
5. Purines The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal
- Adenosine cord. The average adult human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg (approximately 3
- ATP pounds). The brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) and trillions of
"support cells" called glia. The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and
45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column, the
collection of bones (back bone) that houses the spinal cord, is about 70 cm long.
Therefore, the spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column.

For brain weights of other animals, see brain facts and figures.

Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory
information to the central nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to
skeletal muscle.
Divisions of the Nervous
System
The picture on the left shows the somatic motor system. The cell body is located in
either the brain or spinal cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle.

Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system is divided into three parts: the sympathetic
nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system and the enteric nervous
system. The autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscle of the viscera
(internal organs) and glands.

This picture shows the general organization of the autonomic nervous system. The
preganglionic neuron is located in either the brain or the spinal cord. This Telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon
preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic ganglion. The postganglionic
neuron then projects to the target organ. Notice that the somatic nervous system
has only one neuron between the central nervous system and the target organ
while the autonomic nervous system uses two neurons.

The enteric nervous system is a third division of the autonomic nervous system
that you do not hear much about. The enteric nervous system is a meshwork of
nerve fibers that innervate the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall
bladder). Metencephalon Myelencephalon

The following table shows how the nervous system can be divided. The bottom
row of the table contains the names of specific areas within the brain.
From a top view, notice how the brain is divided into two halves, plural of the word sulcus is "sulci"). Lower mammals, such as rats and mice, have
called hemispheres. Each hemisphere communicates with the other through very few gyri and sulci.
the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers. (Another smaller fiber bundle that
connects the two hemispheres is called the anterior commissure). Cerebellum

Some differences between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central Functions:
nervous system (CNS):
Movement
1. In the CNS, collections of neurons are called nuclei. In the PNS, collections Balance
of neurons are called ganglia. Posture
2. In the CNS, collections of axons are called tracts. In the PNS, collections of
axons are called nerves. The word "cerebellum" is derived from the Latin word for "little brain." Located
behind the brain stem, the cerebellum is similar to the cerebral cortex because it
In the peripheral nervous system, neurons can be functionally divided in three has hemispheres and a cortex that surrounds the hemispheres.
ways:
Brain stem
1. Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous system
from sense organs or motor (efferent) - carry information away from the Functions:
central nervous system (for muscle control).
2. Cranial - connects the brain with the periphery or spinal - connects the Breathing
spinal cord with the periphery. Heart Rate
3. Somatic - connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous system Blood Pressure
or visceral - connects the internal organs with the central nervous system.
The brain stem refers to the area of the brain between the thalamus and spinal
Brain Structures cord. Structures of the brain stem include the pons, medulla oblongta, tectum,
reticular formation and tegmentum. The brain stem is important for maintaining
Cerebral Corte basic life functions such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.

Functions: Hypothalamus

Thought Functions:
Voluntary movement
Language
Reasoning
Perception
The word "cortex" comes from the Latin word for "bark" (of a tree). This is because
the cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up the outer layer of the brain. The
thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6 mm. The right and left sides of
the cerebral cortex are connected by a thick band of nerve fibers called
the "corpus callosum." In higher mammals such as humans, the cerebral cortex
looks like it has many bumps and grooves. A bump or bulge on the cortex is called
a gyrus (the plural of the word gyrus is "gyri") and a groove is called a sulcus (the
Body Temperature
Emotions
Hunger
Thirst
Circadian Rhythms
The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located at the
base of the brain. The hypothalamus is only 1/300 of the total brain weight. One
function of the hypothalamus is the control of body temperature. The
hypothalamus detects changes in body temperature and sends commands to
adjust the temperature. For example, the hypothalamus can detect fever and
respond by sending a command to expand capillaries in the skin. The expansion of
the capillaries cools the blood and results in a drop in body temperature. The The basal ganglia are a group of structures, including the globus pallidus, caudate
hypothalamus also controls the pituitary. nucleus, subthalamic nucleus, putamen and substantia nigra, that are important in
coordinating movement.
Thalamus
Midbrain
Functions:
Functions:
Sensory processing
Movement Vision
Audition
The thalamus receives sensory information from other areas of the nervous Eye Movement
system and sends this information to the cerebral cortex. The thalamus is also Body Movement
important for processing information related to movement.
The midbrain includes structures such as the superior and inferior colliculi and red
Limbic System nucleus. There are several other areas also in the midbrain.

Functions:

Emotions
Memory

The limbic system (or the limbic areas) is a group of structures that includes the
amygdala, the hippocampus, mammillary bodies and cingulate gyrus. These areas
are important for controlling the emotional response to a given situation. The
hippocampus is also important for memory.

Hippocampus

Functions:

Learning
Memory

The hippocampus is one part of the limbic system that is important for memory
and learning.

Basal Ganglia

Functions:

Movement