1

Jairo Viafara

The Impact of Transportation Facilities in the Urban Environment

Jairo Viafara, AICP

University of Manitoba, Transport Institute
631-181 Freedman Crescent
Winnipeg, MB R3T 5V4
Phone (204) 474-6798 Fax (204) 474-7530

viafara@cc.umanitoba.ca

Words: 7 010
Figures: 1

ABSTRACT

Freight movement actively generates income, affords employment, improves community competitiveness, and
provides basic delivery services that sustain industry and trade activities. Freight is consolidated in transportation
facilities which differ in function, technology, cargo handled, and preferred mode of transportation to ease movement
of goods, services, and people. Among others, freight consolidation poses particular challenges to stakeholders
struggling to maximize fleet efficiencies and reduce fuel consumption. On the other hand, local authorities make great
efforts to address greenhouse gas emissions reductions, roadway network capacity, congestion, traffic safety, land use
conflicts, and environmental hazards resulting from the movement of freight in the urban environment. This paper
discusses the desirable benefits and undesirable impacts of airports, rail yards, marine and inland ports, and
warehouses as they relate to land use proximity issues. The paper considers how sitting and location of certain
transportation facilities may impinge on the ability of pedestrians, bicyclist, and non-motorized users to gain access to
the roadway network, reduce their mobility and connectivity, and affect their health. Finally, this paper considers the
effect of transportation facilities on the sustainable functioning of downtown, inner-city and suburban
neighbourhoods.
 2
Jairo Viafara

I. Introduction
A number of transportation facilities are present in most urban settlements. This paper studies the impact of airports,
marine ports, rail yards, and warehouses in the urban environment, as they accommodate the movement of people,
services, and goods. These facilities are built to sort, transfer between modes, store and process goods, and to improve
the movement of passengers. In addition, they provide access, mobility and connectivity for users and goods at
different geographic scales. Responding to increased demand generated by the movement of goods and passengers,
these facilities are planned to improve safety, capacity, and efficiency of related operations at the site, and local,
regional, intra-city and international scale. A primary consideration includes economic development strategies,
competiveness and the overall smooth integration of the transportation system within an already existing urban form.
Port, airport, and rail yard operations entails adherence to provincial, state and federal regulations. They differ in
bulk and location in the urban environment. Their construction involves major investments in infrastructure and offers
economic benefits to neighbouring communities. However, due to their complexity and geographic scale of influence,
their operations may conflict with local land use zoning and development goals such as the need to maintain a
balanced transportation and land use relationship. This observation becomes evident when discerning their impact on
basic land use policies addressing density, destinations, diversity of housing and jobs, distance to activity centres, and
design guidelines in urban areas located in their proximity.

II. Moving people, and goods

Passenger and freight movement poses particular challenges to stakeholders. Air and rail de-regulation in Canada and
in the United States has contributed to increases in passenger movement and to intense growth in import-export
volumes. A resulting effect of these policies has been a strong trucking activity in urban environments. This in turn,
has required the construction of new, and the expansion of existing roadway network to ease transportation
movements between ports, manufacturers, retailers and consumers. Local authorities are compelled to act in response
to land use conflicts and environmental hazards resulting from the movement of goods and people. Retailers have
been adapting to oscillations of consumer’s demands, new inventory and retailing practices. The transportation
industry has adjusted to centralization of manufacturing sites, changes in consumer habits, the rise of home-based
shopping and e-commerce, and a shift to multi-modal shipping (ship-rail-truck) and uniform container platforms.
Depending on their core activity, the following elements may be common in transportation facilities: arrival and
departure lanes, docking and parking areas for vehicles and vessels; cargo interchange and storage and holding areas;
traffic controls; administration, maintenance; operation, safety and security; parking areas for visitors. However, vital
to advancing diverse activities in our daily lives such as access to places, goods and services and connections to other
urban facilities, private cars, pedestrian, bicycle and public transit, modes of transport most commonly associated to
the urban environment overshadow freight and passenger movement and their impact as an essential element in
shaping the urban form.

III. Proximity: Benefits and Impacts

A. Airports
Airports are an important component of the urban transportation infrastructure. They attract and generate a lot of
traffic and depend heavily on arterial networks for their functional operation (access, exits, arrivals, and parking,
runway approaches and departures, and to sort and process time sensitive goods). Accessibility to road networks,
speed and connectivity to national and international customers, helps companies to locate in their proximity. Airports
exert considerable influence on the location of industries, businesses and urban neighbourhoods. They rely on a close
proximity to downtowns to thrive and prosper. Airports are vital economic centres. Rapid commercial development in
and around major airports is making them one of the leading urban growth generators, as these centres become
significant employment, trading and business destinations in their own right (1).
In many regions, airports are one of the largest local employers; therefore, urban development and population
growth around the facility demand attention. Professor Kasarda indicates that the “Airport City,” “encompasses retail,
leisure opportunities, logistics and air-cargo.” He argues that “in some cases, arterial spines and clusters of aviation-
linked businesses radiate outward up to 25 kilometres from the airport-city.”(2) Airports greatly impact land uses in
their proximity. Enacted zoning ordinances classify, regulate, and segregate the use of adjacent lands; regulate and
restrict bulk and height of nearby structures. Land around airports may be subject to non-compatible uses such as
residential buildings, schools and libraries, nursing homes and hospitals, or special permit uses. Land use controls
protect the safe operation of the facility, aircraft movement near an airport, and protect flight paths, runway departures
and approaches. These controls also help to protect investment in infrastructure from pressure to convert open space
to development, some of it nearby.
 3
Jairo Viafara

Zoning ordinances regulating noise are crucial in airport’s operation. Although airplanes are less noisy nowadays;
noise is still one of the most complicated issues, with land use implications, deserving attention. Noise impacts may
be felt a distance away from the facility. In some jurisdictions, municipalities, after approving land development
nearby airports, are saddled with the cost of providing insulation (noise attenuation strategy) to nearby residential
neighbourhoods. A survey of the top 50 airports in the United States determined the six highest average amounts
spent annually for home insulation are as follows. O’Hare: $25 million,; Minneapolis: $17.5 million; Seattle Tacoma:
$15 million; Los Angeles and Atlanta: $8 million; San Francisco: $7.5 million; and Boston: $5 million (City of
Chicago, 2000) (3).
Airports provide, both direct and indirect, significant economic benefits, to the cities and regions in which they are
located. However, airport related land use restrictions may affect housing values, and restrict growth in other areas of
the city or may reduce municipal property revenues as a result of height controls (4). For instance, data collected for
the “Land Use Management and Airport Controls” study, suggests “a tendency for increased population near airports,
with average family incomes less than those of the surrounding counties,” and “a pattern where construction of
housing units occurs at a rate higher than for the surrounding county, particularly for the first few decades of an
airport’s operation”(5).
A study conducted to evaluate the effects of proximity and noise on housing prices in neighbourhoods in the
vicinity of the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport during 1995-2002 found that: a) Proximity to the
airport is related positively to housing prices; b) A general decline in noise boosted housing prices during 1995-2002;
and c) After accounting for proximity, house characteristics, and demographic variables, houses in noisier areas sold
for less than houses subjected to less noise (6).
Examining the relationship between airport noise and apartment rents, the cited study suggests “that there is a
significant, negative relationship between airport noise and rental rates for apartments within two miles of Addison
Airport” (7). Although inconclusive, it does appear noise has a negative effect on housing values. Many airport
authorities are working with neighbouring municipalities to anticipate land development pressures, and protect
adjacent airport lands from encroachment. Some agencies are promoting community outreach activities to develop
plans to protect airport operations and to reduce environmental hazards.

B. Marine Ports
Marine ports and container terminals are essential to the flow of goods to and from the urban setting. Ports operate in
an intricate system of terminal operations involving truck movement, railways and pipeline corridors. These modes
link ports to industrial installations and agricultural activities supporting vital sectors of the local, regional and
national economy. Like airports, old marine terminals are located in proximity or easy access to downtown and
expose a close connection to historic districts in their vicinity. However, coastal urban centres are under increasing
pressure to solve conflicts between non-compatible and special permits land uses required to make room for port
expansions, increased operations and capacity to accommodate growing total cargo volume and container traffic.
Some proposed solutions to enhance terminal operations and capacity may restrict the efficient movement of freight,
therefore, demanding substantial capital investments to maximize performance of the connecting transportation
network.
A study on “Container Vessel Capacity evolution” from 1968 to 2006, by the Center for Advanced Infrastructure
and transportation, suggests a steady growth in vessel size and cargo capacity, ensuing from growth in cargo volumes.
The study reveals that in 38 years, vessel’s size has increased by 120% and their capacity by 1,466% (8). As vessel’s
size and capacity are increasing faster than size and capacities of port’s facilities, authorities respond by building
nearby inland ports, container terminals, and freight villages. This situation exerts great pressure on port
infrastructure.
Ports positively generate high-paying jobs and benefit their hosting municipalities. However, adverse impacts on
the surrounding urban form include, among others, environmental, socio-cultural, and transportation (9). According to
the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, accommodating new construction or
forecast growth in these facilities requires, in many cases, complex dredging works which may result in ground water
pollution, loss and contamination of bottom habitat, contamination of bottom sediment. Port operations may also
impact land use patterns, dislocate agricultural activities and result in the displacement of urban villages ( 10). Efficient
operation of ports requires a complex and efficient regional roadway network to move cargo and passengers and to
support access and movement of vehicles to port facilities (silos, refineries and marshalling yards). Similarly, it is
imperative to make advanced provisions to protect ships from collisions, structures, animals and hazards when
approaching the facility.
 4
Jairo Viafara

Plans drafted by some port authorities to alleviate these impacts include provisions to optimize access and egress
routes, separate truck traffic from local traffic and minimize traffic impacts to local streets in adjacent
neighbourhoods. Included are measures to reduce environmental impacts, as well as bright lights used for night
operations and to prevent the formation of slums (11). As an example, the Montreal Port Authority (MPA) recognizes
the environmental hazards resulting from its operations as inconveniences and irritants that cannot all be eliminated. It
also identifies the importance of working with its neighbouring communities harmonizing operations with urban
environment and making sustainable development a priority. MPA acknowledges that it is “fully aware of the impact
of its activities on the quality of life of citizens. Land transportation, noise, dust and the appearance of facilities must
be managed responsibly” (12).
In response, the port has outlined a comprehensive redevelopment plan to transform the waterfront by converting
the Alexandra Pier into a tourist destination and a landmark in the city; has halted port expansion to preserve land
frontage onto the river, developed cycling paths, lookouts, and built interpretation centres. Community outreach
efforts include the promotion of the “A Port in the City Day” among others, to help community members “better
understand the operations of this vital service for the metropolitan area” ( 13). Similarly, promoting an eco-friendly
initiative, to address “years of protest and lawsuits from nearby communities about polluted air,” the Port Authority
of Los Angeles has implemented a series of measures to reduce idling from ships and trucks on ports as a concerted
effort to reduce greenhouse emissions and to improve air quality in neighbouring communities. Among others, it has
established a “park and plug” to offer docked ships idle reducing alternatives to turn ships’ engines while on port
through the installation of Alternative Marine Power (AMP) units (14).

C. Rail yards and Freight Operations

Operating and maintaining its own infrastructure, railway operations cover a vast geographic area. The history of the
east-west quest for settlement, expansion and unification of the sparsely populated lands of the dominion and colonies
in the North-American continent, is intrinsically tied to the development of the rail system. Rail traffic was
instrumental in diverting thriving shipping and commerce away from navigable watercourses by using a much faster,
safer, and cheaper transportation technology. Rail operations are evolving as companies adapt to the desires of
customers and consumers. Hence, its economic and social impact is felt in many communities across the nation.
In recent years, railways have been experiencing growth in both freight and passengers resulting in increases in
traffic, length of trains and volumes. Consequently, the need to accommodate these demands exacerbates the risks
and challenges of railway operations in proximity to municipalities. Urban nuisances and other proximity concerns
may include train whistles, blocked crossings, noise and idling, track maintenance and use of herbicides, land use and
zoning pressures to accommodate new property owners (15). The following proximity issues deserve our attention: Air
quality, crossings, land use and zoning.

 Air Quality
Rail is one of the most energy efficient modes of transport. Most rail companies operate sophisticated propulsion,
intelligent and hybrid-electric diesel engines equipment. Despite these technological advancements, rail operations are
a significant source of smog and toxic emissions, particularly nitrogen oxide (NOx), a smog and ozone forming
substance. Occasionally, rail may surpass combined emissions from industrial facilities, refineries and power plants
in the region (16). Diesel exhaust has been identified as an air polluting element. Based on the size of rail yards and
their proximity to residents, the risks at rail yards in the Basin may well be significant (17). Idling equipment resulting
from operations at rail yards is another proximity concern. Idling increases fuel consumption, augments noise level in
adjacent facilities, and negatively contributes to air pollution. Engine idling weakens the health of drivers and
residents.

 Accidents at Rail Crossings

Increasing growth in rail traffic directs community’s attention to the analysis of accidents at rail crossings. According
to statistics published by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada, there was a steady decline in the number of
collisions, fatalities, and serious injuries at grade rail crossings from 1992 to 2006 ( 18). Considering rail crossing
accidents, a large body of research has focussed on geometric design at grade crossings, signal timing, sight line
obstructions, signage and approaches to adjoining roadways. Transport Canada has been interested in the analysis of
the behaviour and human factors of those involved in at-grade accidents (19). In the study “A human factors analysis
of highway-railway grade crossing accidents in Canada,” the author considered “unsafe acts, individual differences,
train visibility, passive signs and markings, active warning systems, and physical constraints” and emphasized
multiple contributing factors to the cause of the accident.
 5
Jairo Viafara

The study reviewed counter-measures implemented to reduce frequency and severity of accidents. Findings of the
study indicated that light trucks (27.1%), vans (5.3%), heavy-trucks (4.6%) and tractor-trailers (3.6%) were involved
in accidents at lower rate than cars (53%). The findings may reveal that it is plausible that commercial drivers due to
training programs and liabilities could be more aware of roadway hazards than private car drivers. The study found
that “based on the vehicle and train flows at crossings, the majority of accidents happen at crossings with fewer than
500 vehicles crossing per day.” Roadways with low volumes could most likely be located in isolated neighbourhoods
or in remote rural communities. “Crossing familiarity and an expectation that a train will not be present have the
potential to lull drivers into complacency or poor looking habits” (20). Thus, it could be possible that drivers
considering at-grade crossings a nuisance may reduce traffic volumes on affected roadways and may greatly impact
adjacent residential streets when pursuing alternative solutions.

 Congestion at Rail Crossings

Induced delays at peak morning and afternoon hours at at-grade crossings impact all roadway users but particularly
pedestrians, bicyclists and transit riders caught on buses running on tight headway schedules. Longer trains mean
further delays. To address the impacts of railways in communities, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FMC)
and the Railway Association of Canada (RAC) agreed to the extension of a Memorandum of Understanding (2003) to
deal with noise, vibration, safety and other proximity management issues for an open-ended term.
In other jurisdictions, the City of Laredo, Texas, a crossing point between the United States and Mexico, is
serviced by two major railroads. Today, there are 135 miles of track and over 100 at-grade crossings within the
corporate limits of the city. Congestion at railway crossings may restrict access to emergency vehicles to adjacent
communities. Induced delays may contribute to economic losses. Keith Selman, Director Planning and Zoning, City
of Laredo, Texas indicates that

The long closure time at the crossings due to slow and frequent train movements causes severe congestion and
delay for the cars and trucks that use these crossings… These queue lengths often cause stopped delays for as
high as 30 minutes or more for a single vehicle at one time (21).

Although truck and bus movements also contribute to proximity problems, railways, in their opinion, appear to
have been singled out despite the fact that they own, operate and maintain their own infrastructure. 22 Nevertheless,
increases in train lengths and weights to use assets more efficiently, could negatively impact the public interest.
Recent derailments in Canada and elsewhere have prompted communities to consider the need of evacuation and
preparedness plans to deal with eventual consequences of spills of hazardous materials in nearby rivers, lakes or
residential communities.
It appears that proximity land use and zoning issues tend to result from the desires of municipal authorities to
encourage the development of new residential, commercial, public school, and open space parcels to increase tax
base, create opportunities for affordable housing, and to contribute to future municipal growth. Rail companies are
aware of their proximity effects and are working with communities to ameliorate unwanted impacts.

D. Warehouses and Truck Movement

Trucks are an integral part of the distribution network in the inter-city movement of urban goods. Goods come into
warehouses and distribution centres by trucks. Overall, urban freight activity is shaped by factors different than those
that impact highway freight. Changes in distribution and logistics systems, such as the centralization of manufacturing
sites and changes in inventory and retailing practices, have resulted in an increased number of smaller delivery
vehicles in the urban environment. However, freight in the urban environment operates in a mature transportation
infrastructure (urban roadways, bridges, over and underpasses) which limits options for change. Research indicates
that “at any moment, 70% of the trucks operating in a country are in urban areas” (23).
According to some sources, (24) it is estimated that 35% of movement of goods in certain cities is carried out by
collection, delivery and distribution vehicles ranging from 19 to 28 tons in capacity. Regularly 25% of urban goods
movement is handled by vehicles greater than 28 tons in capacity. Although commercial and household call service
fleets are noticeable in the city, it is estimated that 60% of the urban goods movements are made by vehicles greater
than 19 tons in capacity. Therefore, it is possible to infer, according to the Canadian Vehicle Classification, that a
large proportion of urban freight is moved in the city by “medium heavy to heavy-heavy” vehicles.
However, basic freight mobility and accessibility by vehicles to premises in the urban environment is, in some
instances, compromised by established land use management policies, such as parking space planning, loading and
unloading time, vehicle’s weight and type restrictions, building regulations, posted truck route requirements,
roadway’s hierarchy and capacity, and competition for access to roadways connecting to airports, ports and rail yards.
 6
Jairo Viafara

Community impacts, resulting either from truck movement or warehouse location, type and operation, generate the
greatest number of complaints because of the extensive role trucks play in goods movement. Impacts may include
conflicts with residential communities, schools, and places that beg for quietness; air quality; parking and safety
issues, route signage, and traffic accidents. Land use conflicts resulting from the location of warehouses may include
competition for access to roadway network, traffic safety and street pattern design, zoning challenges resulting from
the bulk, facility design, noise, and air quality. These elements create tension with communities, potentially resulting
in environmental justice confrontations. Attention is focused on air quality, curbside deliveries, traffic accidents and
truck routing.

 Air Quality
Trucks account for a relatively low share of all transport operations in towns and cities. However, they are responsible
for a much greater percentage of the pollution and noise caused by city traffic. Thus, decreasing the number of
vehicles used or maximizing their use for the distribution of urban goods, could greatly improve the environmental
performance of freight in urban areas. In some instances, in part due to access and connectivity issues, emissions may
increase as vehicles need to move more often and farther to get to familiar places. To illustrate, the State of New York
has launched a long-term enforcement strategy to reduce health impacts associated with truck’s diesel emissions,
especially in communities that have been disproportionately impacted by pollution. The program will target areas
where trucks and busses idle for prolonged periods. In addition, the New York State Department of Environment
Conservation estimates that close to 20 percent of the trucks traveling to East Harlem daily are out of compliance with
state air regulations (25).

 Curbside Deliveries
Basic freight mobility and accessibility by vehicles to premises in the urban environment, particularly to city centres,
is in some instances, compromised by established land use management policies. Freight competes with other vehicles
for access to parking, curb side loading and unloading space, and time restrictions. In addition, vehicle weight and
type, building regulations, posted truck route requirements, and roadway conditions occasionally prevent trucks from
accessing downtown premises. Compared to other world’s capitals, Manhattan is perhaps one of the most congested
downtowns. As a result of inadequate supply of curbside loading zones, loading time restrictions, and conflicting time
window deliveries, access to deliver goods and services is afforded at a premium. United Parcel Service (UPS) uses
1000 trucks in New York City, receives 15,000 tickets each month and paid $18.7 million for parking tickets in NYC
during 2005-2006. FedEx paid $8.2 million, Verizon $7.8 million, and Coca-Cola paid $1.9 million (2005-2006 fiscal
year) (26).

 Traffic Accidents
Roadways built to mitigate congestion and improve vehicle mobility, compromise pedestrian safety. In the United
States, pedestrian fatalities statistics show that members of ethnic and racial minorities tend to be disproportionately
represented in pedestrian and bicyclist accidents involving cars and trucks. It appears that for some members of the
Native, African, and Latin-American communities, walking is a preferred and readily available form of transportation.
Yet, some members are more likely to be hit and killed while walking when considered in proportion to the
mainstream population. Some members of the Latin-American community in particular, tend to use streets as plazas
to bring people together as more social interaction is experienced at the street level. Many also let children and youth
play on sidewalks and in front yards as some of their own neighbourhoods may lack parks, playgrounds or other
recreational facilities.
Looking at the functional classification of the roads on which pedestrians are killed, a Surface Transportation
Policy Project (STPP) analysis found that 14.6 percent of pedestrian’s deaths occur on Interstates, freeways, and
expressways, 31.1 percent on other principal arterials, 20.8 percent on minor arterials, 11.9 percent on collectors, and
21.6 percent on local roads. The deadliest roads tend to be high-speed arterials, with few accommodations or
protections – such as sidewalks or crosswalks – for pedestrians (27).

 Truck Routing
Truck Routing Ordinances advance regulations establishing truck usage of public roads. Ordinances also enforce truck
routes features and access in and out of facilities. Ordinances spell-out types of permitted/restricted vehicles by
weight, length, activity or cargo, and hours of operation. In an effort to reduce the impact of trucking operations at the
neighbourhood level, local governments have enacted “good neighbour” guidelines to direct the location of new or
modified warehouses and distribution centres supporting trucking operations. Enacted regulations to mitigate
 7
Jairo Viafara

environmental and social impacts by trucking operations in adjacent communities include encouraging adherence to
posted signage and way finding measures, promoting the use of clean fuel emission technologies, minimizing idling at
delivery locations, stops and warehouses, identifying or developing secure locations for park and ride and providing
convenience store options, and offering repairs on-site to minimize the need for trucks to traverse through residential
neighbourhoods (28).

IV. Accessibility
Accessibility refers to people’s ability to reach goods, services and activities, which is the ultimate goal of most
transport activity (29). Considering user’s ability, gender, demographics, social relationships, and even income,
accessibility to services and goods in an area wide context could be dependent on the availability of other roads,
sidewalks, and bicycle paths from the origin to the desired location. Sometimes, the lack of sidewalks, intersections,
crosswalks, access and egress, and traffic signals, may compromise access opportunities to transit, bicycle and
pedestrian modes of transport to slow-moving users.

 Access to Transportation Facilities

Access to airport, marine, rail terminals and warehousing facilities is primarily through interstates, freeways,
expressways, and principal arterials. Arterial roadways afford mobility between land uses, and “provide the highest
level of service at the greatest speed for the longest uninterrupted distance, with some degree of access control ( 30).
Highway performance is measured at the intersection, segment, facility, corridor and area wide level by using a
qualitative key criterion known as Level of Service (LOS). This methodology focuses on assessment of traffic
capacity, flow level between segments (nodes) and driver’s ability to select speed. However, it does not account for
pedestrian and bicyclist trips.
Determined to maintain “acceptable” LOS (uninterrupted traffic flow, low vehicular volume, and reasonable
speeds) pedestrian crossings/bicycle paths are installed in fewer numbers and further spaced on the arterial corridor. In
some locations, installed over-passes are lengthy and uninviting, particularly when located over marshalling yards or
express-ways. This situation makes most of the trips made by children, adult bicyclist and pedestrians, cumbersome. It
also overburdens the user and undervalues trip purpose, particularly on trips that actually facilitate direct access to
schools and to civic and recreation facilities. Newly built or upgraded radial highways could potentially increase the
accessibility to undeveloped land on the urban fringe, making it attractive for residential, commercial, and industrial
uses. On occasions, access to highway facilities also exacerbates conflicts between farming equipment and freight
vehicles.

 Access to Urban Edges and Districts

Airports, rail yards, ports and warehouses are urban “nodes” (31) focused on particular uses. However, based on their
location, occasionally airports, rail yards and port facilities act like “edges” or walls to surrounding urban
developments. Some facilities are flanked by long arterial roads with fewer intersections. As an example, in
Winnipeg, the Weston and Logan Canadian Pacific yards, completely separate large portions of the north-end from
the rest of the city. Access from the south to these areas is afforded by three underpasses and an overland bridge
located at about a kilometer away from another. Some adjacent neighbourhoods were built as housing for rail workers.
Abutting neighbourhoods reveal low income, high unemployment and decline in population. Access to activity
centres is low as the unemployed people and those caring for others tend to make fewer out-of-home trips. Heavy
traffic and a combination of derelict industrial and warehouse land uses confer abutting neighbourhoods a rather
gloomy outlook.

 Access to Goods and Services in theNeighbourhood

The user’s goal is to get to a specific destination. Thus, “accessibility depends on the degree of directness for getting
to the destination, the simplicity of finding it, the availability of parking facilities, and the ease of walking to its
entrance. For example, a direct road with clearly marked store driveways and convenient parking could provide a high
degree of local vehicular access” (32).
For instance, in the Centennial and Weston neighbourhoods abutting to the rail yards in Winnipeg, efforts are
positively being made by the Province of Manitoba, City of Winnipeg and community groups to revitalize the area
and improve the condition of housing (33). Similar efforts have been underway in the City of Regina in the Regina Old
Warehouse District. The Administration has been positively working on changes to land use and zoning regulations to
encourage diversity and mixed-uses to support infill housing, building conversion, and reuse for residential and
entertainment purposes. Measures to improve accessibility to the area include sidewalk construction, railway crossing
 8
Jairo Viafara

upgrading, traffic signal upgrade/construction, bridge (subways) rehabilitation, street lighting, and public safety
improvements (34).

 Accessibility and Street Patterns

Residents in some warehouse and commercial neighbourhoods coexist with the activities fostered by the prevailing
land use pattern. Arterials are predominant in commercial, warehouse, and light industrial (mixed land use) sectors. In
those areas the street pattern is hierarchical; tends to have many short dead-end streets, reduce number of intersections
and the roadways that regularly experience congestion.
Figure 1 indicates the choices available for those seeking access to locations (unrelated to a particular land use or
economic activity) on one side of the roadway. The rectangle is the point of origin. The dots are destinations. When
access is sought (to resident-unrelated facilities) on the arterial (marked by arrows), trips are longer and destinations
are fewer. All traffic is channeled to the main arterial and makes access difficult for those without motorized modes
(or “lesser modes” according to the area). Travel options are reduced for those whose needs and modes of transport do
not match the prevailing activity in a given land use, due either to the urban scale either of the facility or area. In
these districts, travel options are reduced to residents because chances of finding certain resident-related facilities are
low. Residents have to make-do with public facilities located further than walking distance or outside their own
neighbourhoods.

Figure 1 Accessibility with Hierarchical Road Network(35)

Trip length to schools, shopping or nearby destinations increases, and the lack of an interconnected sidewalk
network limits walking, biking and transit travel opportunities for residents and visitors. Locating a massive
installation in the middle (freeways, rail yards) potentially divides the community and clearly complicates access for
many users. This is more evident when access to same transportation facilities and adjacent premises is constrained.
The literature review indicates that neighborhoods with higher intersection density (intersections per square mile)
might be considered more accessible than those neighborhoods with lower intersection densities (36). Access to the
area is already restricted by the number of at-grade crossings or by a reduced number of overland bridges.
Technically, residents in those neighbourhoods could potentially experience increases in response time by emergency
vehicles.

V. Mobility
Taken as the ability to get around, mobility is a function of travel distance, and ease of access to the transportation
system. Mobility measures efficiency of the transportation network and it is closely linked to travel and delay time, as
factors determining system’s reliability. Transportation facilities are linked to the city by highway and arterial
networks that favour higher mobility (flow, traffic volumes, and speeds) over a low degree of access to other modes of
transport. Access to airports, terminals, and to adjacent land uses is limited to motorized modes of transport that
depend on arterial highways for access and mobility. This measure does not fully account for pedestrian, bicycle and
other non-motorized modes when considering user’s ability to reach a destination. Striving to improve system’s
 9
Jairo Viafara

efficiency, mobility does impact community character, the way people move in pursuit of goods and services, and the
way how residents interact with others.

VI. Connectivity
Recently, connectivity has become relevant, as more social emphasis is placed on walking and pedestrian activities at
the neighbouhood level. Today, the focus is on well connected and livable neighbourhoods, offering walkable access
to retail, office and civic destinations. Walkable neighbourhoods integrate sidewalks and transit stops, and offer direct
and convenient and alternate routes between trip’s origin and destinations. As connectivity increases, travel distances
decrease and route options increase, consequently, allowing more direct travel between destinations.
Connectivity also refers to the directness of links and the density of connections in path or road network. A well-
connected road or path network has many short links, numerous intersections, and minimal dead-ends (cul-de-sacs).
A tenet of livable communities is the possibility of “ageing in place” in addition to opportunities for personal
independence and the engagement of residents in civic and social life. Regrettably, due to historical urban design
issues, personal and demographic characteristics, and /or access to modes of transport, many residents are deprived
from fully enjoying their communities as the lack of connectivity also reduces travel demands.

VII. Impacts on Downtown, Inner-city and Suburbs

As it happened in the past, transportation technologies (transit, rail, airports, ports, highways) continue shaping the
vitality of our cities today. However, as these facilities take a new meaning and function, they affect the location of
new urban development and its form. In addition to logistics and air-cargo conveniences, the “airport city” offers
passengers and visitors a vast array of retail, and leisure amenities. When considering arrival and departing number of
passengers, Atlanta’s Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport stayed on top with over 90 million passengers, followed
by Chicago O’Hare (69 million), and Los Angeles International Airport (59 million). Canada's most robust airport,
once again, is Toronto's Lester B. Pearson International Airport, ranked 17 in North America for passengers with 32.3
million, an increase of 2.8 percent (37). Such a traffic movement easily surpasses purchasing capacity in many
metropolitan areas and downtowns. Freight movement is on the increase.
According to Transport Canada, both the Volume of Rail Marine Exports and Imports, 1998 – 2007 increased in
comparison to years 2006 and 2005. The volume of rail cargo shipped through Canadian marine ports accounted for
94,309.8; the volume of rail cargo coming from Canadian marine ports accounted for 13,422.9 (In thousands of tons)
(38). Regionally, container ports, warehouse districts, and truck movement will continue to play a vital logistics and
distribution role. Historically, ports and rail yards are adjacent to the “inner-city.” These neighbourhoods experience
more quality of life issues and site related constraints, conditions difficult to overcome during revitalization efforts.
The impact of freight operations is best felt in residential neighbourhoods due to traffic, and in the suburbs due to the
proliferation of big retail establishments, commercial malls and retail outlets. These places are in reality load
consolidation sites which demand a constant presence of arterial roads, and heavy trucks to maintain and replenish
inventories.

VIII. Conclusions
Airport, rail, port authorities, and trucking companies are recognizing the importance of working with their
neighbouring communities to improve air quality, reduce noise and vibration nuisances, traffic and safety, and related
impacts that contribute to the deterioration of the quality of life of their neighbours.
To address all logistics’ factors affecting operational efficiency of the modes and facilities, it is suggested the
establishment of partnerships with adjacent communities, service providers, users and local authorities, to design,
assess and implement policy measures to improve efficiency and sustainability. This proposed approach may include
implementation of flexible roadway design techniques to enhance safety, protect sidewalks, paths, districts and other
features that promote community character.
Similarly, this approach may entail context sensitive roadway and infrastructure design solutions to enhance place
accessibility, improve efficiency, mobility and connectivity on equal basis with other collective values. This includes
the recognition of the social, economic and environmental impact of freight moving agencies in the vitality and
sustainability of downtown, inner city and suburbs in their jurisdictions.
Urban and transportation planners are compelled to implement new available approaches to highway, street, and
community design. Practitioners need to provide venues for communities and transportation stakeholders to
participate in the design of high quality of life communities, and to support the vitality of transportation facilities and
their operations by helping stakeholders to maximize their economic impact in the community. Development plans
initiated by airports, railways, and port authorities should include consideration for the physical character and
 10
Jairo Viafara

preservation of the neighbourhood. Similarly, consideration of access and mobility for all should be emphasized by
requiring design of context sensitive transportation system including supporting multi-modal facilities.

IX. References
1
Kasarda John. Leveraging Airport for Economic Development. (PowerPoint). UNC Kenan Flagler Institute, The
University of North Carolina: Chapel Hill. 2006
2
Ibid
3
Kai Ming Li, Eiff, Gary, Laffitte, John, McDaniel, Dwayne.
Use Management and Airport Controls. Trends and indicators of incompatible land use. Partnership for AiR
Transportation Noise and Emissions Reduction. REPORT N0. PARTNER COE-2008-001, 2007
4
McCarran Int'l Airport v. Sisolak 122 Nev. Adv. Op. No. 58 (2006)
5
Kai Ming Li, Eiff, Gary, Laffitte, John, McDaniel, Dwayne.
Use Management and Airport Controls. Trends and indicators of incompatible land use. Partnership for AiR
Transportation Noise and Emissions Reduction. REPORT N0. PARTNER COE-2008-001, 2007
6
Cohen, Jeffrey P., and Coughlin, Cletus C. Changing Noise Levels and Housing Prices near the Atlanta Airport Research
Division Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Working Paper Series. Working Paper 2005-060D
http://research.stlouisfed.org/wp/2005/2005-060.pdf August, 2005. Revised 2008
7
Nicosia, David. Airport Noise and Apartment Rental Rates, Addison, Texas, 2002. Department of Geography, Southwest
Texas State University. 2003
8
Boile, Maria, Theofanis, Sotirios. Port Asset Management Beyond the Port: A Port Access Roadway Network
Management Decision Support System. (Powerpoint). Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey. 2007 [Online at
http://www.trb.org/conferences/2007/asset/16_Boile.pdf Accessed on Februarty 14, 2009]
9
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (Undated) Environmental Impact
of Port Development. [Online at http://www.unescap.org/hdw/publications/tfs/pubs/pub_1234.pdf Accessed on February 6,
2009]
10
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (Undated) Environmental Impact
of Port Development. [Online at http://www.unescap.org/hdw/publications/tfs/pubs/pub_1234.pdf Accessed on February 6,
2009]
11
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (Undated) Environmental Impact
of Port Development. [Online at http://www.unescap.org/hdw/publications/tfs/pubs/pub_1234.pdf Accessed on February 6,
2009]
12
Montreal Port Authority. Land Use Plan for the Port of Montreal. 2000 [Online at http://www.port-
montreal.com/documents/en_7_2.pdf Accessed on March 24, 2010]
13
Port of Montreal. A Port in the City Day. Press Release. September 1, 2008. [Online at
http://www.portinthecity.ca/pdf/portinthecity_report.pdf Accessed on March 25, 2010]
14
Salter, Chuck. Rebuilding the Port of Los Angeles. Fastcompany.com. September 17, 2008 [Online at
http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/129/gateway-to-ingenuity.html?# Accessed on March 24, 2010]
15
Rail Association of Canada. Top Five Proximity Issues. Railway/Municipal Proximity Issues. Information Base. 2009
[Online at http://www.proximityissues.ca/english/top5issues.cfm Accessed on March 25, 2010]
16
South Coast Air Management District. Fact Sheet: Locomotive Operations and Air Pollution in Southern California.
2006. [Online at http://www.aqmd.gov/news1/2006/LocomotiveFactSheet2.html
Updated: February 03, 2006. Accessed on March 25, 2010]
17
South Coast Air Management District. Fact Sheet: Locomotive Operations and Air Pollution in Southern California.
2006. [Online at http://www.aqmd.gov/news1/2006/LocomotiveFactSheet2.html
Updated: February 03, 2006. Accessed on March 25, 2010]
18
Rail Association of Canada/Transport Canada/Operation Lifesaver. Directions 2006. [Online at
http://www.direction2006.com/sec_reg/en_Statistics.asp#crossingraph Accessed on March 25, 2010]
19
Vespa, Cesto. A human factors analysis of highway-railway grade crossing accidents in Canada (TP 13938E): Transport
Canada, 2003. [Online at http://www.tc.gc.ca/innovation/tdc/projects/rail/b/5027.htm Accessed February 8, 2009]
20
Ibid.
21
Selman, Keith. City of Laredo, Texas. NAFTA Impacts on Rail. Your Gateway’s Global Perspective [Online at
http://www.ci.laredo.tx.us/CASS/Pres_Fed/content/transportation/nafta_impacts_rail.html# Accessed February 10, 2009]
22
Lowenger, Mike. Railway/Community Management of Proximity Issues: RAC Regional and Short Line Conference.
Railway Association of Canada (RAC). Ottawa, Ontario. 2001
23
Dablanc, Laetitia, Logistics and the city: International experience and the case of the Paris region. Urban Mobility
Professional, Issue 4: Logistics September 1998
24
Cybernetix. City Freight, Inter –and Intra- City Freight Distribution Networks, Comparative Survey on urban freight,
logistics and land use planning systems in Europe. 2002 http://www.cityfreight.org
25
New York State Department of Environment Conservation. Aggressive Enforcement Strategy Targeting Truck/Bus
Pollution in Urban Neighbourhoods Goes Statewide. Environmental Conservation Newsletter December. [Online at
http://www.dec.ny.gov/environmentdec/49084.html Accessed February 9, 2009]
26
Chaterjee, Arun. Curbside Truck Loading in Downtown Areas. Powerpoint. University of Tennessee. 2006
27
Ernst, Michelle. 2004. Surface Transportation Policy Project. Mean Streets, 2004. How far have we come? Pedestrian
Safety, 1994-2003 [Online at http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=235]
28
Western Riverside Council of Governments (California). Good Neighbor Guidelines for Siting New and/or Modified
Warehouse/Distribution Facilities. 2005 [Online at
http://www.wrcog.cog.ca.us/downloads/Good+Neighbor+Policies+Final-091205.pdf
29
Litman, Todd. Evaluating Accessibility for Transportation Planning. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. 2008
30
U.S Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (Undated) Flexibility in Highway Design. [Online at
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/index.htm Accessed on February 7, 2009]
31
Lynch, Kevin. The Image of the City. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1960.
32
Forkenbrock, D.J., and Weisbrod, G.E. 2001. Guidebook for Assessing the Social and Economic Effects of Transportation
Projects. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 456.
33
Planning, Property and Development Dept. City of Winnipeg. Housing Development Branch. Neighbourhood Multiple
Family/Mixed Use Building Grant Program. 2008 [Online at
http://www.winnipeg.ca/ppd/programs/nhbd_multifam_bldggrant.doc]
34
Regina’s Old Warehouse District Planning Study to Members of Regina Planning Commission, Draft (2005)
35
Litman, Todd. Evaluating Accessibility for Transportation Planning. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. 2008 Figure 1©.
Used with permission.
36
Schlossberg, Marc. Visualizing Accessibility with GIS. Solstice: An Electronic Journal of Geography and Mathematics,
Volume XIII, Number 2. Ann Arbor: Institute of Mathematical Geography, 2002. Persistent URL (URI):
http://hdl.handle.net/2027.42/60283
37
North America Airports Council International. North American Airport Traffic Down 3.1 Percent in 2008. Washington,
D.C. (June 17, 2009) [Online at http://www.aci-na.org/news/2009_Jun17 Accessed on March 28, 2009]
38
Transport Canada. Table RA25: Volume of Rail Marine Exports and Imports, 1998 – 2007 Date Modified: 2010-03-15
[Online at http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/policy/report-aca-anre2008-add-table-ra25-1278.html Accessed on March 28, 2010]