8 - 19 February 2010: Physics of Solar Cells (I)

2132-2
Winter College on Optics and Energy
8 - 19 February 2010
Physics of Solar Cells (I)
J. Nelson
Imperial College
London
U.K.
ICTPWinterCollegeonOpticsandEnergy
8 19February2010
PhysicsofSolarCells(I)
JennyNelson
DepartmentofPhysics
ImperialCollegeLondon
(jenny.nelson@imperial.ac.uk)
Optics&SolarEnergy:Nelson:Lec.1
Outline
1. Photovoltaicapplications
2. Thesolarresource
3. Photovoltaicenergyconversion
4. Thepnjunctionsolarcell
5. Solarcellperformancecharacteristics
Thesolarenergyresource
RadiantpoweratEarthssurface ~100000TW
Electricityconsumption~2TW
80%fromfossilfuels&nuclear,0.1%fromPV
SomeconceptsinPV
Solar cell
Module
System
1.1. PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS
Photovoltaicapplications
54 158
Domestic off-grid
249
Non-domestic off-grid
Grid-connected
distributed
Grid-connected
1347 centralised
Cumulative PV capacity 2003 (MW): 1.8 GW p
Photovoltaicapplications
311 430
Domestic off-grid
4464
Non-domestic off-grid
Grid-connected
distributed
Grid-connected
centralised
8220
Cumulative PV capacity 2008 (MW): 13.4 GWp
1.2. THE SOLAR RESOURCE
Solar power spectrum
2 .0
AM0
-1
Irradiance / W m nm 1 .5
-2
1 .0
0 .5
0 .0
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
20
40
60
80
10
12
14
16
18
20
W a v e le n g th / n m
E [ eV ]
4 .1 4 3 .1 0 2 .4 8 2 .0 7 1 .7 7 1 .5 5 1 .3 8 1 .2 4 1 .0 3 0 .9 6
yellow
purple
green
blue
red
UV IR
3 00 4 00 50 0 6 00 7 00 8 00 90 0 11 00 12 00 13 0 0
[n m ]
2 .0
AM0
-1
Irradiance / W m nm
B B 5780K
1 .5
-2
Power density 1353

W m-2 outside earth
1 .0
atmosphere
0 .5
0 .0
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
20
40
60
80
10
12
14
16
18
20
E [ eV ]
4 .1 4 3 .1 0 2 .4 8 2 .0 7 1 .7 7 1 .5 5 1 .3 8 1 .2 4 1 .0 3 0 .9 6
yellow
purple
green
blue
red
UV IR
3 00 4 00 50 0 6 00 7 00 8 00 90 0 11 00 12 00 13 0 0
[n m ]
2 .0
AM0
-1
Irradiance / W m nm
B B 5780K
A M 1 .5
1 .5
-2
Atmosphere absorbs and

scatters light
1 .0 ~15% of solar radiation is
diffuse
Standard spectrum is Air
0 .5 Mass 1.5, 1000 Wm-2
0 .0
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
20
40
60
80
10
12
14
16
18
20
Air Mass = Cosec s
E [ eV ]
4 .1 4 3 .1 0 2 .4 8 2 .0 7 1 .7 7 1 .5 5 1 .3 8 1 .2 4 1 .0 3 0 .9 6
s
as
ir M
x n A
yellow
purple
green
blue
red
UV IR
datm d atm
3 00 4 00 50 0 6 00 7 00 8 00 90 0 11 00 12 00 13 0 0 s
[n m ]
2 .0
A M 1 .5
-1
Irradiance / W m nm
1 .5
-2
Vibrational-rotational
modes of H2O Vibrational-rotational
1 .0 modes of CO2
0 .5
0 .0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
20
40
60
80
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
E / eV = 1240 / ( / nm )
800
AMO
-1
B B 5780K
Irradiance / W m eV
B B 300K
600 A M 1 .5
-2
400
200
0
0
0
0.
0.
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
P h o to n E n e rg y / e V
visible
Solar photon flux spectrum
-1
Photon flux density / s m eV
800
-2
AMO
B B 5780K
-1
B B 300K
600 A M 1 .5
400
200
0
0
0
0.
0.
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
P h o to n E n e rg y / e V
ImportantquantityforPVissolarphotonflux
density(notpowerdensity)
Average ~ 200 Wm-2 (5 peak sun hours)
100 W m-2
150
200
250
200
150
100
Southern Britain ~ 125 Wm-2 (~3 peak sun hours)

Peak Sun Hours Peak Sun Hours
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
JA JA
N N
FE FE
B B
M M
AR AR
AP AP
R R
M M
AY AY
JU JU
N N
JU JU
L L
Paris
Month
Month
AU AU
Penang
G G
Bulawayo
SE
Reykjavik
SE
P P
O
Guantanamo
C O
T C
T
NO NO
V V
D D
EC EC
Peak Sun Hours

Peak Sun Hours
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
JA
JA N
N FE
FE B
B M
M AR
AR
AP
AP R
R M
M AY
AY
JU
JU N
N JU
JU L
L
Month
AU
Month
AU G
G SE
Tokyo
Sydney
SE P
P O
O C
C T
T NO
NO V
V D
D EC
EC
7 280
-2
Average Peak Sun Hours
Average irradiance / W m
6 240
5 200
4 160
3 120
2 80
1 5.5*cos(Latitude) 40
0 0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
Latitude / Degrees N
What will be the consequences of latitude on off-grid power

generation?
Energy consumption per capita in Western Europe ~ 5 kW
Mean solar irradiance in Southern Britain ~ 125 W m-2
What land area is needed to supply the energy needs of a city

of 10 million people using solar irradiation:
(a) with conversion efficiency of 50%?
(b) with conversion efficiency of 5%
1.3. PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY
CONVERSION
Lightenergyconversion
Packetsoflightenergy(photons)definedbythewavelengthoflight
Maybeabsorbedinmattertopromoteelectronstohigherenergy
600
-1
Irradiance / W m eV
500
-2
400
300
200
100
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Photon energy / eV
What happens next depends on the system
600
-1
Irradiance / W m eV
500
-2
400
300
200
100
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Photon energy / eV
Energy
Chemical
Light Light potential Light Electric

work
energy
Heat
Solar thermal Solar chemical Solar photovoltaic
Energy Semiconductor - open system
Heat,
+ light
electric work
dN
Light

Photonsin,electronsout
eV
Photovoltaicenergyconversionrequires:
photonabsorption acrossanenergygap
separation ofphotogeneratedcharges
asymmetriccontacts toanexternalcircuit
movie
silicon
n type
p type silicon
movie
n type
p type silicon efficiency
~ 14%
power rating
~ 80 Wp
Applications
CIS Tower, Manchester

0.4 MW p Solar powered refrigeration ~1 mW p
(Solar Century) ~100 W p
1.4. THE P-N JUNCTION
n type
p type
0V 0V
Light
Eg
How do the electrons know which way to go??
0V 0V
Light
Eg
No driving force to direct photocurrent
J
0V
+V0
Light Eg
Applied voltage drives photocurrent, but power consumed
n type
p type
0V 0V
Light
Eg
Compositional change drives photocurrent
n type
J
p type
Light
Eg
Compositional change drives photocurrent
Togenerateelectricpowerfromsolarradiationweneed
Anenergygap (tokeepphotogeneratedelectronsathigh)
Apreferreddirection forelectronextraction
Asemiconductor providestheenergygap
Asymmetriccontacts(fordirectedchargeextraction)canbeprovidedbyapn or
npjunction
Energy
intrinsic n-type p-type
Energy
n-type p-type
Energy
p-type
n-type
Energy Electric field

-
-
-
+
+ -
+
+ p-type
n-type
Semiconductorpnjunction
n type
p type
0V 0V
Light
Eg
Bandgapenablesphotogeneration
Compositionalchangedrivesphotocurrent
1.5. SOLAR CELL PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Voltage / V Vm VOC
Power density
Current density
Power density
-Jm
-JSC Current density
Inthedark
Voltage
Current
+
Opencircuit
Voltage
Current
Voc
- +
Open circuit
voltage Voc
+
Shortcircuit
Voltage
Current
Short circuit
current density -Jsc
+
Operating:photovoltage xphotocurrent=electricpower
Voltage
Current
Load Operating
point
+
Solarcellcharacteristics
Quantumefficiency
2
External quantum
efficiency
electrons out J (E) solar spectrum
QE = = sc 1
photons in qbsun ( E )
QE
0
400 800 1200
Wavelength / nm
Shortcircuitcurrentdensity
J sc = q photon flux density( E ) QE( E ) dE Voltage
Current
-Jsc
Solarcellcharacteristics
Short circuit current density Jsc,

Voltage / V Vm VOC
Open circuit voltage Voc
Power density
Current density
Fill factor FF J mVm
FF =
J scVoc
Power conversion efficiency Power density
-Jm
J scVoc FF
PCE = -JSC Current density
Pin
Pin = bin ( E ) E dE
Measured under Standard Test Conditions

(AM1.5, 1000 Wm-2, 25C)
Solarcellperformance
Cell Type Area Voc (V) Jsc (mA /cm2) FF (%) Efficiency (%)
(cm2)
c-Si UNSW 4.0 0.696 42.0 83.6 24.9
PERL
c-GaAs Kopin 3.91 1.022 28.2 87.1 25.1
poly-Si UNSW/ 1.0 0.628 36.2 78.5 19.8

Eurosolare
a-Si Sanyo 1.0 0.887 19.4 74.1 12.7
CuInGaSe2 NREL 1.04 0.669 35.7 77.0 18.4
Cd Te NREL 1.131 0.848 25.9 74.5 16.4
polymer / various 0.1 ~0.6-0.8 ~12-15 ~60 5-6

fullerene
More on this in next Mondays lectures
Summary
Installed photovoltaic capacity reached 13 GWp in 2008, mainly in grid
connected applications
Overhead sun provides ~ 1 kW m-2 of radiant power at the Earths

surface, annually averaged irradiance ~ 100 200 W m-2 depending on
latitude
In photovoltaic energy conversion,

absorbed photons promote electrons to higher energy levels within
a semiconductor
opposite charges are driven towards opposite contact by electrode
selectivity
charges are extracted (current) with some electrochemical
potential energy (voltage)
Power conversion efficiency is about 25% for the best single junction
solar cells.
(a) with conversion efficiency of 50%?
107 x 5000/(125 x 0.5) m2

= 8 x 108 = 800 km2
(b) with conversion efficiency of 5%?
107 x 5000/(125 x 0.05) m2

= 8 x 108 = 8000 km2
Devicephysicsofsolarcells
1 dJ
Physicsgovernedbychargecontinuity +GR = 0
e dx
G = bsun e x
GenerationG=lightabsorptionrate
n
R = Bnp

RecombinationRusuallylinear
CurrentdensityJDominatedbyminoritycarrier dn
diffusion. J = qD + qn
dx
d 2n n
Differentialequationforcarrierdensity Dn = G
dx tn
Boundaryconditions n(0 ) = n0 eV / kT J n (d ) = 0
Generation rate
n
p
Carrier density
n p
n-p junction
Current density
Jn
Jp
Devicephysicsofsolarcells
Result:diodeequationforJV J = J sc + J 0 e ( qV / mkT
)
1
Importantparameters:
absorptioncoefficient,opticaldepthd,reflectivity
chargediffusionlengthL=(D)1/2
typeofrecombination(e.g.linear,bimolecular,viadefectstates)
parasiticresistances:seriesRandshuntR(leakage)
Solarcelldesign
goodopticalabsorption:
Increasethickness
Antireflectioncoating,texturing
Finecontacts
efficientchargeseparation:
Increasejunctionbuiltinbias,junctionarea
Suppressrecombination
efficienttransport 24.4% efficient PERL cell
Improvematerialquality
lowelectricallosses
reduceseriesresistance

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2132-2

Winter College on Optics and Energy

Physics of Solar Cells (I)

Cumulative PV capacity 2003 (MW): 1.8 GW p

Cumulative PV capacity 2008 (MW): 13.4 GWp

Power density 1353

Atmosphere absorbs and

Southern Britain ~ 125 Wm-2 (~3 peak sun hours)

Peak Sun Hours

What will be the consequences of latitude on off-grid power

Mean solar irradiance in Southern Britain ~ 125 W m-2

What land area is needed to supply the energy needs of a city

(a) with conversion efficiency of 50%?

(b) with conversion efficiency of 5%

What happens next depends on the system

Solar thermal Solar chemical Solar photovoltaic

CIS Tower, Manchester

No driving force to direct photocurrent

Applied voltage drives photocurrent, but power consumed

Compositional change drives photocurrent

Compositional change drives photocurrent

intrinsic n-type p-type

J sc = q photon flux density( E ) QE( E ) dE Voltage

Short circuit current density Jsc,

Measured under Standard Test Conditions

poly-Si UNSW/ 1.0 0.628 36.2 78.5 19.8

CuInGaSe2 NREL 1.04 0.669 35.7 77.0 18.4

Cd Te NREL 1.131 0.848 25.9 74.5 16.4

polymer / various 0.1 ~0.6-0.8 ~12-15 ~60 5-6

Overhead sun provides ~ 1 kW m-2 of radiant power at the Earths

In photovoltaic energy conversion,

(a) with conversion efficiency of 50%?

107 x 5000/(125 x 0.5) m2

(b) with conversion efficiency of 5%?

107 x 5000/(125 x 0.05) m2

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