Eta Carinae is a supergiant binary star system within our galaxy some 8000 light

years away. Explosive turmoil is already apparent within this system, which is
likely to supernova within the next million years. The atoms created within such
exploding stars are ejected into the universe where they eventually recombine
because of gravity to form new star systems.
 Chapter 2 Particles of Matter

90 percent of the atoms in the known universe are Hydrogen

atoms, the lightest of all atoms. Heavier atoms are produced in
stars, which are massive collections of hydrogen pulled together
by gravitational forces. With the exception of hydrogen, nearly
all the atoms that occur naturally on the Earth including those in
your body are the products of stars. A tiny fraction of these
atoms came from our own star, the Sun, but most are from stars
that ran their course long before our solar system came into
being.

the atoms here on earth are the remnants of stellar

explosions from long ago. We are literally made of stardust.
Chapter 2 Particles of Matter
 2.1 The Submicroscopic World Is Super-Small
At the macroscopic level, matter is large enough to be seen, measured, or handled.

Are the dunes one continuous

piece of matter or made of
little bits of matter?

Atoms combine to form

molecules and matter.

There are far more atoms in a single grain of sand or molecules within a glass of
water than there are grains of sand within this towering sand dune.

A liter of water is about how many times larger than a molecule of water?
 2.2 Discovering the Atom

Each element consists of indivisible particles called atoms.

Some atoms are larger than others, but they are all exceedingly small.
Gold atoms, for example, are so small that about 4,000,000,000,000
(4 trillion) of them could fit within the period at the end of this sentence

Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed in chemical

reactions
Figure 8
(a) Scanning probe microscopes are relatively simple devices used to
create submicroscopic imagery.
(b) An image of gallium and arsenic atoms.
(c) Each dot in the world's tiniest map consists of a
few thousand gold atoms, each dot moved into its proper place by a
scanning probe microscope.
Metallic Bonding
Metals bond together with a sea of electrons -- electrons are not
held by any one atom, but shared by all.

How close must the two ends of the cut wire be for
electrical current to flow?
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM)

tunneling
electrons

development in 1981, earned its

inventors, Gerd Binning Gerd Binng
and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM Zrich),
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.
pentacene (C22H14)
molecule
2.3 Mass Is How Much, and Volume Is How Spacious

The SI unit of volume is the liter, which is only slightly

larger than the USES unit of volume, the quart.

The Displacement Method

A convenient way to measure the volume of an irregular object
 2.3 Mass Is How Much, and Volume Is How Spacious
The atomic mass unit (u) is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom,
approximately 1.661027 kg. The atomic mass unit is convenient
for expressing the masses of atoms and molecules.
Mass
Is how much matter
The greater the mass, the greater the amount of
matter
Is a measure of an objects inertia
The resistance of an object to changes in motion
Standard unit of mass is the kilogram
One kilogram is equal to 1000 grams

Mass and weight are not the same

7. Which can change from one location to another: mass or weight?
Figure 12
(a) A 1-kilogram gold bar resting on the Earth weighs 2.2 pounds.
(b) On the Moon, this same gold bar would weigh 0.37 pound.
(c) Deep in space, far from any planet, the gold bar would
weigh 0 pounds, though it would still have a mass of 1 kilogram.
 Yes, an object can have mass without having weight. This may occur deep in space where a floating object
(with mass) would be "weightless". In order to have weight, however, the object must have mass. So, an object
cannot have weight without having mass. are two different quantities. Mass is a measure of how much "stuff"
is present in an object. Weight is a measure of the gravitational attraction between two massestypically, we
refer to examples where one of the objects is a planet or a moon

This question requires you to be able to distinguish between mass and volume. Imagine a container that
holds exactly 1 liter when filled to the brim. Fill this container with 20C water and then warm this water up to
80C. As the water warms, it expands, which means some will be lost as it flows over the brim. In other words,
there is less water in a liter at 80C than there is in a liter of water at 20C. A liter of water at 80C, therefore,
weighs less than a liter of water at 20C.

The air inside the car has more inertia than the helium in the helium balloon. As the car starts forward, the
greater inertia of the air causes it to pitch backwards, much like the girls head. As this air holds to the back of
the car, the lighter helium balloon moves forward. A similar effect can be seen when sliding a bottle of water
on its side across a table. As you accelerate the bottle forward, the water inside the bottle has an inertia that
holds it back. Any bubble of air within the bottle thus runs forward in the direction that the bottle was pushed
 2.4 Density Is the Ratio of Mass to Volume

Why does hot air rise?

Density
Relates an objects mass and volume
Describes how much material is squeezed into a space

Which occupies a greater volume:

1 kilogram of lead or 1 kilogram of aluminum?
Pure gold (24K is 99.9 mass-%) density ~ 19.3
18K red gold: 75% gold, 25% copper density?
18K rose gold: 75% gold, 22.25% copper, 2.75% silver
18K pink gold: 75% gold, 20% copper, 5% silver
Pure gold (24K is 99.9 mass-%) density = 19.3
White gold 90 wt.% gold and 10 wt.% nickel
18K red gold: 75% gold, 25% copper (density?)
18K rose gold: 75% gold, 22.25% copper, 2.75% silver
18K pink gold: 75% gold, 20% copper, 5% silver
A pre-1982 penny has a density of 8.92 g per milliliter
and a volume of 0.392 milliliters. What is its mass?
A post-1982 penny has a density of 7.40 g per milliliter
and a mass of 2.90 g. What is its volume?
NT$ 1 coin: Diameter: 20mm Weight: 3.8g.
NT$ 5 coin: Diameter: 22mm Weight: 4.4g.
NT$10 coin:Diameter: 26mm Weight: 7.5g.
NT$50 coin:Diameter: 28mm Weight: 10g.
How much air (by weight) would be enclosed in the airplane?

Fuselage width 12 ft 4 in (3.76 m)

Fuselage Height 13 ft 2 in (4.01 m)

Overall length 110 ft 4 in (33.6 m)

 2.5 Energy Is the Mover of Matter
Energy is the capacity to do work
Types of energy
Potential energy is stored energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
Chemical potential energy
Substances possess chemical potential energy, which is the energy
that is stored within atoms and molecules. For example, any
material that can bum has chemical potential energy.

Units of energy
Joule is the SI unit for energy
calorie (small c) is a common unit
Calorie (large C) is equal to a kilocalorie; the common unit of food
The energy content of this candy bar (230 Calories = 230,000 calories).
When released through burning, is enough to heat up 230,000 grams
(about 507 pounds) of water by 1 degree Celsius.
 2.6 Temperature Is a Measure of How Hot Heat It Is Not

Temperature
How hot or cold an object is
Related to how quickly or
slowly the atoms are moving
Warmer substances tend to
expand

The difference between hot coffee and cold coffee is the average
speed of the molecules. In the hot coffee, the molecules are
moving faster on average than they are in the cold coffee.
 Three common ways to measure temperature
Celsius (oC), Fahrenheit (oF), and Kelvin (K)
Celsius and Fahrenheit are given in degrees
Zero kelvin is called absolute zero
Temperature is the average energy, not the total energy amount

Bodies of water at the same temperature have the same average

molecular kinetic energies.

Heat is the flow of energy from one object to another

Flows from warm objects to cooler objects
The greater the temperature difference,
the greater the rate of heat flow
When you enter a swimming pool, the water may feel quite cold. After a
while, though, your body "gets used to it," and the water no longer feels so
cold. Use the concept of heat to explain what is going on.
 2.7 The States of a Matter

Three states of matter at the macroscopic scale

Solid
Exhibits definite volume and definite shape
Liquid
Has definite volume but indefinite shape
Shape changes when the container changes
Gas
Exhibits neither definite shape nor volume
Fills the container no matter the size
On the submicroscopic level, the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases are distinguished by the
extent of interaction between the submicroscopic particles (the atoms or molecules).
 Matter at the subatomic level
Solid
Very strong intermolecular forces
Very little atomic motion
Liquid
Medium level forces and atomic motion
Higher motion indicates higher temperatures
Gas
Weakest or no intermolecular forces
Atoms act nearly independent of each other

Concept Check
Why are gases so much easier to compress into smaller
volumes compared to solids and liquids?
Phase changesdescribed by familiar terms
Meltingphase change from solid to liquid
Freezingchange from liquid to solid
Evaporationchange from liquid to gas
Condensationchange from gas to liquid
Phase changesdescribed by familiar terms
Meltingphase change from solid to liquid
Freezingchange from liquid to solid Liquid Solid
Evaporationchange from liquid to gas
Condensationchange from gas to liquid GasLiquid

Gas Liquid Solid

Sublimation and deposition are

two less commonly mentioned
phase changes:
Sublimation
is the transformation of a solid
Sublimation directly to a gas.
Deposition is the
transformation of a gas directly to a
solid.
 Phase Diagrams

A typical behavior Water: non-typical material

The .curves follow

Clausius-Clapeyron eqn.
dP/dT = S/ V
304.25 K 72.9 atm
Difference Phases (structures) in the Solid State
 Tin Pest

13.2 oC

gray tin white tin

stable < 13.2 oC metallic

Tin becomes a superconductor below 3.72 K

Shape-Memory Alloy
2.8 Gas Laws Describe/Predict the Behavior of Gases

Boyles Law
Relates pressure and volume
Volume and pressure are inversely
proportional

Boyle's Law holds true only

assuming that the temperature
and number of gas particles
remain the same
 Pressure cooking

At a pressure of 1 bar or ~15 psi (pounds per square inch)

above the existing atmospheric pressure, water in a
pressure cooker can reach a temperature of up to 121 oC
(250 oF ), depending on altitude.

Both pressure cooking and slow cooking are forms of

braising. Braising relies on heat, time, and moisture to break
down the tough connective tissue (collagen) that binds
together the muscle fibers collectively called meat, making it
an ideal way to cook tougher, more affordable cuts.

Most braises follow the same basic steps. The food to be

braised (meats, vegetables, mushrooms, etc.) is first pan-
seared to brown its surface and enhance its flavor (through
the Maillard reaction).
Most braises follow the same basic steps. The food to be braised (meats,
vegetables, mushrooms, etc.) is first pan-seared to brown its surface and
enhance its flavor (through the Maillard reaction).

-- The reactive carbonyl group of the sugar reacts with

the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid, and forms a complex
mixture of poorly characterized molecules responsible for a range of
odors and flavors. This process is accelerated in an alkaline
environment (e.g., NaOH or KOH applied to darken pretzels), as
the amino groups (RNH3+) are deprotonated and, hence, have an
increased nucleophilicity. The type of the amino acid determines the
resulting flavor. This reaction is the basis of the flavoring industry.

Acrylamide forms in coffee when coffee beans are roasted, not when
coffee is brewed at home or in a restaurant. So far, scientists have
not found good ways to reduce acrylamide formation in coffee.
A scuba diver swimming underwater breathes compressed air,
which counteracts the water pressure, allowing her to breathe.
She then holds her breath while returning to the surface. What
happens to the volume of air in her lungs?

Avogadros Law
Relates volume and number of particles
 Charless Law
Relates volume and temperature

The volume of a gas increases as its temperature increases;

the volume of a gas decreases as its temperature decreases
(the gases converge to zero volume at -273.15 oC)
Note that the samples of the various gases contain different
numbers of moles
 Ideal Gas Law
The behavior of gas can be described using four basic
interrelated quantities
Previous laws can be combined to form the ideal gas law

PV = nRT
Pressure: atm; Volume: L; n: mole; T: K
R (gas constant) = 0.08206 L-atm/mole-K
= 8.314 JK1mol1
= 1.987 cal/mole-K

Assuming a constant volume and number of particles, as the temperature

of a gas increases, what happens to the pressure? Why?
Figure 5-22 p178
 Kinetic Molecular Theory

1.A gas consists of tiny particlesatoms or molecules.

2.Gas particles are in constant random motion,
colliding with one another and with the walls of their container.
3. The impact of gas particles on the walls of the container
produce a jittery force that appears as a steady push against the
inner surface. This pushing force
provides the pressure of the enclosed gas.
4.Deviations from gas laws arise primarily because of the
interactions occurring among gas particles and because
gas particles are not infinitely small.
5.The average kinetic energy (energy due to motion) of the gas
particles is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas
Figure 5-15 p169
 To develop technologies that allow materials to be manufactured
with reduced or no negative environmental impacts. This is an
area of research known as green chemistry.
1. Raw materials used in the manufacturing process should be sustainably
renewable
2. Waste products from the manufacturing process should be minimized. Any
waste products should be either recycled or rendered
3. The manufacturing process should be energy efficient, e.g. chemical
reactions that run at easy-to-attain ambient temperatures and pressures
fewer steps catalysts) are most desirable.
4. The manufacturing process should minimize hazards, i.e. choosing
chemical reactions that involve fewer toxic chemicals and are not explosive.
5. The desired final products should be little or no toxicity and be recyclable,
or should degrade to innocuous substances after use and not
accumulate in the environment.
Benign Pesticides
Affordable Hydrogen Peroxide

Versatile Ionic Liquids

Certain ionic liquids are able to dissolve cellulose,

which is, by far, the most abundant and renewable material
and energy resource on this planet. Cellulose is the structural biopolymer of plants.
Separated strands of cellulose can then be easily broken down into sugars that can
be fermented into ethanol. (Ethanol from such sources is known as cellulosic
ethanol.) They can also serve as a starting material for nonpetroleum-based
polymers. Both these applications would help move us away from our dependence
upon nonrenewable and greenhouse gas-emitting petroleum.