220 Problem, ff Solution, on Thermodynamics ff Statistical Mechanic,

Suppose that the number density of protons is 10

/cm
3.
Find the

10
chemical potentials for the electrons and positrons. Find the temperature
3.
at which the positron density is l/cm Find the temperature at which it
10 3
is 10 /cm

(Princeton)

Solution:
2
For kT / m e c 1, n u c l e a r reactions may be neglected. From charge

conservation, we have n_ = np + n+, where n_, n+ are the number den

sities of electrons and positrons respectively. For a non-relativistic non

d e g e n e r a t e c as e , we have

3/2 2)
_ ( 2 1r m e k T ) (- - mec
n_ - 2 h2 exp kT '

3/2 2 )

_ ( 2 1r m e k T ) (+-mec
n+ - 2 h2 exp kT

where _ and + are the chemical potentials of electrons and positrons

respectively. From the chemical equilibrium condition, we obtain _ =

-+ = . Hence

n+/n_ =exp(-2/kT).

3, 10 3, 5
For n+ = 1/cm n., np = 10 /cm we have e x p ( / kT) = 10 or

/kT 1 1 . 5 . Substituting these results into the expression of n _ , we have

8 7 10 3,
T 1 . 2 X 10 K, so u s 1 . 6 X 1 0 - erg. For n = 1 0 /cm exp(/kT) = v'2,
/ kT 0.4. Substituting these results into the expression of n + , we get
8 9
T 1 . 5 x 10 K, 8 . 4 x 1 0 - erg.

2054

Consider a rigid lattice of distinguishable spin 1 / 2 atoms in a magnetic

field. The spins have two s t a t e s , w i t h energies - o H and + 0 H for spins up

( t ) and down ( ! ) , respectively, relative to H . The system is at temperature

T.

( a) Determine the canonical partition function z for this system.

(b) Determine the total m a g n e t i c moment M = 0 ( N+ - N_ ) of the

system.

(c) Determine the entropy of the system.

( Wisconsin)
 StatisticaJ Physics 221

Solution:

( a) The partition f u n c t i o n is

z = exp(x) + exp(-x) ,

where x = oH/kT.

(b) The total magnetic moment is

a
M = 0 ( N + - N _ ) = NkT BH l n z

= No t a n h ( x )

(c) The entropy of the system is

S = N k(In z - {38 In z / a /3)

= N k(ln 2 + ln(cosh x)) - x tanh(x) .

2055

A paramagnetic system consists of N m a g n e t i c dipoles. Each dipole

carries a m a g n e t i c m o m e n t which can be t r e a t e d classically. If the system

at a fi n i t e temperature T is in a uniform m a g n e t i c field H , fi n d

(a) the i n d u c e d m a g n e t i z a t i o n in the s y s t e m , and

(b) the heat capacity at c o n s t a n t H.

( UC, Berkeley)

Solution:

(a) The mean magnetic moment for a dipole is

() = f cos e e x p ( x cos O ) d fl

f e x p ( x cos e ) d fl

_ forr cos e e x p ( x cos 0) sin Ode

- forr e x p ( x cos e) sin O d e

= [c o t h x - ] ,

where x = H/kT. Then the induced m a g n e t i z a t i o n in t h e system is

(M) = N() = N ( c o t h x -D .
222 Problems fJ Solution& on Thermodynamics fJ StatiaticaJ Mechanica

B(u) 8(M) 2 2 2

(b) c = aT = - H = Nk(l - x csch x ) .

2056

Consider a gas of spin 1 / 2 atoms with density n atoms per u n i t volume.

Each atom has intrinsic magnetic m o m e n t and the interaction between

atoms is n e g l i g i b l e .

A s s u m e t h a t t h e s y s t e m obeys classical s t a t i s t i c s .

(a) What is the probability of fi n d i n g an atom w i t h parallel to the

applied m a g n e t i c field H at absolute temperature T? W i t h anti-parallel

to H?

(b) Find the mean m a g n e t i z a t i o n of the gas in both the high and low

temperature limits?

( c) Determine t h e m a g n e t i c susceptibility x in terms of .

(SUNY, Buffalo)

Solution:

(a) The interaction energy between an atom and the external magnetic

field is e = -. H. By classical Boltzmann distribution, the number of

atoms per unit volume in the solid angle element dO in the direction ( 8 , <.p ) ,

is

g e x p ( - fi F; ) d O = gexp(H c o s B / k T ) d O ,

where e is the a n g l e between and H and g is the normalization factor

given by

i.e.,
nH
g = H .

41rkT sinh :T

Hence the probability density for t h e magnetic moment of an atom to b e

parallel to H is

feH/kT = .2._ (H) e H / k T / sinh (H) .

n 4 1r kT kT

and t h a t for t h e magnetic moment to b e antiparallel to H is

fe-H/kT = .2._ (H) e - H / k T / sinh (H) .

n 4 1r kT kT
 Statiatical Physics 223

(b) The average m a g n e t i z a t i o n of t h e gas at t e m p e r a t u r e T is

M = 2 ,r g lo" eH '
0' 9/kT
cos O sin OdO

= n [coth ( n - : l .

H H
At high temperatures, kT -e; 1 . Let kT = x, and expand

1 1
1 1 ( x2 x4 )
coth x - ; = ; 1 + - + . . . - - - x .
3 45 x 3

- n2

so M
3kTH.
At low t e m p e r a t u r e s , x >
> 1 , then

1
coth x - - 1 .
x

and M n .

(c) The m a g n e t i c s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of t h e system is

M { n2/3kT, at high temperature

x ( ) = -
H oo , at low temperature .

There is spontaneous m a g n e t i z a t i o n in the limit of low temperatures.

2057

A material consists of n independent particles and is in a weak external

magnetic field H. Each particle can have a magnetic moment m along

the m a g n e t i c fi e l d , where m = J, J - 1 , . . . , -J + 1 , -J, J b e i n g an integer,

and is a c o n s t a n t . The s y s t e m is at t e m p e r a t u r e T.

(a) Find the p a r t i t i o n function for this s y s t e m .

(b) Calculate the average m a g n e t i z a t i o n , M, of the m a t e r i a l .

(c) For large values of T fmd an asymptotic expression for M .

(MIT)
224 Problems fi Solution.8 on Thermodynamics ff StaiisticaJ Mechanics

Solution:

( a) The partition function is

z = mtJ emH/kT = sinh [ (J + D H/kT] / sinh GH/kT)

( b ] The average magnetization is

M = - (BF) = N kT ( __!__ ln z)
an r an r

N [ [ H] H]
= (2J + 1 ) coth (2J + 1) kT - coth kT
2 2 2

(c) When kT H , using

coth x "' (1 + x:) , for x -e; 1

we get

2058

Two dipoles, with dipole moments M1 and M21 are held apart at a

separation R, only the orientations of the moments b e i n g free. They are in

thermal equilibrium with the environment at temperature T. Compute the

mean force F between the dipoles for the high temperature limit ;::

1. The system is to be treated classically.

Remark: The potential energy between two dipoles is:

(Princeton)

Solution:

Taking the z-axis along the line connecting 'M

1 and M2, we have
 Statistical Ph11sics 225

The classical partition function is

z = J e - /3 4> d fl 1 dfl2

-!
- exp
[- f3M1M2
R3

( 2 cos 8 1 cos 02 - sin 0 1 sin 02 c o s ( <p1 - <p 2 ) ) ] d fl 1 dfl2

3
As ,\ = f3M1M 2 / R <{:'.: 1, expanding the integrand with respect to ). ,

retaining only the first non-zero terms, and noting that the i n t e g r a l of a

linear term of cos O is z e r o , we have

z = f[ 1 + )..
: (2 cos O 1 cos 02 - sin 0 1 sin 02 c o s ] p1 - 1<' 2 ) ) 2 ] en, d02

2 2 2
32 4 4
2)
= 16 + --).2 + - = -(37 + 8 ).
9 9 9

1 az 16). M1M2
u = - - - = ---
z a {3 37 + 8).2 R3 ,

2
F = _ a = 16kT . 7 4 ).

2
3R R 3 7 + 8 >.

2059

The molecule of a perfect gas consists of two atoms, of mass m, rigidly

separated by a d i s t a n c e d. The a t o m s of each molecule carry charges q and

- q respectively, and the gas is placed in an electric field e. Find the mean

polarization, and the s p e c i fi c h e a t p e r molecule, if q u a n t u m effects can b e

neglected.

State the c o n d i t i o n for this last assumption to be true.

( UC, Berkeley)

Solution:

Assume that the angle between a molecular dipole and the external

field is 8 . The e n e r g y of a dipole in the field is

E = - E0 cos O , E0 = dqe .
226 Problems ff Solutia on Thermodsmarmc ff Statiatical Mechanic

Then

f dq cos () e E o c o s e/kT dO
p=-------
f eEo c o s 9 / k T dO

Ji 71' c o s 8 e E o c o s 9 / k T s i n () d (}

O dq
J eEo c o s O / k T sin (}d(}
0"

= dq [coth ( :;) :] ,

E = -pe.

0)2

8p dq kT (kET
l
x = ae = Eo 1 - sinh2 ( :;)
[

0)2

(E
_ 8E _ k kT l
c - aT - 1 - sinh2 (:;) .
[

The condition for classical approximation to be valid is t h a t the quantiza

tion of the rotational energy can be n e g l e c t e d , that is, kT ;:

2

2060

The response of polar substances ( e . g . , HCl, H 2 0 , etc) to applied elec

tric fields can be described in terms of a classical model which attributes

to each molecule a permanent electric dipole moment of magnitude p.

( a) Write down a general expression for the average macroscopic polar

ization p (dipole moment per unit volume) for a dilute system of n molecules

per u n i t volume at temperature T in a uniform electric field E.

(b) Calculate explicitly an approximate result for the average macro

scopic polarization p a t high temperatures ( K T pE).

(MIT)
 Statiatical Phyaica 227

Solution:

( a) The energy of a dipole in electric field is

Ue = -p. E = - p E cos e .

The partition function is t h e n

,..., rz pE c o s 0 / k T lldB _ 2kT h (pE)

z ,..., Jo e sm u - pE sm kT

The polarization is

_ (aF) 8Inz nkT pE

p = - aE V,T,N = nkT aE = -E + n p c o t h kT

(b) Under the condition z = :: 1 , coth z i x + ;- , and we have

2
pnp E/3kT.

2061

The entropy of an ideal paramagnet in a magnetic field is given ap

proximately by
2 ,
S = So - C U

where U is the energy of the spin system and C is a constant with fixed

mechanical parameters of the s y s t e m .

( a) Using the fundamental definition of the temperature, determine

the energy U of the spin system as a function of T.

(b) S k e t c h a graph of U versus T for all values of T ( - oo < T < oo ) .

(c) Briefly tell w h a t physical sense you can make of the n e g a t i v e tern

perature part of your result.

( Wisconsin)

Solution:

( a) From the d e fi n i t i o n of temperature,

T = ( : t=- 2U '

1
we have U = - - -
2CT'
228 Problems fJ Solutio,u on Thermod11namics fJ Statistical Mechanics

(b) We assume C > 0. The change of U with T is shown in the

Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14.

( c) Under normal c o n d i t i o n s , t h e number of particles in higher energy

states is smaller t h a n t h a t in lower energy s t a t e s . The physical significance

of a negative temperature is t h a t under such condition the number of par

ticles in an excited state is greater than that in the ground state. That

is, there are more particles with magnetic moments anti-parallel to the

m a g n e t i c field t h a n those w i t h magnetic moments parallel to t h e m a g n e t i c

fi e l d .

2062

Consider a s y s t e m o f N non-interacting particles (N 1 ) in which the

energy of each particle can assume two and only two distinct values, 0 and

E (E > 0). Denote by no and n1 the occupation numbers of the energy

levels O and E, respectively. The fixed t o t a l energy' of the s y s t e m is U.

(a) Find the entropy of the system.

(b) Find the temperature as a function of U . For what range of values

of n0 is T < O?

(c) In which direction does heat flow when a system of n e g a t i v e tem

perature is brought into thermal contact with a system of positive temper

ature? Why?

(Pr1:nceton)

Solution:

(a) The number of states is

n = __!!2__
no!n1!
 Statistical Ph71aics 229

N!
Hence S = k In O = k In -- .
no!n1!

(b) n1/n0 = exp(-E/kT), where we have assumed the energy levels

to be n o n d e g e n e r a t e . Thus

W h e n no < N/2, we get T < 0 .

(c) Heat will flow from a negative temperature system to a positive

temperature system. This is b e c a u s e the negative temperature system has

higher e n e r g y on account of p o p u l a t i o n inversion, i . e . , it has more particles

in higher energy s t a t e s t h a n in lower e n e r g y s t a t e s .

3. BOSE-EINSTEIN AND FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

(2063-2115)

2063

A system of N identical spinless bosons of mass m i s in a box of volume

3
V = L at t e m p e r a t u r e T > 0.

( a ) Write a general expression for the number of particles, n ( E ) , having

an energy between e: and e + de in terms of their m as s , the energy, the

temperature, the chemical potential, the volume, and any other relevant

quantities.

(b) Show that in the limit that the average d i s t a n c e , d, between the

particles is very large compared to t h e ir de Broglie wavelength (i.e., d

>. ) the distribution becomes equal to that calculated using the classical

(Boltzmann) distribution function.

( c) Calculate the 1 s t order difference in average energy between a sys

tem of N n o n - i d e n t i c a l spinless particles and a system of N i d e n t i c a l spinless

3
bosons w h e n d >. . For both s y s t e m s t h e c u b i c a l box has volume V = L

and the particles have mass m.

( UC, Berkeley)