DE BELLIS RENATIONIS

INTRODUCTION
This is a new generation set of wargame rules for 2 or more players covering Renaissance field battles,
assaults and amphibious warfare from 1494 to 1700 AD. It can be used for, among others, the Great Italian
Wars, the Turkish Wars, the Wars of the Conquistadors, the Moghul and Manchu Conquests, the
Tokugawa unification of Japan, the French Wars of Religion, the Dutch Wars of Independence, the Thirty
Years War, the English Civil Wars, Monmouth Rebellion and Williamite Wars, and the campaigns, largely
unknown in Britain and America other than to Pike & Shot Society members, of Conde, Turenne,
Luxembourg and Montecuculi. This version 2.0 incorporates the lessons of 7 years play worldwide and also
includes new terrain choosing and deployment procedures to encourage the production of a battle plan.
Our intent has been to provide the simplest possible set of wargames rules that retain the full feel and
generalship requirements of 16th and 17th century battle. No order writing or record keeping is necessary
and time-consuming reaction tests are dispensed with. Games are faster moving than with old generation
sets and more interesting to spectators. DBR seeks to emphasise the talents of the general rather than those
of the accountant and, despite the use of simple dicing procedures, fosters keener tactical awareness. The
simple mechanisms produce effects much more subtle than may be apparent at first reading and should not
be tampered with. No special rules are included for scouting, forced marches, accidental encounters or
attacks on a marching force, since these will occur naturally as a consequence of players pressing ahead
with march moves early in the game, sending detachments in front or laying ambushes.

Wargamers have traditionally defined troops primarily by their weapons, sometimes listed in great detail,
and their armour; and only secondly by their morale and training. We primarily define them by their
battlefield function, which largely dictates both their equipment and their behaviour. A real general did not
know that a unit had just lost a certain number of men, nor even its total losses until next day, if then. Old
generation wargames rules that tell players losses suffered and inflicted during play are therefore
inherently unrealistic. However, the general will usually be in a position to see if a body is pressing
forward into the enemy, recoiling from the charge, being furrowed and staggered by round shot, throwing
up its pikes in surrender or running for the trees. DBR provides players with that sort of information and
that only.
While its principles and mechanisms are similar, DBR is not DBM with extras. Some troop types have gone;
some have been altered to reflect a shift in use and new ones added. PIP mechanisms have been changed to
simulate the command systems and reliance on clumsy deep formations that had produced a slower style
of warfare. Similarly, the battle rules now reflect the increasing dominance of the rolling fire of massed
firearms. Another difference is that DBR is intended for small games as well as large, so is also a
Renaissance equivalent for the smaller scale DBA.
Copyright (c) Phil Barker and Richard Bodley Scott 1995, 1997 and 2003

CONTENTS
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY. Page 2
REPRESENTATIONAL SCALES AND PLAYING EQUIPMENT. 3
TROOP DEFINITIONS.
4
ORGANISING AN ARMY. 10
PREPARING FOR BATTLE. 12
FIGHTING THE BATTLE. 16
TACTICAL ADVICE. 24
PROVIDING TERRAIN. 25
MISCELLANEOUS. 27
DIAGRAMS. i-vii

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 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
The function of the command and communications system in a wargame is exactly opposite from that in a
real battle in that it is used, not to enable the general to manoeuvre his troops at all, but to prevent him
doing so too freely. That in these rules is tailored to an era of cumbersome and slow formations. Although
simple and arbitrary, it produces more realistic results than from more detailed systems incorporating
written orders, transmission by messenger and interpretation by recipients. It also substitutes for elaborate
testing of troops' reaction to events, and effectively simulates the reduction in armies' cohesion under stress
of battle.
The slow drills of regulars and increased subordination among irregulars compared with earlier times
mean that no distinction need now be drawn between these. Wide envelopments beyond sight, battlefield
treachery and advances not led or ordered by a general were not a significant feature of this era, so no
provision is made for them. While troop behaviour had assimilated to that of regular troops, the behaviour of
generals had become more irregular. Most nations' generals fought in the front rank and paid little
attention to events in the battle until their personal fight was decided. Even if generals stood back from the
fight, they lacked a suitable staff structure for effective distant intervention.

Troops are primarily classified by their fighting methods instead of by their arms and armour. Finer
grading within each type reflects contemporary perceptions of efficiency. We rely heavily on contemporary
accounts and the latest research, which are often at odds with received opinion.
Movement and combat is by elements, each consisting of a fixed number of figures based together on the
frontage of a typical tactical unit of the era. Elements can be moved individually or be combined into and
move as temporary groups. Although troops are not primarily organised into regiments, these are often
conveniently sized groups in which to join similar cavalry or combine pikemen with shot. They can still be
split or combined at will. Small bodies or columns on roads can be moved easily. Large groups are clumsy
and difficult to manoeuvre. The vicissitudes of terrain and combat will bring a progressive visible
deterioration in organisation that will be hard to repair.
All combat is between single elements with neighbouring elements assisting rather than taking part
directly. We differentiate between those, often indecisive, fire combats that we term Distant Shooting and
"Close Combat" with bases touching. The latter differs from the conventional wargamers' "Melee" in that it
includes not only edged weapons but also all shooting at decisive range. This is reflected in the depth of
element bases, which represent not just that occupied by the men represented, but also the reach of their
weapons.
Our shooting ranges are based, not on theoretical maximum ranges, nor on modern estimates of effective
range, but on those ranges at which weapons were actually used. For example, although composite bows
were certainly capable of shooting several hundred paces, horse archers and foot skirmishers using them
did so at point blank range, where they were equally safe from contact and much more effective.
Conversely, firearms influenced battle results at beyond the ranges considered effective in the Napoleonic
era, probably because shooting continued longer. In some cases, we allow only inferior grades of a troop
type to shoot at a distance, the better grades being assumed to hold their fire until decisive range. The
noise, flash and smoke of firearms continued to have an appreciable morale effect, especially concerted
volleys on troops unused to them. Once beyond point blank range, there was little variation in artillery
effect until the distance defined as "at utmost random" was exceeded. Low rates of fire were partly
compensated by dense targets.
Our combat mechanisms focus on the results of actions, not on calculating casualties that would not in
reality have been known except in a very general way. An element may be forced to recoil a short distance
still facing the enemy, may flee as a body, or may at worst be destroyed, which represents its survivors
breaking, dispersing and fleeing the field individually. However, element loss will rarely be heavy before
the army starts to break up. The local effects of fatigue and morale are taken into account in the combat
results. Their wider effects are simulated by the beaten command rule, by which the collective morale of a
command may reach breaking point and the whole command then crumble into rout, though much of it
may rally if pursuit is not pressed.

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 REPRESENTATIONAL SCALES AND PLAYING EQUIPMENT
FIGURE AND MODEL SCALE
This is expressed as the height in millimetres of a figure representing an average man. Naval elements use
models of reduced scale, rationalised as them being seen distantly from the shore.
25mm is the original wargaming scale and is ideal for public demonstration games at large conventions,
where its easier visibility for spectators is an advantage.
15mm is now the most popular scale and combines cheapness and convenience while still permitting
detailed painting of individual figures.
6mm and 2mm progressively increase visual realism, the latter at some cost in convenience.

GROUND SCALE
This is the relationship between the distances measured on the table and those they represent on a real
battlefield. It is based on the constant that the frontage of a troop element represents 50 paces at normal
scale or 100 paces at condensed scale. Our basing produces the following ground scales:
If using 25mm figures: 50 paces = 60mm (normal) or 30mm (condensed) on the table.
If using 15, 10 or 6mm: 50 paces = 40mm (normal) or 20mm (condensed) on the table.
If using 2mm: 50 paces = 30mm (normal) or 15mm (condensed) on the table.

Distances are quoted in multiples of paces (p), each of 2.5 feet or 0.75 metres because a man's stride has
remained constant throughout history, while such units as cubits, yards and metres come and go. It was
also the most common measure during this era.
Distances on the table should be measured with a 300p card strip marked at 50p intervals, supplemented
by an 1,800p length of string for maximum artillery range. The width and depth of element bases also
provide visual clues to distance that will often obviate measuring.
TROOP REPRESENTATION AND DEPICTION
Each element represents the smallest body capable of independent action. It consists of a thin rectangular
base to which are fixed a number of figures varied according to its troop type and the figure scale. Elements
vary in cost and represent the number of men who would occupy that frontage in real life. At normal scale
this is typically 100 formed infantry in 3 or 4 ranks or dragoons, 75 pistoleers in 3 ranks, 50 lancers in 2
ranks, sometimes all trying to squeeze into the first, or 50 light horse or foot skirmishers in a loose swarm, a
horde of up to 250 rabble or camp followers, 4 large guns, 15 jingals or zamburaks, 1-10 elephants with
escort, 1-2 ships in column or galleys in line or 4-10 open boats. At condensed scale, twice as many ranks of
cavalry and foot are assumed, so the numbers above are quadrupled for these but only doubled for other
elements.
Figures must accurately depict the troops they represent. The only exception is that general, officer,
standard-bearer and musician figures represent their element's majority type.
TIME SCALE
Play is in alternate bounds. These are not fixed arbitrary divisions of time, but reflect initiatives and
responses by the sides. The time a bound represents is variable, but averages about 5 minutes.
Except for march movement, which is assumed to be continuous and to have been happening during the
preceding enemy bound as well as your own current bound, move distances are not a function of time
available and theoretical speeds, but are based on typical initiatives and counter-initiatives in real battles.
Cavalry are often assumed to have counter charged even though not moved. Whether they did so soon
enough must be judged by the result of the ensuing combat.
PLAYING AREA
The ideal playing area is 108" (2.7m) x 60" (1.5m) [a standard table tennis table] for 25mm figures or 72"
(1.8m) x 48" (1.2m) for smaller figures. Table depths can be halved if using condensed scale. Condensed
scale 100 AP armies can usually use standard DBA playing boards.
DICE
Each command needs a single ordinary 1 to 6 dice, which is used for all purposes. An allied command's
dice must differ in colour.

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 TROOP DEFINITIONS
Troops are defined by battlefield behaviour instead of the usual formation, armour, weapons and morale
classes. We distinguish only between troops whose fighting style differs sufficiently to need to be treated
differently by either their general or their foe. Each troop type therefore includes all troops that fought in
the same way, had a generally similar ethos and morale and had the same effect on the other types. Each
type is identified by a name descriptive of its function.
Cavalry can be Lancers, Pistols, Sipahis, Light Horse or Camelry.
Foot can be Dragoons, Pikes, Blades, Shot, Bows, Warband, Skirmishers or Horde.
Train can be Artillery, Pontooneers, War Wagons, Elephants or Baggage.
Naval can be Ships, Galleys or Boats.
Troops within each type are additionally graded for efficiency relative to the average for that type, taking
into account lesser differences in morale, degree of training, equipment or mobility, but not in prestige
alone. This is necessarily somewhat subjective.
Superior (S): Troops recognised by their contemporaries as of significantly superior efficiency.
Ordinary (O): Representing the great bulk of troops of that type at its peak.
Inferior (I): Troops historically identifiable as brittle or of significantly inferior efficiency.
Fast (F): Lighter-armed troops who moved faster and/or more aggressively than most.
Exception (X): Specialists whose performance was unusually erratic.
LANCERS, representing all those European cavalry in full or partial plate armour and armed with heavy
lances who charged at the gallop with the intention of breaking through and destroying enemy by sheer
weight and impetus. These were confident of overthrowing other heavy cavalry, but if unlucky could be
evaded, split up and absorbed by light horse. Steady pikes could stop them with a dense array of weapon
points, forcing them to retire to charge again. They could be shot down at a distance by shot in cover, but
other foot were likely to be ridden down.
Superior (S): Men-at-arms of exceptionally high morale and skill in full plate armour charging "en
haye" on heavy horses sometimes still barded with horse armour, such as French
gendarmes up to 1561 and English gentleman pensioners up to 1560.
Ordinary (O): Men-at-arms similarly equipped and mounted, but less dashing and less practised in
jousting, such as Italian condottiere lances and all fully armoured men in German-style
double-depth formations.
Inferior (I): Lancers in a buff coat or similar light armour riding weak horses, such as those Scots
regular cavalry lacking firearms from 1644.
Fast (F): Lancers in 3/4 plate riding good unbarded horses and sometimes with a single pistol or a
bow, such as French archers and chevaux leger before 1590, Spanish and English demi-
lances, Japanese after 1542 and Polish hussars before 1689.
PISTOLS, representing all those European partially armoured cavalry in theory primarily armed with a
pair of pistols, whether reserving these for final moments of a charge or using circulatory shooting
formations. These could blow a hole in a pike block with volleys from successive ranks, but were
vulnerable to attached Shot, and were often ridden down by an unexpected charge while attempting to do
the same to Lancers. They can always be dismounted at deployment as Blades (O) to storm fortifications
placed by enemy.
Superior (S): Cuirassiers in three-quarter plate armour who charge opposing cavalry at the trot
reserving fire until the point of contact, such as Huguenot gentry after 1572, Dutch of
Maurice of Nassau, Imperialist or Livonian cuirassiers of the Thirty Years War and
Haslerig's "Lobsters" in the English Civil war.
Ordinary (O): Pistoleers in plate corslets or less who charge opposing cavalry at a trot reserving
their fire until immediately before contact, such as Gustavus Adolphus' Swedish
reiters after 1621, Eastern Association and New Model Parliamentary cavalry of the English
Civil War and French gendarmes or chevaux leger after 1590.
Inferior (I): Pistoleers in three-quarter plate or less who instead of charging prefer to fire circulating or
from the halt, such as German mercenary reiters from 1543, the harquebusiers of the later
Thirty Years War, most Parliamentarian cavalry of the English Civil War, and most Scots
cavalry before 1650. Also any remaining 15th century cavalry in full plate armour with
hand guns.

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Fast (F): Cavalry, sometimes lacking even a buff coat or short of pistols, who charged at the
gallop
sword in hand or reserving their pistols until the point of contact, such as Gustavus'
Finnish "Hakkapelitta" or Royalist cavalry of the English Civil War.
SIPAHIS, representing all mailed asiatic or east european cavalry equally ready to charge fiercely or to
skirmish with bow, javelin, lance or later matchlock or carbine. These were more mobile than Lancers or
Pistols, but had correspondingly less cohesion. Even the best could not hold the initial charge of European
men-at-arms, but they could often progressively absorb its impact within deep formations. They were
easily frightened by firearms volleys from foot or cavalry before contact, but their furious charge was more
likely to break western foot instantly than the more sedate attack of Pistols and were superior to the latter
in single combat if the enemy formation broke up. They can always dismount at deployment as Blades (O)
to storm fortifications placed by enemy, or if specified by their army list, such as Ottoman Turks, as Bows
(S) embarked on naval.
Superior (S): Mailed riders with both light lance and bow, or riders of barded horses, such as Ottoman
qapukulu, Mamluks, Persian lancers and Moghul mansabdar cavalry.
Ordinary (O): Mailed riders mostly lacking either lance or bow on unbarded horses, such as most Persian
cavalry, Polish pancerni, Russian boyars and mounted samurai before 1542.
Inferior (I): Mostly lacking armour and supplementing sword, if at all, with spear and javelins, as
Hausa yan kwarbai, or mixture of obsolete weapons such as bow, javelins, lance or
matchlock, such as Ottoman provincial sipahis after 1595.
Fast (F): Mostly unarmoured, but of high morale and supplementing expert use of the scimitar with
pistols and often carbine, such as Ottoman qapukulu after 1625.

LIGHT HORSE, representing all lighter riders who scouted or skirmished in dispersed swarms and
evaded enemy charges. Most of them were more useful for scouting, raiding baggage and pursuit than for
a stand-up fight, but could be used to delay or detain stronger troops or to screen them and support their
flanks. They were not easily destroyed, but could be chased too far away to return to the battle.
Superior (S): Primarily armed with bows or light crossbows, but eager to take advantage of disordered
enemy by charging home, such as Tartar or Turkoman horse archers and German mounted
crossbowmen, or with pistols and sword, such as Croats.
Ordinary (O): Primarily armed with javelins and/or light spear, such as genitors, stradiots, most Moors,
Arab horse, 16th century Irish horse or English or Scots border staves.
Inferior (I): Primarily armed with wheel-lock or firelock arquebus, such as French argoulets until 1562,
French carabins and arquebusiers after 1562, Spanish herguletiers, English petronels of the
Armada period and Dutch carabiniers.
Fast (F): Armed with bows or light crossbows and always reluctant to charge, such as Hungarian
horse archers, Turkish akinjiis, French argoulets armed with crossbows before 1515 and
Lapp or Swedish scouts using reindeer or elk.
CAMELRY, representing all men moving mounted on camels and either fighting from camelback or
dismounting from their camels to fight on foot while keeping them close at hand.
Superior (S): Exceptionally feared and fanatical camel riders fighting exclusively hand-to-hand, such as
Tuaregs.
Ordinary (O): Other camel riders fighting mounted or dismounting to fight.
Fast (F): Exceptionally well-mounted scouts on racing camels, such as Bedouin scouts.
DRAGOONS, representing all men moving mounted on cheap horses but primarily intended to fight on
foot using infantry firearms. The few early dragoon pikemen and halberdiers are not differentiated by the
rules. In addition to dragoons known by that name, we include the earlier foot arquebusiers mounted on
nags first used by Strozzi in 1543, then on a larger scale by De Brissac and succeeding French generals from
1550. All these were chiefly used for seizing commanding terrain and to support or harass cavalry by
dismounted fire, not yet routinely as cavalry. Those few that were, such as later Russian dragoons, are
specified in their Army List as exchangeable for mounted figures counting as Pistols (I) at deployment.
Superior (S): Dragoons armed with firelock muskets.
Ordinary (O): Dragoons armed with matchlock muskets.
Inferior (I): Horsed arquebusiers armed with matchlock arquebuses, such as those of Strozzi
and Turkish or Tartar mounted infantry.

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PIKES, representing all close formation infantry fighting collectively with pikes wielded in both hands;
initially in very deep formations, such as Flemings, Scots, German mercenary landsknechts and pre-
eminently the Swiss, but later usually in shallower formations combined with Shot by most European
infantry units. They at first wore cheap 3/4 or 1/2 plate ammunition armours or at least a buff coat, but
veteran units on campaign came to discard armour to obtain greater mobility. Long pikes could hold-off
lancers, but charges by the latter could detain them under punishing artillery fire. Pistols would try to
shoot holes in their ranks. In deep formations, they could roll over most foot except massed shot defending
field works, or if disordered, Blades such as Spanish sword-and-buckler men or English bills. Long pike
shafts made formation keeping difficult in any but good going and slowed movement even along roads.
Superior (S): Swiss or English Civil War Cornish.
Ordinary (O): Landsknechts, later Spanish, Dutch, early Swedish and most English.
Inferior (I): Armed with shorter pikes or spears, such as Gonsalvo's Spanish or Scots before 1512; or
lacking confidence, such as French, Italians or Russians.
Fast (F): Veteran units that have abandoned armour and sometimes illicitly shortened their pikes
(described by one contemporary expert as "a damned thing to be suffered") for greater
mobility, or whose Shot habitually lacked ample ammunition.
SHOT, represents all foot shooting in formation with shoulder firearms. Muskets both outranged arquebus
and caliver and penetrated armour better, so steadily replaced them. Firelocks were cheaper in garrison
due to saving on match and more convenient, but as yet were little faster shooting and less soldier-proof
than matchlocks, so were at first restricted to small elite units, artillery guards and garrison sentries. Shot
were vulnerable to charging cavalry unless protected by neighbouring pikes or close terrain, and to deep
Pikes unless holding an entrenchment.
Superior (S): All armed with firelock musket and later with plug or socket bayonet, such as fusileers or
Williamite Dutch, English guards and Danes of the late 17th century; or armed both with
matchlock and a berdische axe used both as musket rest and deadly close-quarter weapon,
such as Polish shot after 1670 and Russian streltsy.
Ordinary (O): All armed with European matchlock muskets, or with a mixture of matchlocks and
firelocks, or with Japanese matchlocks, but fighting hand-to-hand with clubbed butt or
cheap sword.
Inferior (I): Entirely or mostly armed with matchlock arquebus or caliver or earlier firearms, or
raw recruits armed with muskets.
Fast (F): Armed with matchlock or firelock musket but at close range firing by salvo and
immediately charging instead of firing continuously by circulating ranks, such as
Gustavus' Swedes, Turkish janissaries and Scots lacking sufficient ammunition.
BLADES, represents all close fighting infantry fighting individually with sword and buckler or heavier
cutting or cut and thrust weapons. These were less safe than pikes against mounted troops, but could beat
disordered pikes.
Superior (S): Dismounted men-at-arms in full or nearly full plate armour.
Ordinary (O): Skilled men with good weapons in lesser ammunition armours, jacks or mail, such as
halberdiers, billmen, Irish galloglaich and Japanese samurai with naginata or yari, or
Pistols or Sipahis dismounted before battle to storm a fortification.
Inferior (I): Men with inferior weapons lacking metal armour, such as Aztec suit-wearers, Austrian
peasant levy with halberd or morgenstern and Monmouth's scythesmen.
Fast (F): Men with good weapons in light or no armour, charging at a run and able to move easily
over any terrain, such as Spanish sword and buckler men, Japanese ashigaru with naginata
or yari or Indian Hindu swordsmen.
BOWS, represents all foot that fought in formed bodies with bow, longbow or crossbow relying on dense
shooting and side arms for survival at close quarters instead of on skirmishing or evasion. These shot at
longer range than Skirmishers, often in volleys at command. They were claimed by some to be especially
effective against horse, but were psychologically vulnerable to the noise and smoke of Shot.
Superior (S): Armed with longbow or composite bow, but willing to fight at close quarters with sword
and buckler, such as English longbowmen and Turkish janissaries.
Ordinary (O): Armed with crossbow, such as French, Italian, Spanish or Chinese, or with composite bow,
or with bow and using pavise or protected by shield bearer.
Inferior (I): Armed with inferior bows or raw, such as Tlaxcalans, Indians or Japanese.

6
SKIRMISHERS, representing all foot dispersed to shoot individually and avoiding hand-to-hand combat.
Those with firearms most often fought as long range snipers producing a constant irritation and a dribble
of casualties, but would occasionally take advantage of an enemy lack of caution or unprotected baggage to
volley and charge to close quarters, seize loot and disappear jeering. Others fought in a numerous loose
swarm hovering close to the enemy to pester them with missiles and running away if charged. All were
unlikely to cause serious casualties to alert formed troops, but were useful to slow and hamper enemy
movements, to protect flanks, to hold or dispute difficult terrain, or to act as ambushers or scouts in
mountain or bog. They were in great danger in the open from cavalry, especially from good light horse.
Superior (S): Sharpshooters armed with an accurate shoulder firearm, such as Austrian grenze, Turkish
arnauts or Indian jezailachis.
Ordinary (O): Armed with other firearms, such as Italians or Germans; or with crossbows, such as
French.
Inferior (I): Armed with bows, slings or javelins, such as Amerindians and Irish kerns.
Exception (X): Throwing explosive or incendiary grenades or hornets' nests, using fire lances or
bolas or shooting poisoned darts from blowpipes.
WARBAND, including all irregular foot whose most effective tactic lay in a precipitate massed savage rush
to contact. With luck and timing, their charge could sweep away conventional Shot not supported by Pikes,
but they were nervous of Artillery and cavalry.
Superior (S): Religious fanatics with no thought other than to charge, such as Turkish iaylars, and also
Conquistador war dogs.
Ordinary (O): Undisciplined tribesmen whose front rank was mainly of hot-tempered well-armed
warriors, impatient to charge although often also carrying a firearm or bow; even if those
following might have nothing better than a long knife, such as Scots Highland clansmen or
Afghan hillmen. Also some sailors.
Inferior (I): Lightly-armed warriors who sensibly preferred ambushes, barricade fighting and skipping
about hills or bogs yelling and throwing javelins or slinging stones to charging formidable
enemy, such as Irish bonnachts or Inca warriors.
HORDES, representing all those troops of desperately inferior weapons, skill or sometimes courage whose
only significant military virtue is their numbers and density.
Superior (S): Badly armed and inexperienced religious fanatics and/or marauding loot-hungry rabble,
such as Aztec clan warriors or Turkish azabs other than archers.
Ordinary (O): Peasants with improvised weapons, such as English Civil War "clubmen", and poor quality
Asian foot and camp followers, such as the mass of an Indian army.
Fast (F): Unorganised enthusiastic rabble with improvised weapons relying on ambush from
difficult terrain, such as light footed mountain freedom fighters.
ARTILLERY, representing all crew-served gunpowder weapons. The larger pieces often fired at ranges
considered excessive in ensuing eras, though usually at denser targets, but achieved only 10 shots per hour
instead of the later sustained 2 shots per minute. This was probably mainly due to small crews of only 2 or
3 men, only 1 of whom was fully skilled, and the absence of formal drills. They depended for mobility on
impressed civilian drivers and animals that might desert at the first sign of danger. Their greatest tactical
value was as a means of forcing a reluctant enemy to advance or retire. Poor mobility and inability to shoot
overhead "which doeth no greate hurte" often made it necessary for them to be deployed in front of the
army. Smaller pieces were used at shorter range to supplement infantry firepower "for the sudden
execution of horse should they assail them.
Superior (S): Great gonnes on modern wheeled mountings able to move tactically across the battlefield if
provided with draught animals, such as cannon, demi-cannon and culverins; and also
immobile heavy bombards, such as those of the Turks.
Ordinary (O): Mobile large field pieces, such as demi-culverins, sakers, minions or falcons.
Inferior (I): Small pieces firing case shot or similar multiple missiles to short range, such as multi-barrel
organ guns or barricados, leather guns, drakes, Gustavus' regimental 3-4pdrs, Scottish
fframes or Chinese rocket men.
Fast (F): Man or camel-carried very light but long guns, such as Chinese jingals or Indian zamburaks,
and wheeled falconet "gallopers" drawn by a single horse.
Exception (X): Large rockets carried by men or on pack animals and fired one at a time with greater range
than accuracy, such as those used in India.

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PONTOONEERS, with materials on wagon or pack animals, who if at a river bank can construct and
dismantle a single pontoon bridge. The bridge is added after launching, the pontooneers moved away on
completion. The start of dismantling is depicted by returning the pontooneers, its completion by removing
the bridge. All pontooneers are Ordinary (O).
WAR WAGONS, including all slow wheeled vehicles intended to be fought from and to move on the
battlefield, but not ordinary transport wagons or carts utilised to laager camps.
Ordinary (O): Mantleted wagons filled with men shooting from behind wooden cover with bows,
crossbows or firearms, such as those of the Germans, Hungarians, Poles and
Ottoman Turks, but not the Russian gulyai-gorod wheeled barricades.
Inferior (I): Standard wagons, command litters or portable shrines guarded by picked foot.

ELEPHANTS, represents both these and their close infantry escort. They were used in this period by
Indian and south-east asian armies to stiffen infantry, to assault fortifications, and as the de rigueur
command mount, but were nervous of massed firearms and vulnerable to artillery.
Superior (S): Elephants carrying matchlock men or rocketeers to deter attack, so used to noise.
Ordinary (O): Armoured elephants with howdah and large fighting crew and/or infantry escort lacking
firearms.
Inferior (I): Unarmoured elephants with low or no howdah and small crew lacking firearms.
SHIPS, representing all large sailing vessels relying on broadside guns or boarding.
Superior (S): Lofty warships with mixed guns on field mounts and carrying large numbers of soldiers
for boarding, such as Spanish carracks.
Ordinary (O): Race-built warships after 1550 with heavy guns on truck mounts and relatively few
boarders, such as English galleons from 1565.
Fast (F): Fast handy vessels suitable for scouting and/or inshore work and piracy, such as
Portuguese caravels, Dutch cromsters, English fregates or Algerine chebecks.
Inferior (I): Weakly armed merchant vessels, such as hulks, Arab baghala or Chinese junks.
Exception (X): Small group of explosion or fireships; initially steered by skeleton crews, then
abandoned to wind and weather, such as Dutch "Hellburners".
GALLEYS, representing all large primarily rowing war vessels. Their rams had now been replaced with
boarding spurs and a mixed forward battery including a few very heavy guns.
Superior (S): Large slow galleys with light broadside batteries, such as galleasses, Turkish maonas or
Korean turtle ships.
Ordinary (O): Galleys with a heavy but short range bow battery and a numerous fighting crew
including many heavily armoured men, such as those of St. John, Spain, Genoa and
the Ottoman Turks.
Fast (F): Speedy galleys with gunners accustomed to long range firing and a moderate fighting crew
of whom few wore much armour, such as Venetian galleys and North African galleys and
galliots.
Inferior (I): Lacking any but a few light guns but full of troops, such as Japanese galleys.
BOATS, representing flotillas of small war vessels rowed or paddled by armed free men.
Superior (S): Partly decked with a few light guns, such as English pinnaces, Spanish or North African
bergantines or Malay prahu.
Ordinary (O): Open rowing boats or large canoes crewed by armed men intended to capture by boarding
and invasion barges filled with troops.
Fast (F): Fast scouting boats with minimal crew, such as dragon boats or outriggers.
Inferior (I): Small dug-out or bark canoes.
Exception (X): As Ships (X), but for use on rivers, usually to attack bridges.
BAGGAGE, representing the army's logistical support and with only a limited capability for self-defence.
Its importance in the game is to require protection. Baggage can be mobile, including wagons, draught and
pack animals, herds, drivers and guards, or immobile. It is graded as (O) if protected by artificial defences,
(I) if not. Very large items should be treated as a double element.
Besides tents, immobile baggage for european armies can include sutlers, soldiers' wives, drabs, slatterns
and/or doxies and even the occasional Godly preacher. A Turkish army's could include a portable minaret
and muezzin, slave dealers buying captives, a bazaar, a flimsy-fenced travelling seraglio or even the
portable zoo that the Grand Vizier took to the siege of Vienna in 1683.

8
ARTILLERY DRAUGHT TEAMS
If Artillery (S) or (O) is to move other than by pivoting up to 45on a front corner it must have draught
animals and drivers. These are treated as a 2nd contiguous base of the same element. This faces towards the
gun base when unlimbered ready to fire and away when limbered ready to move in the direction the team
faces. Limbering or unlimbering is either by turning the draught base 180 degrees or by both turning the gun
base 180 degrees and exchanging the positions of the draught and gun bases without the outer corners of the
whole moving. The draught base is permanently removed when its drivers desert under fire, or it is
contacted anywhere by enemy, or if its Artillery element is destroyed. Bombards cannot have draught
animals. The pack animals associated with Artillery (F) and (X) are the property of the gunners, do not
desert, and so are fixed to the Artillery base.
NAVAL LANDING FORCES
Except for Boats (F), which have insufficient capacity, and Ships (X), which are too dangerous, each naval
element can and must carry one land element. This must be of an appropriate type for its nation, as
specified in our army lists. Its cost is additional to that of the naval element.
A Galley or Boat element in bow contact or a Ship element in bow or stern contact can disembark or embark
troops over a beach. A Boat element in side contact can disembark or embark over a riverbank. Unladen
Galleys or Boats are assumed to be beached or moored, cannot move and can be contacted by enemy land
elements. Unladen Ships are assumed to be anchored off-shore bow to tide, having been unloaded by their
own small craft. They therefore cannot be contacted by enemy land elements, but unlike beached vessels
can be driven ashore and destroyed by bad weather. Any naval can embark or disembark troops if tied up
at a pier or jetty. They can then be contacted by land enemy and are safe from weather. Unladen naval
elements cannot be moved and do not recoil. Their fighting capacity is greatly reduced for lack of men.
ARTIFICIAL DEFENCES
Each section of defences has the same frontage as an element, but is not an element. It can be a:
Portable Obstacle, to accompany an element of Shot or Bows and protect it in close combat against cavalry,
such as Swedish swinesfeathers 1624-1626, Russian gulyai-gorod walking mantlets, or chevaux de Frise.
Fixed Obstacle, to protect foot, Artillery or Baggage in close combat, such as wagons in laager around a
camp, wagons protecting a flank guard of Shot as at Gravelines in 1568, a palisade, an abatis of felled trees,
a street barricade, a thorn boma or an Irish plashed wood edge.
Fortification, to protect a foot or Artillery element manning it against all distant shooting and close combat.
It can be linear such as a crenelated stone town wall or an obstructed ditch and sodded or stone-revetted
sloping earth rampart, or a separate three- or four-sided open-backed earthwork redoubt for one element,
which can then fight to its flank or rear if not fighting to its front.
Both large bastioned-trace fortresses and smaller improvised rectangular sconces are assumed to be made
up of multi-element wide linear sections. A bastion or ravelin face or a section of curtain should
accommodate 2 elements of Shot, a bastion shoulder or gorge 1. These rules do not cover the slow siege
work such as sapping, breaching by artillery or mining.
Unless placed by the defender as part of a built-up area, or a plashed wood edge in an ambush, a
fortification or fixed obstacle can be placed only in its side's deployment area. Those intersecting a table
edge are assumed to be part of a closed circuit, the off-table part of which need not be paid for. A closed
circuit must include 1 or more on-table gateways that are part of the obstacle or fortification. If this
surrounds a BUA, they are connected to both its centre and to neighbouring gateways by roads. Gateways
must be at least 3 element widths apart.
Troops immediately behind a fixed obstacle or on a fortification ready to fight enemy outside are said to be
manning it. Troops can cross fixed obstacles or fortifications only unopposed through a gateway or by
assault. An assaulting element in contact with an obstacle or fortification is treated as if in contact with the
element manning this. Corner pieces with no internal frontage need not be paid for. They cannot be
assaulted unless the apex of a bastion or ravelin.
A portable obstacle is permanently removed if the protected element moves to initiate close combat with
enemy. Any obstacle is permanently removed if the protected element is destroyed by artillery or naval, or
is destroyed, recoils or flees while in close combat.

9
 ORGANISING AN ARMY
BASING
All figures must be combined into elements each of several figures permanently mounted on a rectangular
base of card or similar material. Base size is not critical provided that all bases have the same frontage and
both armies use the same conventions. However, since existing rule sets for this historical period do not in
fact meet this requirement, we recommend those below as the best compromise. Many are common to our
DBM rules, allowing continuing troops to be used.
If figure scale is: 25mm 15mm 10mm 6mm 2mm
Naval scale is 1 to: 600 1200 1200 1200 2000
Frontage of all element bases = 60mm 40mm 40mm 40mm 30mm
Depth of element base if:
Cavalry or Hordes = 40mm 30mm 30mm 20mm 15mm
Foot except Dragoons = 30mm 20mm 20mm 10mm 10mm
Dragoons, Artillery or Baggage = 60mm 40mm 40mm 40mm 30mm
Elephants = 80mm 40mm 40mm 40mm 30mm
Pontooneers, War Wagons, artillery draught or naval = 120mm 80mm 80mm 80mm 60mm
Alternative: Pikes, Blades except (F), Warband (S) = 20mm 15mm 15mm 5mm -

Figures or 2mm blocks per element if:

Light Horse, Camelry (F), Skirmishers = 1 2 2 4 1
Lancers, Pistols (F), Sipahis, Camelry (S),(O) = 2 3 4 6 c3,i2
Pistols (S),(O),(I) = 3 4 6 8 c4,i2
Dragoons, Blades (F), Warband, Bows (I) = 3 3 4 6 2
Shot, Blades (S),(O),(I), Bows (S),(O) = 3 4 6 8 c6,i2
Pikes = 4 4 6 8-12 2
Hordes = 5-8 5-8 7-14 10-16 2-4
Models per element if:
Artillery (I),(F),(X) = 1-2 1-2 1-2 2-5 2-3
Artillery (S),(O), Elephants = 1 1 1 2 2
War Wagons = 1 1 1 3 5
Ships, Galleys, Boats (S),(F) = 1 1 1 1 2
Boats (O),(I) = 2-4 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-6
Dragoons are based as a row of shooting figures with a group of held horses and a single holder, or if
unavailable mounted figures, behind it on the same base. Only the shooters are numbered above. War
Wagons and Ships are based in single file. Pistols (F), Sipahis, Light Horse, Camelry, Blades (F), Bows (I),
Skirmishers, Warband and Hordes are based randomly. All others unless 2mm are based as a single row of
figures or models towards the rear of their base. Elephants can add 2 or more escort figures and artillery 2
or more crew figures per model. 2 elements of the same type and grade can be mounted together on a
double depth base which moves and responds to contact as if one element. A general's element must be
recognisable by his figure, standard, conventional white charger or unusually magnificent elephant. It is
usual to enhance visual effect by disguising bases with scenic flock or similar material, not merely painting
them ground colour.
The changed base depth for some foot compared with DBM and rear mounting is so that opposing bases
can be lined up in contact without visual anomalies. The alternative shallower bases for some troop types
are to allow DBM figures to be used, but these must recoil and follow-up as if based on the standard depth.
They shallower bases do not confer any tactical advantage.
The numbers given for 6mm and 2mm allow for single figures and blocks of all manufacturers. Some 6mm
blocks have frontages that vary according to troop density. These must be cut and combined to give a
realistic appearance, sometimes with small random groups spread over the base. When using 6mm figures
at condensed scale, increase the depth of foot except Skirmishers by using double elements as single
elements. 2mm blocks suit only condensed scale. c = Conflict Miniatures, i = Irregular Miniatures. If i, use 2
figure deep blocks for Pistols (O) etc, 3 figure deep H&M blocks for Shot etc. Colour 2mm rear base edges
to indicate orientation and army.

10
ARMY SIZE
Unless the battle is a campaign or scenario game, each side consists of troop elements up to an agreed total
of army points (AP) between 100 AP and 500 AP. In games with less than 250 AP, the whole army is a
single command under one general. In larger games, it is divided into 1-4 commands, each with its own
general, one of whom is the commander-in-chief. Subordinate or allied generals can either be controlled by
other players or not. Each army must include 2 baggage elements per command not fully embarked in naval
at the start of the game, all of which are included in the same command. All elements and generals must be
assigned to commands before the set-up procedure on P.12 is started.
Our accompanying books of army lists specify element types and numbers for the great majority of
historical armies within the period of the rules and also any artificial defences that can be used in addition
to any enclosing the on-table part of a BUA.
Points spent on artificial defences restricted to the defender are wasted if the terrain includes no BUA or the
army turns out to be the invader. Points spent on naval elements are wasted if they have no access on to the
table. Their landing troops can still be deployed, being assumed to have disembarked and joined the army
prior to the battle.

ELEMENT COST
Basic cost of one element of: (S) (O) (I) (F) (X)
Lancers 15 12 10 11 -
Pistols 12 10 8 11 -
Sipahis 10 8 5 8 -
Light Horse 7 5 4 4 -
Camelry 9 6 - 6 -
Dragoons 8 7 6 - -
Pikes 5 4 3 4 -
Shot 7 6 4 6 -
Blades 9?8 7?6 4 5 -
Bows 7 5 3 - -
Skirmishers 4?5 3 2 - 8
Warband 5 4 3 - -
Hordes 2 1 - 1 -
Artillery 25 20 5 10 10
Pontooneers - 5 - - -
War Wagons - 10 3 - -
Elephants 24 20 16 - -
Ships 6 5 3 4 4
Galleys 5 4 2 3 -
Boats 3 2 1 2 3
Adjustment for all grades if a C-in-C's or sub-general's element +20
Adjustment for all grades if an ally-general's element. +10
Portable obstacle to protect one element frontage. 1
Fixed obstacle to protect one element frontage. 2
Fortification to protect one element frontage. 4
Extra for each flank or rear face of a three- or four-sided redoubt. +1
Extra if a gateway. +2
ARMY DECLARATION
Competition organisers will ask for an advance listing of your army by commands giving the number,
types and costs of all elements, together with the number of elements that each command must lose to be
beaten. You need not declare army composition to an opponent or tell him things he should be able to
deduce from your figures.

11
 PREPARING FOR BATTLE
SET-UP DICING
Except in a scenario or campaign battle, each side's C-in-C nominates a season of the year. Both then dice,
each adding his army's aggression factor (a number from 0 to 4 specified in its army list) to his raw score. If
adjusted scores are equal, dice again until a round of dicing produces unequal adjusted scores. The side
with the higher adjusted score is the invader. The other side is the defender. The battle occurs during the
invader's nominated season. The defender nominates which side of the table is north and will position most
of the terrain and deploy his army before the invader.
Now deduct the lower of the last pair of raw scores from the higher. The difference is the weather score,
which together with the climatic zone and season defines the state of the weather.
Now add together the raw scores of all dice thrown during the above. The total is the number of hours after
midnight that the battle can begin.
TERRAIN CHOOSING
As generalship is definable as the skill with which generals adapt their troop movements to those of the
enemy and to the terrain, the provision of varied and realistic terrain is essential for interesting battles. The
usual method is to place separate terrain features of types allowed by the defenders army list on top of a
plain cloth or large painted board the battlefield.
Terrain features can be linear features, such as a waterway [WW}, river [Rv] or road [Rd], or realistically shaped area
features. An area feature cannot be more than 600p across in any direction, nor less than 100p. If it nowhere exceeds
300p across, it counts as a feature, if it anywhere exceeds 450p as 1.
Area features can be:
Difficult going [Dgo], such as steep or wooded, vine-planted or terraced slopes, woods [Wd], orchards or olive groves
or oasis palm groves [O], small fields enclosed by walls, hedges, irrigation channels or paddy bunds [E], vineyards
[V], marsh or deliberate thigh-deep inundations [M], sand dunes [D], or a built-up area [BUA] except to foot
manning its perimeter fortifications.
Rough going [Rgo], of moderately boggy, rocky or brushy gentle slopes or lower ground, or a sunken gully.
Good going [Ggo], of bare gentle slopes, open fields, or of water features, bog or marsh frozen by cold weather.
The space between features is also good going and may represent unimproved pasture, steppe or hard desert. An
element that is in more than one kind of going is treated as whichever would slow mounted troops more. Camels of
any kind except baggage count sand dunes and brush as good going and other rough going as difficult.
The defender chooses 1 feature of each compulsory type and 2-4 optional features and the invader 0-1 optional features.
Each player must choose all his features before placing any. Neither player can use more than 1 linear feature of the
same type or more than 2 non-compulsory area features of the same feature equivalence, type and going.

All waterways must be placed first, then rivers, then hills, then roads, then BUA, then others in any order. If both
invader and defender wish to place features of the same type, the defender places his first.
The defender numbers each short edge of the battlefield and each half of each long edge 1 to 6 clockwise. V Each feature
to be placed is diced for in turn by the chooser. Area features must be placed closer to the edge sector corresponding to
the score than to any other. Linear features must start at the edge sector indicated and head towards the directly
opposite sector. If a feature cannot be placed without moving earlier features, it must be discarded, even if compulsory.
A hill is a single feature whether some or all of its slopes are steep, rough, cultivated or wooded, or all are
gentle and clear. All hills slope from a high point or ridge to their edge. Gentle slopes are not rough or
difficult going unless combined with other terrain types that are. An element is upslope of enemy if at least
part of its front edge is upslope of the whole of that enemy element, or if the enemy element is in a gully. A
hill must be at least 50p from all other hills.

12
Built-Up Areas (BUA) can be a hamlet or village, a substantial building such as a manor house and its outbuildings, a
church and churchyard, or part of a larger off-table town. They must be on a road or adjoin a battlefield edge.
Roads were usually unpaved, so should be depicted as pale earth tracks of less than element width. Since
elements move astride roads, the terrain half an element width each side of the road's centre line must be
identical. A road can end at a battlefield edge, at a BUA or Waterway, or at another road. A 2nd road must
join or cross the first. Roads that intersect rivers cross them by ford or permanent bridge.
Water features can either be unfordable waterways [WW] navigable by sea-going vessels, such as the sea,
large lakes or giant rivers such as the Rhine, Danube, Euphrates, Tigris, lower Nile or Yangtse, or else
ordinary rivers [Rv]. Deliberate inundations are depicted as water but treated as if marsh. As water lacks
surface features, going is instead related to weather and current. Naval moves are in difficult going if
Galleys in strong winds, Boats moving on a paltry river or upstream on a dangerous river, or Ships with no
wind or headed within 45 degrees of upwind. In a Cold climate, the waterways, rivers and marshes of
nations whose army list includes the additional terrain type of Ice [I] may freeze in very cold weather,
becoming rough going to land troops and impassable to naval.
Only one waterway [WW] can be used. If so, it extends 300p to 600p from one side table edge. It must be
edged by cliffs, beaches, marshes or dunes, or by the quay or defences of a BUA.
A river [Rv] must flow from a table edge to a waterway or a different table edge. Any second river must
flow from a table edge into the first river. The total length of river must not exceed 1.5 times that of the
longest table edge. A river's width must not exceed 2.5 element widths. Movement along it is possible only
to boats. Boats can pass under a permanent bridge, but cannot pass a pontoon bridge. A river's nature is
constant along its whole length and is diced for when the first element enters it off-road, adding +1 to the
score if the river is in spate or flows into a waterway, deducting 1 if summer or autumn in Dry or summer in
Warm or Cold. For a score of:
1-3 Paltry. Shallow and with visible bottom. Can be waded anywhere in any formation without
delays, but provides drinking water and its banks aid defenders. Difficult going for boats.
4-5 Easy. Deeper, but slow running, with unknown bottom. Can be waded anywhere with little
delay on a frontage of one element.
6 Tricky. Still deeper and faster. Crossable with little delay in most places.
7 Dangerous. Flood with fierce current. Crossings difficult to find and can deteriorate during
fording due to erosion and random surges. Difficult going for boats moving upstream.
BRIDGES
Bridges can be permanent structures placed by the defender at the junction of a river and road or pontoon
bridges constructed by a pontooneer element. Both can be destroyed together with crossing troops as if a
train target by shooting from Artillery or naval, or close combat with Boats (X). A pontoon bridge is placed in
position when a pontooneer element at the river edge expends PIPs for launching. When PIPs are expended
for completion, the element moves away leaving the bridge in place. The start of dismantling is depicted by
the pontooneers returning, its completion by expending PIPs and removing the bridge. A permanent or
pontoon bridge can also be similarly dismantled by foot but is destroyed by so doing.
CLIMATIC REGION
We recognise four climatic regions, which we call Cold, Warm, Dry and Tropical. The home climate of each
army is specified by its army list. Battles are in the defender's home climate.
Cold applies north of the Pyrenees, Alps, Caucasus and the Central Asian Desert, to the Danube basin,
Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, China north of the Fei River, Japan and highland Peru, and to all large mountain
regions.
Warm applies to southern Europe, Africa north of the Atlas, Turkey and Syria/Palestine.
Dry applies to the Sahara, Libya, Egypt, West and East Sudans, Arabia, Persia, Mesopotamia, the Indo-
Persian border, and the Central Asian Desert.
Tropical applies to Africa south of the Sudans, India, South East Asia, China south of the Fei River, and
Central and South America.

13
WEATHER
The risk of bad weather can be minimised by a wise choice of campaigning season. Its effects on land are
usually minor and transitory and can be mitigated or exploited by good generalship. Its effect at sea is an
essential part of naval warfare.
If the weather score is:
0-1 Perfect clear and dry weather with minimal cloud cover. Light wind as for score of 5, except in
bounds in which the average PIP score is 2 or less, during which there is no wind.
2 Fog in Cold if winter, mist in other climates and seasons, from 1 hour before dawn until any
bound's PIP dice average 5 or more. If deployment is completed more than one hour after
dawn, fog or mist is assumed to have already dissipated. No wind.
3 Strong wind blowing from South West in Cold or Tropical, from South in Warm or Dry.
Risk of rain in Tropical if spring or summer. Risk of dust storms in Dry. Risk of shipwreck.
4 Overcast. Light wind blowing from North West in Cold or Warm, from South West in Dry or
Tropical. Risk of rain in Tropical if spring or summer, or in Cold unless summer. Rivers in spate in Warm if
spring.
5 Overcast if spring, autumn or winter. Light wind blowing from North East in Cold if winter, South
West in Cold if spring, summer or autumn, North West in Warm, South West in Dry or Tropical.
Risk of snow and the waterways, rivers and marshes of defenders with Ice as a terrain type are
frozen in Cold if winter. Risk of rain in Cold if spring or autumn, in Warm if spring, autumn or
winter, in Dry if winter, in Tropical if spring. Rivers in spate and mud in Cold if spring or autumn,
in Warm or Dry if winter, in Tropical if spring. Dazzle if summer. Thirst in Warm if
summer, in Dry if spring, summer or autumn.

Snow, rain or dust storm risk. Such weather starts or ceases when any bound's PIP dice average 5 or
more. Once ceased, it does not occur again.
Snow, fog, mist: Reduces visibility and restricts movement.
Rain: Combat disadvantage if Light Horse, Bows or Skirmishers and shooting, or if Shot.
Dust storm: Reduces visibility. Combat disadvantage unless facing within 45 degrees of directly
down wind.
Spate: Increases difficulty of river crossings.
Dazzle: Combat disadvantage if facing within 45 degrees of due East within 2 hours after
sunrise or facing within 45 degrees of due west within 2 hours before sunset.
Strong winds: Combat disadvantage if Bows shooting except within 45 degrees of directly down
wind. Naval with the land edge of a water-way directly down wind within an
element base width are shipwrecked and destroyed unless they move or are
already at a quay or beached. Difficult going and combat disadvantage for Galleys.
No wind: Difficult going for Ships.
Mud: Reduces movement on roads to rough going distance. Combat disadvantage if
moved upslope into close combat this bound.
Thirst: Combat disadvantage after noon (1200) unless side has a river or friendly BUA
closer to its base table edge than is the rear of its most advanced element.
Overcast: Reduces visibility at night.
TIME OF DAY OR NIGHT
The raw set-up dicing total gives the number of hours after midnight that deployment is completed.
One hour passes each time the defender completes 6 bounds. Sunrise to Sunset is:
0400 to 2200 in Cold if summer.
0500 to 1900 in Cold if Spring or Autumn, or in Warm or Dry if summer.
0800 to 1600 in Cold, Warm or Dry if winter.
0600 to 1800 in other climates or seasons.

Dawn applies during the hour before sunrise. Dusk applies during the hour after sunset. There will be
moonlight if the invader's last set-up raw dice score was an odd number and there is currently no overcast,
mist, rain or dust storm.
If deployment is completed between dusk and dawn, each side has one opportunity to decide on a night or
dawn attack at an hour of its choosing, the invader first. If so, the other side is assumed to be encamped
and throws no PIP dice until sunrise or one of its elements becomes aware of enemy. If not, the battle starts
at daybreak. If dusk occurs during a battle, fighting continues until no enemy can be seen. An element or
group that cannot see enemy cannot advance and routers cannot be rallied. Once fighting ceases, both sides
record their decision whether to continue the battle at dawn or retreat, then reveal it simultaneously. It
ends unless both sides wish to continue.

14
VISIBILITY
Troops or terrain features are visible in daylight and clear weather to all viewers whose direct line of sight
is not blocked by intervening higher ground, trees or buildings. Dusk and dawn reduce the maximum
distance at which they can be seen to 600p, moonlight, daytime mist or snow to 300p, and a moonless,
overcast or misty night, fog or dust storm to 100p. Troop elements do not block line of sight.
Troops within a wood or the interior of a BUA cannot be seen from beyond 50p, or those within an orchard
or palm or olive grove from beyond 150p, unless they disclose their presence by shooting out. Troops less
than those distances inside the edge see out as if outside. Skirmishers in vineyards, marsh, rocky areas or
brush cannot be seen from beyond 150p unless moving, shooting or in close combat. A plashed wood edge
cannot be seen from beyond 50p.

Troops at least halfway up hills cannot see or be seen from less than 600p beyond a lower hill, BUA, wood,
orchard or palm or olive grove. Those on the flat or lower on hills cannot be seen over these at all. Troops
on a hill cannot be seen from the same hill at beyond 100p. A gully can be seen into only from its edge.
Troops in a gully can see out, but cannot shoot out.
Knowledge of enemy presence or adverse events is assumed to spread through a command by informal
means whether the general wishes it or not, but not to other commands. Troops are considered to be aware
of any enemy who:
(a) Are visible to or have shot at any element of their own command.
(b) Have been observed within or moving into concealing terrain by an element of their own
command and have not been seen to move out again.
(c) Who are within visible artificial defences.
DEPLOYMENT
The defender is assumed to have the greater local knowledge and scope for choosing the battlefield or
preparing defensive positions or ambushes. The invader is assumed to have the initiative. None of this
affects tactical posture, which is entirely the choice of the players. An invader can seek to adopt the tactical
defensive, or a defender decide to attack.
Unless inside a fortified BUA, defenders must not be deployed further forward than 300p short of the
battlefield centre line. Invaders must be deployed within 600p of their base edge and not within 200p of a
fortification. Neither can deploy land elements, baggage or obstacles within 600p of a side table edge except
as ambushers or inside any BUA. Baggage must be deployed in good going or in a BUA. Elements of
different commands must not intermingle when first deployed.
The defender first places his unembarked baggage, any fortifications, and all troop elements or fixed
obstacles not part of an ambush. The invader then places his unembarked baggage and any fixed obstacles
except plashed wood edges that are part of an ambush.
OFF-TABLE FLANK MARCHES
There is no provision for off-table flank marches, these not being a significant feature of the era.
AMBUSHES
An ambush is an element or group of elements initially deployed in any of these situations:
(a) Concealed within a wood, an orchard or olive grove, an unfortified BUA or a gully.
(b) Hidden from the enemy deployment area by intervening higher ground or woods.
(c) If Skirmishers, hidden in these ways or in a vineyard, rocky area or marsh, or in brush.
Its position and the direction faced is recorded at deployment time, but it is not placed on table until any of
its elements first move, shoot or are seen by enemy. Invaders can position ambushes only within 300p of
their base table edge. Defenders can place ambushes anywhere except within 500p of the invaders' base
table edge. An ambush cannot include baggage, fortifications or any fixed obstacle except plashed wood
edges.

15
 FIGHTING THE BATTLE
SEQUENCE OF PLAY
The two sides take alternate bounds. The invaders take first bound. During each side's bound:
(1) Each of its commands dices for player initiative points (PIP) to be used to move, steady or
rally some of that command's troops. Weather changes are checked.
(2) It first makes single element and group tactical or march moves, rallies routers or pursuers, or if it
has just become beaten steadies single elements or groups. Both sides then make rout and pursuit
moves. A legal move cannot be taken back once made. Enemy contacted on a flank or rear base
edge now turn to face.
(3) All Pistol (I), Light Horse (I), Dragoon, Shot, Bow, Skirmisher (S), Artillery, War Wagon, Ship,
Galley or Boat (S) elements of both sides that have a valid target must shoot and make or inflict
outcome moves, in an order decided by the player whose bound it is.
(4) Any elements of both sides in front base edge contact with enemy fight in close combat and
make or inflict outcome moves, in an order decided by the player whose bound it is.
PLAYER INITIATIVE POINT DICING
The C-in-C simultaneously throws one identically coloured PIP die for each of his own command and those
of his sub-generals, and then allocates one of these dice and its PIP score to each of those commands.
However, if night or bad weather reduces visibility to 100p or the C-in-C is in close combat or has been lost,
each command instead dices separately. The command of an ally-general always dices separately and uses
a distinctively coloured die. A command continues to be diced for each bound that any of its elements
remain on table. PIPs cannot be transferred or accumulated.
1 PIP is expended to: Move, unlimber, limber or steady a single element.
Move a group.
2 PIPs are expended to: Steady a group.
Rally a single routing or pursuing element.
3 PIPs are expended to: Launch, complete or finish dismantling a bridge.
1 less PIP is expended to: Move or steady an element or group including its command's general if he
has not already moved this bound. This simulates the extra authority he
can exert on those near him.
1 extra PIP is expended if: Moving, steadying or rallying any element or group whose command's
general's element is in close combat, or is lost, or is more than 1,200p
away, or is more than 600p away and neither is in sight of the other. These
distances are measured between the nearest points of the two
bases, but diverting around terrain impassable to the general's element
and not passing through any enemy element.
Moving a group that contains both foot except Shot or Dragoons and Cavalry
except a generals element.
Marching a group which has already marched twice this bound, unless
along a road.
2 extra PIPs are expended if: If neither Light Horse nor Skirmishers; and pivoting an element from an overlap
position to contact an enemy flank edge and/or separating a element or group from
a previously larger group.
Moving at night unless along a road by moonlight.

TACTICAL, MARCH AND OUTCOME MOVES

Tactical and March moves are voluntary moves during their own side's bound and expend PIPs. An
element can either take part in one tactical move per bound or as many march moves in any bound as PIPs
are available. March moves cannot start or go closer to known enemy than 300p or be made by any troops
of a beaten command. Outcome moves are the compulsory Recoil, Flee, Follow-up, Rout and Pursuit moves
in both sides' bounds that do not require PIPs.

16
MOVING SINGLE ELEMENTS
A move by a single element can be in any direction provided that no corner of its base ends more than the
troop type's maximum permitted move distance from where that corner started. A single element tactical
move can therefore be used not only to advance, but also to pivot from an overlap position into front edge
contact with an enemy flank, to retire, to expand a group's frontage, or to disembark from or embark on a
naval element. A single element move cannot start with the element in contact with an enemy element's
front or rear edge.
MOVING ELEMENTS TOGETHER AS A GROUP
A group is defined as a number of elements that except as necessary when wheeling a column, are facing in
the same direction and each in both edge and corner-to-corner contact with another of the group's
elements. A group move cannot start with any element in contact with an enemy element's front edge.
Unless moving into or out of a 1 element wide column, elements moving as a group must each move
parallel to or follow the first of them that moves, and must move the same distance or wheel through the
same angles. Naval elements cannot be grouped with land elements.
A group move must be in a one element wide column if through a gateway, or along a road, or following a
riverbank, or across difficult going unless entirely Skirmishers and/or Warband (I), or across any but a paltry
river, or by Boats on a river, or off-road in visibility restricted to 100p.
A group move cannot include any changes in frontage or direction, except:
(a) Reducing frontage to form a 1 element wide column. The element that is to head the column moves
forward by up to its full tactical move distance. Other elements move as if by single element
moves. The nearest elements fall in behind the column. Other elements move to close up any
resulting gaps. No element can end further to the rear than its previous position. Except as
made necessary by wheeling the column, all must end facing in the same direction and in both
edge and corner contact with another element of the original group. None can end in contact
with enemy. All elements count as moving along a road if the head of the column does. It may take
more than one move before the whole group is in column.
(b) Expanding a 1 element wide column to a group up to 4 elements wide. Each element moves as
if by single element moves and cannot exceed its normal tactical move in that terrain.
(c) One or more successive wheels, each pivoting on the inner front corner of the group and
measuring move distance along the outer arc of the wheel.
(d) One or two 180 degree turns if the group is entirely of Light Horse, entirely of Skirmishers or
entirely of naval, or one 180 degree turn if entirely of steadied Pikes (S), in each case measuring the
whole move from the original position of the front edge of each element to the final position of
its rear edge. No other group retirement is allowed.
(e) Sideways movement of up to half a base width to line up directly opposite enemy. This is the
only sideways or oblique movement permitted to a group.
TACTICAL AND MARCH MOVE DISTANCES
The maximum distance a single element or element of a group can move, if permitted in that terrain, is:
If entirely along road. If at least partly off-road in:
Good. Rough. Difficult.
Light Horse. 600p 250p 200p 100p
Sipahis or Dragoons. 300p 200p 150p 100p
Lancers, Pistols, Camelry or Elephants. 200p 200p 150p 50p
Shot, Bows, Skirmishers or Warband. 200p 150p 150p 100p
Pikes, Blades, Horde, Pontooneers or Baggage. 150p 100p 100p 50p
Artillery or War Wagons. 150p 100p 50p 0p
Naval. - 200p - 100p
Elements graded (F) or (X) add 50p off-road if cavalry or Shot in good or others in any going.
Elements graded (S) always deduct 50p if Blades, Artillery, Ships or Galleys.
Maximum land moves off-road and moves on waterways are reduced to:
100p if visibility is reduced to 100p by night and/or weather.
50p if the front edge of a single element or the element leading a column is crossing any but a
paltry river.

17
WADING A DIFFICULT RIVER
A single element or element leading a column across a tricky river must dice unless on a road ford and
score at least 3 to cross. If the river is dangerous, a single element or element leading a column must score 6
and each other element of a column 3, or 1 less if on a road ford. Once an element fails, no other attempt
can be made within 300p that bound unless fleeing or routing.
MOVING THROUGH FRIENDLY TROOPS OR GAPS
No element can enter a gap less than one element wide, or change direction within or after passing a one
element wide gap between two enemy elements. Unless recoiling or fleeing, an interpenetrating element
must have enough move and room beyond to end clear. Allowed interpenetrations are:
(a) Any land can pass through Skirmishers or Light Horse other than when recoiling, Skirmishers pass
through any land, Light Horse pass through cavalry, Shot pass through Pikes, Blades pass through
Pikes, Shot or Bows or naval pass through naval, if these are facing in the same or opposite
direction.
(b) Artillery, Pontooneers, War Wagons and Baggage can be passed through in any direction by
troops not of any of those types, unless both elements are on a road.
MOVING ACROSS AN ENEMY ELEMENT'S FRONT
No element can cross the front of or retire from in front of any enemy element that is within one element
base width distance and not at least partly separated from it by an intervening element or fortification, or
having done so continue moving, except:
(a) To advance directly forward towards such an element any part of which is directly in front.
(b) To advance to line up directly opposite such an element's front.
(c) To advance its front edge to contact the front edge or front corner only of whichever such
enemy element can be so contacted by the shortest move. An element attempting contact from
opposite a join between two enemy elements must thus contact that it initially overlaps most.
(d) To retire directly to its own initial rear without ending in edge contact with enemy.
(e) As an outcome move.
MOVING INTO CLOSE COMBAT
Close combat occurs when an element has moved into, or has remained in, both edge and corner to corner
base contact lined up with an enemy element. Artillery, Pontooneers, War Wagons and Baggage cannot
move into edge or corner contact with an enemy element. Skirmishers can do so only with train or naval.
When a single element or an element of a group entirely of Skirmishers and/or Light Horse is contacted by
the front edge of an element of an enemy group, it must immediately pivot and/or shift sideways to
conform to that element, unless either defending a fortification, an obstacle or the edge of a terrain feature,
or its recoil would then be prevented by friends. If a player's group contacts 2 or more such enemy
elements, he decides the order in which these must conform.
If the contacted elements need not so conform, then (a) those initiating the combat must move into both
front edge and corner to corner contact without exceeding their normal move; (b) an element moving into
contact with an enemy element's flank must end with one of its front corners touching the enemy element's
front corner; (c) an element cannot move to contact an enemy element's flank or rear unless it starts entirely
on that side of an imaginary line prolonging that base edge of the enemy element.
RESPONDING TO FLANK AND/OR REAR CONTACT
Artillery, Pontooneers, War Wagons, Baggage, Ships and elements manning redoubts or wading a river do
not turn to face a flank or rear attack, but use a contacted edge as their front edge if the true front edge is
not in contact. Any other element which is contacted to flank and/or rear by an enemy element's front
edge, and which is not routing or also either in contact to its front with an enemy front edge or providing
rear support to an element which is, turns at the end of the movement phase to face any rear attacker,
otherwise whichever contacted it first. Any enemy contact with the rear or side edge of an element
currently providing rear support is treated as on that of the front element.

If an element contacts the flanks of two or more such enemy elements, all these turn, the second and
subsequent elements moving to behind the first. However, if one such element is in frontal contact with an
enemy front edge, none turn. If elements contacted in flank will have insufficient room to turn, the
attacking element must make room by moving back. If this is not possible, its move is cancelled. If turning
to face one flank or rear attacker breaks contact with another, this must immediately move to renew the
contact if there is room.

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TYPES OF COMBAT
Combat is either distant shooting or close combat. Distant shooting is limited to those troop types that
historically shot at long range. Close combat includes not only hand-to-hand combat using edged or
pointed weapons but also all shooting by mounted archers, javelinmen and others that shot only at short
range, by firearms at decisive range, or at charging enemy.
DISTANT SHOOTING
Elements of a type and grade permitted to do so and not in close combat other than as an overlap and
which did not march this bound can shoot at one enemy element that is a valid target, either as a primary or
aiding shooter. We call the base edge shot from the "shooting edge". This can be the front or a flank if foot
occupying a redoubt, War Wagons, Ships or Galleys (S), otherwise only the front. Artillery cannot shoot or
shoot back during its own side's bound, or if it is (S) or (O) and is still limbered.
A target element that has not yet shot this bound must shoot back if it can. Others must shoot at nearest
valid target not already being shot at by 3 elements, except that artillery can choose to ignore and shoot
through enemy Skirmishers or Light Horse if beyond 200p, and naval can choose to ignore any land element to
shoot at Artillery or naval. An element is a valid target if it is visible, in range, any part is within an element
base width of straight ahead of any part of the shooting edge, it is not in frontal edge contact with enemy
and (unless shot at from a hill or fortification by artillery other than (X)), no part of any element is between
imaginary lines connecting one front rank shooting edge corner to any corner of the target element and the
other to an adjacent corner without crossing.
If more than one element shoots at a single enemy element, the additional elements aid the primary shooter instead of
their shooting being resolved separately. The primary shooter is that which the target element will shoot back at, or if
it will not shoot back, the nearest. More than 3 elements shooting at the same target have no additional effect.
If using normal scale, Shot, Bow and Pistols (I) elements can shoot from behind 1 fully contiguous friendly
element of the same type and grade at the front element's target. If using condensed scale, they cannot
shoot from behind. Shooting from behind is not possible if in difficult going, or from behind friends
manning a fortification. It is possible if the friends are only manning an obstacle.
Ranges are measured from the nearest point of each front rank shooting edge to the nearest point of the
target element.
Shot and Dragoons can shoot 100p if (I) or (F), 200p if (S) or (O).
Pistols and Light Horse can shoot 100p if (I).
Bows, Skirmishers (S), War Wagons (O) and Boats (S) can shoot 200p.
Artillery can shoot 300p if (I) or (F), 900p if (X), 1,800p if (O) or (S).
Ships can shoot 300p if (S), (O) or (F), 200p if (I).
Galleys can shoot 200p if (S), (O) or (F), 500p if (F) if no land is between shooting and target edges.
CLOSE COMBAT
Close combat occurs when an element's front edge is in both edge and corner-to-corner base contact lined
up with an enemy element.
An element in close combat with the flank or rear of an enemy element which is also engaged frontally, or
which overlaps it, assists the element in frontal combat with the enemy element's front instead of fighting
itself.
An element counts as an overlap against an enemy element if either:
(a) Both right or both left front base corners touch and at least the nearest part of the overlapping
element's front edge is not in contact with any enemy element.
(b) Both elements' side base edges touch, even if the overlapping element is in contact with a
friendly or enemy element to its front. Each then mutually overlaps the other.
An element can overlap enemy elements on each of its flanks, even if the enemy elements were exposed by
its own frontal opponents having recoiled, fled or been destroyed that bound. An element can only be
overlapped once on each flank and cannot be both overlapped and frontally contacted on the same flank. A
War Wagon, Pontooneer or Ship element attacked on the same flank by two enemy elements fights both in
succession that bound. If only half its flank is currently in contact, the attacker is overlapped.

19
RESOLVING DISTANT SHOOTING OR CLOSE COMBAT
Whether in close combat, shooting, or shot at and unable to shoot back, each player dices for his element
and adds the appropriate combat, rear support, flank support and tactical factors to its score. The
alternative CF in brackets are substituted for Pistols and Pikes if using condensed scale.
Combat factors against: Cavalry. Foot. Train or
Naval.
Elephants. +5 +4 +2
Ships or permanent bridge. +4 +4 +4
Pistols. +4 +3 (+4) +2
Pikes or War Wagons. +4 (+5) +3 +2
Camelry or Bows. +4 +2 +2
Blades. +3 +5 +3
Lancers, Sipahis, Artillery or Galleys. +3 +3 +3
Shot. +2 +4 +3
Dragoons or Warband. +2 +3 +3
Light Horse, Horde or Boats. +2 +2 +2
Skirmishers, Pontooneers or pontoon bridge. +2 +2 +3
Baggage, unladen naval, or captured Artillery or naval. +1 +1 +2
Close combat rear support factors:
Some troop types add to their normal combat factor in close combat, or cause their opponents to deduct, if
supported to their rear by contiguous friendly elements. These must belong to the same command and be
of the same type and, unless specified otherwise by their army list, such as Scots Pikes, the same grade.
Each must be in full front edge contact with the rear edge of that in front and none in difficult going unless
facing along a road. Rear support is not allowed if manning a fortification. Lancers get rear support only if
specified by their army list.
If using normal scale:
Pikes add +1 for a 1st supporting element.
Foot or train fighting against Pikes deduct -1 for each 2nd or 3rd enemy supporting element.
Pistols except (F), Shot (O) or (I) and Warband (S) or (O) add +1 for 1 supporting element.
Lancers except (S), Shot (S) or (F), Blades except (F) and Sipahis add +1 for 1 supporting element if
fighting against cavalry in an enemy bound.
If using condensed scale:
Foot fighting against Pikes deduct -2 for 1 enemy supporting element.
Close combat flank support factors:
Some troop types add to their normal combat factor in frontal close combat if supported on 1 or both flanks
by a contiguous friendly element, or deduct from it if their opponent is so supported. The supporting
element must be of the same command, facing the same way and in side edge and front or rear corner
contact with it. The supporting element can itself be in frontal combat.
+2 if Shot fighting against cavalry or Warband while supported by Pikes or by Pistols except
(I).
+1 if Shot or Artillery that are supported by Artillery (I).
-1 if cavalry fighting Lancers, Pistols or Pikes, if these are supported by Shot or Dragoons.

Tactical factors:
+2 if foot or Artillery and protected by fortifications, if in close combat other than against
Skirmishers (X) or if shot at by any except Artillery (S) within 600p or Bows.
+1 if foot, Artillery or Baggage and protected in close combat against cavalry by an obstacle.
+1 if in close combat either upslope or defending any river bank except at a ford or bridge.
+1 if foot entirely inside a BUA, unless shot at by Artillery or on a road.
+1 if shot at by Artillery from a hill, or by the front edge of a Ship.
+1 if a general's element; and either in close combat or shot at.
-1 if part of a beaten command.
-1 if disadvantaged by weather.
-1 for each flank overlapped and/or enemy element in frontal contact with flank or rear, or
for each 2nd or 3rd element assisting enemy distant shooting.
-2 if cavalry, Pikes or train and in close combat either attacking across a fortification or fixed
obstacle or in, or fighting enemy in, rough or difficult going unless facing along a road.

20
Grading Factors:
Compare your element's total before grading factors to that of its opponent, and then adjust it by:
+2 if Exceptional (X) troops whose total score against cavalry, Pikes, Elephants or War Wagons is an
odd number.
+1 if Superior (S) troops whose total score is less than opponent's if in close combat against any
except elephants or being shot at by Bows, or more than opponents if land element shooting.
-1 if Inferior (I) troops whose total score is either equal to or less than opponent's if in close
combat, or is less than opponent's if shooting or land shot at by Bows.
-1 if Fast (F) troops whose total score is less than opponent's if in close combat during an enemy
bound, or more than opponent's if shooting.
-2 if Exceptional (X) troops whose total score is an even number.

COMBAT OUTCOME
An element with a lower final total than its opponent must usually make an immediate outcome move,
which depends on its own type and that of the enemy element shooting at it or in frontal close combat with
it. Elements which shoot without being shot back at, or which are in front edge contact with the flank or
rear edge of enemy Artillery or routers, or are in front edge contact with any edge of enemy Artillery in an
enemy bound, or which are attempting to destroy a bridge, all disregard any unfavourable outcome.
Otherwise, an element in contact with an enemy element's flank or rear edge must recoil if friends fighting
that element recoil, flee or are destroyed. An outcome applying only in good going does not apply to troops
manning fortifications.
If its total is less than that of the enemy but more than half:
Lancers. Destroyed in close combat by Bows (S) in own side's bound or by Elephants.
Otherwise recoil.
Pistols. Destroyed in any enemy bound by Pistols (S) or (O) with an odd final score or by
Lancers or Pistols (F), or in own side's bound by Sipahis. Otherwise recoil.
Sipahis. Destroyed by Lancers in an enemy bound. Flee from shooting by Pistols or Shot.
Otherwise recoil.
Light Horse. Recoil from Light Horse or Skirmishers. Otherwise, flee.
Camelry. Destroyed by Elephants if Camelry (S). Otherwise flee.
Dragoons or Bows. Destroyed by cavalry in close combat in good going. Otherwise recoil.
Pikes. Destroyed in close combat by Pistols in own side's bound, or by Lancers or Blades
(F) if in an enemy bound. Otherwise recoil.
Shot. Destroyed by Lancers, Sipahis, Pistols (F), Shot (F), Blades or Warband if in close
combat in an enemy bound. Otherwise recoil.
Blades. Destroyed by Lancers or Sipahis in enemy bound, or Shot. Otherwise recoil.
Warband or Horde. Destroyed by Lancers in good going. Flee from shooting by Artillery or by naval.
Otherwise recoil.
Skirmishers. If in close combat in good going, destroyed by Light Horse or if cavalry following-up
retain contact, flee from other cavalry or Warband, recoil from others. Otherwise
recoil.
Artillery. Destroyed if in close combat. Otherwise (S) or (O)'s draught teams desert if their
element's final score was even, preventing future movement other than pivoting
up to 45 degrees on a front corner, (F) or (X) flee, (I) recoil.
Pontooneers. Destroyed if in close combat. Otherwise recoil.
War Wagons. Destroyed by Elephants, Skirmishers (X) or Artillery.
Elephants. Flee from shooting by Pistols or Shot. Otherwise recoil.
Baggage. Destroyed if in close combat. Otherwise flee if mobile.
Naval or bridge. Destroyed in close combat by naval (X). Otherwise laden naval recoil.
If its total is half or less than half that of the enemy:
Light Horse or Skirmishers. Flee from Pikes, Blades except (F) or shooting. Otherwise destroyed.
Other cavalry. Flee from Pikes or Warband unless Lancers. Otherwise destroyed.
Dragoons. Destroyed if in close combat in good going against cavalry. Otherwise flee.
Artillery. Captured if in close combat. Otherwise destroyed.
Other land. Destroyed.
Naval or bridge. Captured if in close combat. Destroyed by Artillery or naval shooting. Otherwise
laden naval flee.
CAPTURED ELEMENTS
A captured artillery or naval element becomes the property of the capturer, who can then move, shoot and
fight with it as if it were his own. Its CF is reduced, even if recaptured.

21
DESTROYED ELEMENTS
A destroyed element is removed. This represents a land element's survivors breaking and dispersing
beyond reforming or, if of a beaten command, surrendering to be either granted good quarter or
massacred. Destroyed baggage is assumed to have been pillaged and/or burned and its people fled or
slain. When a naval element is destroyed, this represents its vessels having been wrecked, sunk, burned,
captured or limping off crippled. Troops currently embarked are destroyed.
If a destroyed element's front edge is in contact with enemy, all friendly elements that have any part
directly behind and less than the destroyed element's base depth from its rear edge, are also destroyed
unless either:
(a) The front element is of Skirmishers and the nearest element behind is not.
(b) The front element or that behind is of Artillery, War Wagons, Baggage or naval.
(c) The element behind is manning a fortification.
Any element which is in edge contact with the rear edge of a friendly or enemy element destroyed by
shooting must recoil.
RECOILING
This represents a short involuntary flinching without any loss of formation. The recoiling element
immediately moves its own base depth directly to its rear; except that if the recoil is from distant shooting
entirely on its rear edge, it instead turns 180 degrees. If it meets friends facing in the same direction, it passes
through to the first clear space to their rear if allowed to interpenetrate, otherwise pushes back cavalry and,
unless it is Light Horse, foot. Cavalry or foot pushed back by recoiling Elephants flee instead. Any friendly
Skirmishers or Light Horse met while not facing in the same direction are pushed back unless their front
edge is in contact with enemy. Other troops not facing in the same direction cannot be recoiled through or
pushed back.
A recoiling element is destroyed if it either:
(a) Starts with an enemy front edge in contact with its flank or rear edge.
(b) Is cavalry starting in difficult going.
(c) Meets enemy, terrain it cannot cross, or any friends that it cannot pass through or push back
sufficiently to complete its recoil move. Unless the recoiling element is of Light Horse or Skirmishers,
enemy contacted on their rear edge by its rear edge or rear corner, or on a side edge by its rear corner, or on a
rear corner by its rear edge, are also destroyed.
FLEEING
This represents a precipitate disordered move to the rear to avoid danger, but does not mean the element
has lost its nerve and is not ready to fight again. A fleeing element is treated exactly as if recoiling until it
has moved back one base depth, then turns 180 degrees to move directly to its own rear.
After the initial recoil, it can and must change direction by the minimum necessary up to 90 degrees to avoid
contacting enemy, difficult going or impassable terrain, provided that no such obstruction is visible within
200p in the new direction, or to pass through friends it contacts. It is destroyed by impassable terrain and
must fight enemy it cannot so avoid as if following up. Friends it cannot pass through flee before it for the
remainder of its move. It ends with a second 180 degree turn.
The total length of a flee move including the initial recoil is 50p more than full tactical move distance in that
terrain. It is measured from the original position of the element's front edge along its actual route to the
final position of its rear edge.
FOLLOWING-UP
An element of Lancers, Pistols (F), Camelry (S), Warband, Horde (S) or Ships (X) whose front is in edge
contact with the front of an enemy element which recoils, flees or is destroyed must immediately follow-up
straight forward for as many of its own base depths as its final score exceeded that needed to produce the
result, unless it first reaches enemy, difficult or impassable going or a table edge. Other cavalry, Pikes,
Blades and Skirmishers in those situations can choose whether or not to do so. Elements that provided rear
support also follow-up. If a naval element's close combat land opponents recoil, flee or are destroyed, its
landing troops can chose to follow-up.
If a following-up element's front edge contacts an enemy element, one must immediately conform as
normal when elements move into contact. Turning to face and combat is resolved next bound.

22
STORMING FORTIFICATIONS
An element assaulting fortifications which destroys a defending element or which forces it to recoil or flee
must immediately follow-up for its own base depth, measured from the inner edge of the fortification. A
element following another across fortifications other than through a gateway, or which is assaulting an
undefended section of fortification, does so as if fighting except that the defence has a CF of 0, so adds only
its die score and the +2 tactical factor. It follows-up if its score is greater and disregards an unfavourable
outcome.
If an assaulting element subsequently recoils, flees or routs back across a fortification or through a gateway,
this movement is measured from the outer edge of the fortification.
LOST ELEMENTS
Destroyed or currently captured elements are lost. An element is removed from the table if any part of its
base crosses the table edge, whether voluntarily or when recoiling, fleeing, routing or pursuing. Such an
element is also lost, but can reappear in the next battle of a campaign.
Baggage is not included in the original element count of individual commands or of the army, but any
baggage losses are added to those of the command in charge of it when calculating if this is beaten and to
those of the army when calculating if it is defeated or when calculating tie breaks.
BEATEN COMMANDS
A command is beaten when its cumulative loss of land or laden naval elements at the start of its bound
exceeds one third of its listed elements other than baggage.

All land or laden naval elements of a beaten command rout unless immediately steadied or in a fortified
BUA not yet entered by enemy. The command remains beaten even if all its elements have been steadied or
rallied.
STEADYING TROOPS OF A BEATEN COMMAND
Elements or groups of a beaten command can be permanently steadied, but only in the bound in which it
becomes beaten. This steadying expends PIPs. Those steadied can then expend more PIPs on a tactical
move. Any elements not steadied are destroyed if Pikes in close combat and their rear support, otherwise
rout. Routing elements become automatically steadied on rallying.
ROUT MOVES
A rout move differs from a fleeing move only in that the routing element:
(a) Does not end its move with a 180 degree turn.
(b) Must rout again in both sides' bounds until it is rallied or lost.
(c) Must whenever possible change direction to move towards the nearest point on its side's base
edge, unless it is an element of naval landing troops, in which case it instead moves towards the
nearest unladen friendly naval element capable of embarking it if any exist.
(d) Cannot deviate to avoid crossing an unfrozen river, except to make a full move towards or across a
bridge or road ford within 300p, or to avoid a frozen river, a frozen waterway or a frozen marsh.
An element wading an unfrozen river dices normally to do so. An element crossing ice or a bridge
must also dice and score more than 1 to succeed. Elements that fail in either are destroyed.
PURSUING ROUTERS
Any cavalry, Warband or Hordes element which is not already in close combat, has not rallied from pursuit
and has no steadied or unbeaten enemy within 100p, must pursue any one routing enemy element, which
started the bound within 300p and which is in good or rough going, for its full tactical move in both side's
bounds, in an attempt to contact it or to support a friendly element already contacting it. This does not
expend any PIPs. Close combat takes place normally, except that routers do not turn to face, so are
destroyed if they recoil or flee.

RALLYING ROUTERS OR PURSUERS

An element rallying from rout must, and one rallying from pursuit may, immediately turn 180 degrees. It
cannot make a tactical or march move that bound. It then moves normally in succeeding bounds, if
formerly routing, as if it had been successfully steadied. A routing element cannot rally if there is an enemy
element within 300p.

23
VICTORY & DEFEAT
When, at the end of any bound of either side, either an army's sole or 2 largest commands have been beaten
or the total of elements lost or beaten equals 2/3 of its original strength, it has been totally defeated and the
other side has won. If commands are equal in size, that beaten first is treated as if larger. While defeat ends
a competition game, in scenario or casual friendly games the players may choose to continue to find out
how much of his force the loser can get safely away.
In a competition game each army is worth 5 victory points (VP). 1 VP is assigned to each sub- or ally
general's command. The remainder is assigned to the C-in-C's command. For example, if the army has a C-
in-C, a sub-general and an ally general, the C-in-C's command is worth 3 VP, the other commands 1 VP
each. At the end of the battle, each side's score is the sum of the VP of any enemy commands that have been
beaten (all if totally defeated), plus the VP of those of its own commands that have not. This gives a
possible score range of 0 to 10.
In a large "Swiss Chess" tournament a tie may occur. If so, victory should be awarded to the player who in
the final round lost the lowest percentage of his original element count.

TACTICAL ADVICE
The conventional and most generally useful deployment was and is an infantry centre or "Corps de
Bataille" and two large cavalry wings. Armies relying on cavalry sometimes dispensed with a central
command in favour of two self-contained wings, each with infantry integrated into it, often in a second
line. A second line, even if weaker than the first, greatly adds to the strength of a deployment. Multiple
lines become almost obligatory for the armies of Asiatic despots with only one general, who will find it
easier to command part of the army at a time.
With the exception of such despots, generals usually fought at the head of their men rather than remaining
in an overlooking command post, and you will do well to emulate them. Although the loss of a general can
be crippling, they are difficult to kill, and their superior fighting power makes them invaluable in achieving
a break-through that can be exploited by their followers.
Lancers and Warband are deadly only if they attack. Deep formations of caracoling Pistols can in time wear
down Pikes and can advance to blow away Lancers, but are vulnerable to Lancers that charge first. A few
Light Horse can scout, threaten flanks or raid inadequately guarded baggage. A lot of them can produce
deadly envelopments. Dragoons can seize and hold terrain features, clear away Skirmishers or support
cavalry with flanking fire.
Pikes need to be four elements deep at normal or two deep at condensed scale only if to be used offensively
to roll over enemy foot in Swiss fashion. Half that depth is adequate to defeat cavalry and protect flanking
Shot from them. Shot are the most powerful type against foot and can be used separately leaving the Pikes
in reserve to their rear, as was often done in the English Civil War. Individual Shot elements can also be
used to support outnumbered Pistols, but may be outdistanced in an advance and are in deadly danger if
their friends lose. Skirmishers are useful to dispute difficult terrain or to attack or defend baggage. Blades
are becoming obsolete and have lost their previous relative invulnerability to shooting.
Artillery may seem too immobile to be useful, but will force a reluctant enemy to advance or in time suffer
heavy losses. It is often best placed in front of the rest of the army, so as to make the most of its range.
It is generally fatal to sit still defensively, allowing your opponent the initiative. Good and bad luck come to
both sides, but only the active player will be ready to exploit what may be only a fleeting opportunity to
achieve a brilliant victory. It is often said of such commanders that they make their own luck. Remember
the words of Montrose:

"He either fears his fates too much,

Or his deserts are small,
Who dares not put it to the touch,
To win or lose it all."

24
 PROVIDING TERRAIN
BASE BOARD AND FEATURE SYSTEM
The normal method of providing terrain for games at clubs, or for competitions involving large numbers of
players sometimes travelling considerable distances, is for the host club to provide flat playing boards
painted green and the players to bring terrain features to be placed on top. One minor variation is to use
ordinary tables with a green cloth spread over them. This is the method assumed in the TERRAIN
CHOOSING section on Page 12.
Two advantages of this system are that it removes a difficult burden from the organisers, while
encouraging players to construct decorative terrain features appropriate to their army to add to the
pleasure of play. For example, one pair of opponents recently met using a Chinese army had not only
realistic paddy fields, but also a disassembling Chinese temple complete with idol, priests and joss sticks,
while in America one Aztec army brings its own sacrificial step pyramid. Urban areas with commercially
bought building models are becoming common in DBM, and it is worth noting that fine ranges of 15th to
17th century buildings are available.
The main disadvantage is that no minimum standard of terrain is automatically set, so that while the best is
very good, the worst can be a disgraceful selection of rectangular pieces of cloth, rectangular block hills or
even pieces of paper. Organisers could consider imposing a penalty for terrain which does not meet a
minimum standard by deducting victory points. Peer pressure can also be effective, not necessarily by rude
remarks and exclamations of "Yuck!", but by providing examples to emulate, passing on construction hints,
and occasional ploys such as approaching a rectangular block hill at one of its angles, so that the defenders
keep falling off.
One excuse for not bringing three-dimensional terrain features is lack of portability, but this need not be a
problem. The features I take to a competition fit neatly into the floor section of a steel tool box, while two
15mm armies occupy the six trays above. Transport is obviously not a serious concern if travelling by car.
HEXAGONAL TILE SYSTEMS
An ideal but expensive terrain system can be built up from hexagonal tile systems like Geo-Hex. Terrains
using the smaller tile sizes take a long time to assemble and are best treated as a pre-set terrain. Systems
with very large tile sizes can be treated in much the same way as square terrain boards, with the defender
laying them out and the invader then exchanging up to 1/4 of the tiles with others already on the table or
as yet unused. Any features continuing from one tile to another must be maintained. All features must be
verbally defined before troops are deployed.
SQUARE TERRAIN BOARD SYSTEMS
Terrains can also be assembled from commercial or scratch-built 600mm (24") or 300mm (12") square
terrain boards with permanent asymmetrical terrain features. These are bulky, so are possibly better suited
to a home set-up. Another disadvantage is that they tend to wander apart during play unless some sort of
clip system is fitted. The defender lays out the boards, ensuring that features such as roads or rivers
continue those from boards already placed. At least 2/3 of boards placed by the defender must include
some feature other than roads. The invader then exchanges up to 1/3 of them with others already on the
table or as yet unused, maintaining any features that continue over a board edge.
PAINTED CLOTH AND FEATURE SYSTEMS.
This is the most portable system of all and is both cheap and realistic. First obtain a bed sheet of
appropriate background colour. Now use fabric or modelling enamel paints to paint on matt dust colour
roads and gloss varnished pale blue rivers. Field systems, BUA bases and wood bases can also be painted
on and vegetation simulated with "puff-up" fabric paints. Hill and ridge shapes are cut out of soft plastic
foam, tossed on to the table and the cloth thrown over them. Any hills under water features are then
nudged aside and buildings and trees placed to complete the painted BUA and woods. If the cloth is cut
oversize for your table and pulled to hang more over one side than another, this combined with varying the
number and position of hills will provide excellent variation. Never fold the cloth neatly, but instead
scrunch it up. The resulting random pattern of creases is much more realistic.

25
NEUTRALLY SET TERRAIN
Some competition organisers like to provide fixed terrain for all games. This enables them to have a
different kind of countryside on each table and to circulate players around the tables. This gets games
started faster and provides a minimum standard of terrain. Apart from the extra work that is involved for
the organisers, the main disadvantage of fixed terrain is that it is not tailored to the defender's permitted
terrain types. Some armies require dense terrain to function well and others would be at home on a flat
featureless plain, so organisers must beware of setting most tables as a sort of bland average. Each table
should pose unique problems to test the players' skill. Ideally, pairs of opponents should be allocated to
tables where the terrain is consistent with the permitted and compulsory terrain types of the army with the
lower aggression factor. Spare features can also be kept in reserve so that the organisers can replace a
forbidden type or add a compulsory one. A player whose army has a compulsory terrain type or that
wishes to use another particular type must be permitted to bring his own feature, which the organisers
should then use if sufficiently good.
CONSTRUCTING TERRAIN FEATURES
There are a large variety of commercial terrain pieces, but these are not necessarily better than that can be
made at home. We find the following ways of making features work well.

Hills should be modelled with a central high point or ridge and continuous slopes that an element will
stand on. They can be carved out of rigid plastic foam with periodic testing to make sure that elements do
not tip over. It is important that the edges should be sharp and this can be done by feathering them off with
Basetex or similar. If your figures are magnetically based for transport in a steel toolbox, you can make quite
sure by covering doubtful slopes with steel foil. Finally, cover the hill entirely with paper kitchen towel
soaked in diluted PVA "School Glue" mixed with green or brown paint and sprinkle with modelling flock.
Difficult or rough hills can be decorated with brush or rocks, as described below for rough going.
Woods are best made by cutting a piece of card in a rough clover leaf shape and painting both its sides a
mottled green. Cut cocktail sticks and push their pointed ends dipped in neat PVA glue through the centre
of each lobe of the card, making a triangle of tree trunks. Reinforce the joints and coat the trunks with
Basetex. Now cover the top and edges of the card with Woodland Scenics foliage clusters of slightly
different colour soaked in PVA. After drying, fill any gaps with smaller pieces. This will give you a group
of trees that does not fall over and has room inside for figures. One or more of these tree groups can now be
stood loose on a wood base of painted and flocked card decorated to look like a sun-dappled forest floor
with stumps, animal trails or even bluebells.
Rough Going should be made from irregular pieces of card painted green, flocked and with patches of bits
of gravel set in Basetex and/or Woodland Scenics foliage net well plastered down with PVA glue. Dark
foliage tipped with yellow makes excellent gorse, light foliage net good bracken. Small pieces broken from
foliage clusters make good thorn scrub, with white flowers in spring. Boggy ground or marsh should be
depicted with patches of flock for reeds, bright light green paint for sphagnum and glossy dark pools for
open water. An occasional fleck of white for bog cotton and yellow for asphodel adds the final touches.
Rivers look best if made from transparent plastic, painted underneath with irregular dark green shadows
near the edges fading quickly into an swirly light blue centre. The top and sides of the plastic's edges
should be Basetex'd and/or flocked. Rivers must flow in repeated reversing curves.
Waterways representing sea should be striped underneath parallel to the shoreline with a slightly different
shade of blue green to represent wave troughs. Breaking wave crests can be depicted with rough dabs of
white on top of the plastic. Sand beaches should be painted on top of the landward edge with a slightly
darker shade for the damp sand next to the water and weed at high tide mark.

26
 MISCELLANEOUS
COMPETITION UMPIRING AND RULE INTERPRETATIONS
When an umpire is used, his function is to decide if a player's actions or expectations, in a specific instance
referred to him, accord to the letter and spirit of the rules as the umpire understands them, and to alter an
illegal action by the minimum necessary to make it legal. Each decision should be made on individual
circumstances, and not be taken to constitute a precedent. Players are entitled to an honest umpire, but not
one who is infallible or tolerant of gamesmanship. Sets of "interpretations" by competition organisers often
cause more problems than they solve, due to poor understanding, careless paraphasing, or being made a
vehicle for ill-judged amendments. Careful re-reading of the rules should solve most queries, but you are
welcome to phone Phil Barker on 0121-472-6207, preferably on a weekday between 9 am and 5 pm.

CAMPAIGN AND SCENARIO GAMES

As well as equal points casual or competition games, these rules are equally suitable both for scenario
games featuring unequal forces, special victory conditions or incomplete or misleading information, and
for battles in which circumstances and forces are defined by the events of a campaign including logistic,
economic and political factors.

In a campaign game, the player left in possession of the battlefield regains all undestroyed and uncaptured
elements that have been beaten or have left the table. The losing player must dice for each on- or off-table
land element undestroyed and uncaptured when his army is defeated; deducting -1 from his die score if the
element is in contact with an enemy front edge. Both sides first count and compare the number of cavalry
and dragoon elements they still have on table.

Ratio of victor's mounted to loser's: Loser's element escapes if it scores at least:

If Hordes or train. If cavalry or Dragoons. If others.
Half or less. 4 1 2
More than half but less than double. 5 2 3
Double or more. 6 3 5
Train elements that do not escape are captured. Ship or Galley elements that were lost by either side during
the game in close combat other than with (X) elements are also captured.
CONTACT ADDRESSES
For details of other WRG wargames rules, army lists and reference books, send a stamped and addressed
envelope or International Reply Coupons to, or phone credit card orders to:
W.R.G, The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks, London Rd, Devizes SN10 2ER. Tel: 01380-724558.
PBM UMPIRE is a computerised system (IBM PC compatibles) for moderating and automatically
generating player reports for campaigns with up to 30 players. A trial version, including a fully functional
20 player Medieval scenario, is available free by email from <bodleyscott@aol.com>. On registration, which
costs 25.00, the scenario editor will be supplied. This enables scenarios to be created or modified, and
permits battles to be fought either automatically or using DBA, DBM, DBR or other table-top rules.
THE PIKE AND SHOT SOCIETY is a long established worldwide society for all interested in 16th and 17th
century warfare. Its bi-monthly journal ARQUEBUSIER balances research of a very high standard with
more specifically wargaming content.
Contact: Ian Wilson, 66 Westbury Road, Coundon, Coventry CV5 8KY, UK.
WARGAMES DEVELOPMENTS is an association of wargames innovators centring around an annual "try it
on the dog" conference, not to be missed.
Contact: The Treasurer, 84 Eglinton Hill, Shooters Hill, London SE18 3DY.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Finally, we offer our thanks to our many testers among the members of the Berkeley, Newport, October,
Rotherham, Warlords, Weston and Worthing clubs and elsewhere, and especially to Pete Haines, Bob
O'Brien, John Orange and Mike Roberts.

27
 D.B.R. ARMY LISTS
For use with the De Bellis Renationis Wargames Rules

BOOK 1
ARMIES OF THE
GREAT ITALIAN WARS, VALOIS-HAPSBURG-TUDOR WARS,
TURKISH WARS, CHINESE AND JAPANESE WARS, THE AMERICAS,
AND OF THE REFORMATION.

Compiled by

PHIL BARKER

WARGAMES RESEARCH GROUP AUGUST 1995

 D.B.R. ARMY LISTS
For use with the De Bellis Renationis Wargames Rules

BOOK 1
ARMIES OF THE
GREAT ITALIAN WARS, VALOIS-HAPSBURG-TUDOR WARS,
TURKISH WARS, CHINESE AND JAPANESE WARS, THE AMERICAS,
AND OF THE REFORMATION.

Compiled by

PHIL BARKER

All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission in writing from the copyright holder,

(C) Wargames Research Group August 1995.

The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks, London Road, Devizes, Wiltshire SN10 2ER.
Printed in England

WARGAMES RESEARCH GROUP AUGUST 1995

 D.B.R ARMY LISTS
BOOK1
These lists are intended for use with our "De Bellis Renationis" wargames rules for Renaissance
Warfare, more familiarly known as DBR. While mainly intended for competition games, they also
provide a general guide to armies' troop classification, proportions and numbers for scenario
games and wargames campaigns, especially when used in conjunction with more detailed sources
such as the W.R.G army handbooks.

They follow the general form of the DBM lists, except that, instead of the armies being arranged
in chronological order, each is grouped together with its main historical opponents. It is often a
criticism of competition gaming that it necessarily encourages unhistorical matches. Our army
grouping should enable competition organisers to arrange that at least the first round of a "Swiss
Chess" competition matches most armies with a contemporary from the same group, while still
permitting enough meetings with unusual opponents to provide variety.
The lists are primarily intended to produce 300 AP to 500 AP armies which closely simulate their
real life prototypes, while still allowing sufficient flexibility to cover historical variations during
the period and minor differences of opinion or personal preference. They are less permissive than
some previous renaissance lists which did not restrict choice by year within a longer period.
A list usually includes about 200 AP of compulsory troops. Unless otherwise specified, the total
value of troops listed as able to be used together is normally around 600 AP, excluding naval
elements, artificial defences and allied contingents; more where historical armies were unusually
varied. This will usually allow the army's largest historical battle to be refought in condensed
scale. If you wish to refight such battles in normal scale as a multi-player game, for instance as a
public demonstration at a convention, you must multiply the listed minima and maxima by 4 for
cavalry and foot and by 2 for all other troops other than pontooneers, then expect it to take much
longer to complete. Where a historical army was small, its list specifies that only normal scale
should be used and quotes the maximum army size provided for.
300-400 AP is a typical army size for games with 1 player on each side. Larger games really
require at least 2 players on each side, ideally 1 player per command. Each army must include a
commander-in-chief (C-in-C) and usually at least 1 other general, who may be a loyal subordinate
or independently enough minded or so fractious as to be classed as an ally. It must also include 2
baggage elements per command, all deployed with the same command.
There is also provision for much smaller games using a single command and only one general.
For these, halve the cost of the general and divide all minima and maxima by 3, rounding up to
the nearest whole element. A 100 AP condensed scale army is very similar to a DBA army and
can be used for the same kind of quick games on a small board.
ALLIED CONTINGENTS
These are specified by reference to their own list. Each such contingent must include 1 general
and 2 baggage elements, loss of which affects only the contingent and not the army joined. An
allied contingent's general can be his list's C-in-C or any of its other generals, but is always
costed and behaves as an ally-general. He commands only his own contingent. Unless otherwise
stated in a particular list, an allied contingent can include only compulsory troop types and must
have at least a 1/4 of the normal minima for each such type and not exceed 1/3 of the maxima,
or 1 element, whichever is greater. Only one allied contingent of each nationality can be used.
An allied contingent must be of the same year as the army it joins.
NAVAL
Naval elements each replace a land element of the types that follow it in square brackets and
disembark as that element. The AP quoted is for the naval element, the land element being paid
for separately. AP spent on naval elements are wasted if they have no access to the table. Their
landing troops can then still be deployed, being assumed to have disembarked before the battle.
The elements allowed represent a small squadron co-operating with the army, not the main fleet.
CLIMATE, AGGRESSION, TERRAIN AND ARMY SIZE
The 2nd line of each list specifies the army's home climate, its aggression factor, codes for the
types of terrain feature it can choose from if the defender, and a note of any unusual army size.
The terrain permitted to a defending army is based either on that of its nation's heartland or its
capital or on that of a foreign base of operations. Terrain codes are:
Waterway suitable for ships, such as the sea, lakes or great rivers. WW
Ordinary rivers. Rv
Hill with some or all slopes steep. H(S)
Hill or lesser rise with only gentle slopes. H(G)
Woods. Wd
Orchards or olive or palm groves.
Vineyards. V
Small fields enclosed by hedges, walls or irrigation ditches. E
Rough going, such as moderately boggy or rocky ground or brush. RGo
Inland marsh not on a river. M
Non-coastal sand dunes. D
Roads or frequently used tracks. Rd
Built-up areas, such as villages or towns. BUA
Ice, if waterways and rivers can freeze solid enough to bear troops. 1
If some types listed for an army are underlined, this means that they are compulsory. Even if not
listed, a single patch of coastal dunes or marsh can always be used if in contact with a waterway,
or a single patch of marsh if in contact with a river.

Any notation of unusual army size starts with "Max". This can be followed by:
N, meaning that the listed maxima will reproduce the largest historical army in normal scale,
followed by the AP of the largest wargames army for which it is considered suitable.
multiplied by a number, which means that at condensed scale listed maxima must be multiplied
by that number to reproduce the largest reported historical army and that those maxima before
multiplication will provide a 500 AP wargames army with some margin for choice.
No notation means that at condensed scale the maxima will reproduce the largest historical army
and that the maxima will provide a 500 AP wargames army with some margin for choice.

FORTIFICATIONS
An army allowed a BUA can provide it with artificial defences. Otherwise, these can only be
used if specified by the army's list. Note that the costs of defences for a BUA and the extra costs
of any gateways, although not mentioned in lists, must still be paid. Defences specified as for
camps must rest both ends on a table edge and contain all the army's baggage. Any AP spent on
BUA defences are wasted if the terrain includes no BUA or if you are the invader. Troops which
are specified by lists as to defend camps or BUA must remain within these.

TROOP TYPE ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations are used for troop types in these lists:
Ln = Lancers. Dr = Dragoons. Art = Artillery. Shp = Ships.
Pi = Pistols. Pk = Pikes. Pon = Pontooneers. Gal = Galleys.
Si = Sipahis. Sh = Shot. WWg = War Wagons. Bts = Boats.
LH = Light Horse. Bd = Blades. El = Elephants
Cm = Camelry. Bw = Bows.
Sk = Skirmishers.
Wb = Warband. Hd =
Hordes.
PO = Portable obstacle.
FO = Fixed obstacle. F
= Fortification.
 ARMIES INCLUDED

ARMIES OF THE GREAT ITALIAN WARSARMIES OF THE REFORMATION

1.Italian Condotta.Page 5 43. Elizabethan English. Page 42
2.Italian Wars French.6 44. Old Irish. 43
3.Swiss Confederate. 7 45. French Huguenot. 44
4.Neapolitan Spanish.8 46. French Catholic. 45
5.Spanish Imperial. 9 47. Low Countries Spanish. 46
6.Venetian Italian. 10 48. Dutch Rebellion. 47
7.German Minor States. 11

ARMIES OF THE VALOIS-HAPSBURG-TUDOR WARS

8.Valois French. Page 12
9.Maximilian Imperial. 13
10.Early Tudor English. 14
11.Scots Common Army. 15

ARMIES OF THE TURKISH WARS

12.Ottoman Turk. Page 16
13.Anatolian Turkoman. 17
14.Mamluk Egyptian. 18
15.Hungarian. 19
16.Knights of St.John. 20
17.Venetian Colonial. 21
18.White Sheep Turkoman. 22
19.Safavid Persian. 23
20.Wallachian or Moldavian.
Transylvanian. 24
21.Austrian Imperial. 25

ARMIES OF THE CHINESE AND JAPANESE WARS

22.Ming Chinese. Page 26
23.Mongolian. 28
24.Jurchen. 28
25.Korean. 29
26.Japanese. 30
27.Manchu and Ch'ing Chinese. 31
28.Tibetan. 32

ARMIES OF THE AMERICAS

29.Aztec. Page 33
30.Tarascan or Tlaxcalan. 34
31.Mixtec or Zapotec. 35
32.Pueblo Cultures. 35
33.North West American. 36
34.Maya. 36
35.Inca. 37
36.Amazonian. 38
37.Natchez and Mound Builders. 39
38.Eastern Forest American. 39
39.Canadian French. 40
40.English or Dutch Colonial. 40
41.Spanish Colonial. 41
42.Buccaneer. 41
 ARMIES OF THE GREAT ITALIAN WARS
1. ITALIAN CONDOTTA 1494 AD - 1553 AD Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv,
H(S), H(G), O, V, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP |Mi,Pa], or Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 1-2
Condottieri or lanze spezzate elmeti - Ln () @ 12 AP. dO-16
Famiglia ducale elmeti - Ln (S) @ 15 AP [Mi|. 0-2
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 2-8
Mounted arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP [Mi]. 0-2
Militia crossbowmen - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-8
Mercenary crossbowmen - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-6
Italian arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP:
-[Co, Mi]. 0-12
-[Others]. 0-6
Mercenary sword-and-buckler men - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Stradiots - LH () @ 5 AP [Co]. 2-4
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP:
-[Pa, F]. 0-4
-[Si from 1552 AD to 1553 AD. 4-8
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk (O)
Organ guns or hagbuts on stands - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Bombard - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-3
Pioneers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-4
Ditch and bank - F @ 4 AP. Up to 3 per Hd
Galleons or barche - Bts (S) @ 3 AP or (O) @ 2 AP [Sk (O)[ [Mi,Pi]. 0-4
Italian allies - List: Italian Condotta.
Spanish allies - List: Neapolitan Spanish [Pa].

Only 14% AD to 1503 AD:

Romandiole pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP [Pa]. 0-12

Only after 1506 AD:

Militia pikes - Pk (I) @ 3 AP [F[. 24-48

Only after 1521 AD:

Upgrade any crossbowmen to arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP [F,Si|. All
This covers all Italian armies except those of the Venetian Republic and the Spanish Vice-Royalty
of Naples, from 1494 until the fall of Sienna in 1553 left no other states capable of putting
armies in the field. Armies can be those of the combined condottiere army of Milan, Venice and
others that was swept away by the French at Fornovo in 1495 [Co], Milan [Mi] until 1500, Pisa
[Pi| until 1509, the Papacy [Pa] until 1522, Florence [F] until 1530, Sienna [Si] until 1553, or
none of these. Items with any of these labels are available only to those armies. Items with no
labels are available to any army. Elmeti "helmets" were men-at-arms in full plate. Famiglia were
the Duke's elite bodyguard. Condottiere contracted to provide mercenaries for a fixed period.
Their troops being their only commercial assets, this fostered a relatively bloodless style of
warfare until the French arrived and declined to fight according to the local custom. Lanze
spezzate "broken lances" were mercenaries hired directly by the state. Civic militia were often a
source of competent infantry. The steady Romandiole pikemen in their distinctive red and white
uniforms that died in Venetian service in 1506 may originally have been raised by Caesare Borgia
for the Papacy. Milan sometimes fielded entirely cavalry armies, but in most armies foot
outnumbered cavalry by 3 or 4 to 1 and by 10 to 1 in the case of Florence. Galleons and barche
were rowing craft, some with light guns, used in warfare on the River Po.
2. ITALIAN WARS FRENCH 1494 AD - 1559 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
French sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP or Bd (S) @ 29 AP. 1-2
Ordonnance gendarmes - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 5-9
Ordonnance archers - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. Up to 1 per Ln (S)
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 1-4
Aventurier crossbowmen - Sk () @ 3 AP. 6-16
Old bands of Picardy and Piedmont - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-16
Heavy and/or field guns - up to 1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art () @ 20 AP. 0-9
Only 1494 AD to 1512 AD and 1522 AD to 1559 AD:
Swiss pikemen - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 8-16
Swiss skirmishers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP. 1 per 4 Pk (S)
Only after 14% AD:
Italian sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 0-1
Italian elmeti - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-3
Italian mounted crossbows - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 2-3
Stradiots - LH () @ 5 AP. 1-4
Argoulets - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-5
Italian arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only after 1512 AD:
Re-arm Italian mounted crossbows with arquebus - LH (I) @ 4 AP. All
Lanquesnet pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. *4-12
Lanquesnet skirmishers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk (O)
Aventurier or Italian pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Only 1515 AD to 1522 AD: Venetian
allies - List: Venetian Italian.
Only after 1522 AD:
Re-arm argoulets with arquebus - LH (I) @ 4 AP. All
Re-arm aventuriers with arquebus - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. All
Only after 1535 AD:
Replace old bands by legions - 1/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Pk (I) @ 3 AP. All
Only after 1543:
Foot arquebusiers mounted on nags - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 0-2
This list covers French armies from the first invasion of Italy until the end of the Italian wars.
The gendarmes now only fought mounted, though generals sometimes dismounted to lead Swiss or
other infantry. Ordonnance archers had given up their bows and fought as half-armoured lancers,
often as an advance guard supported at a distance by gendarmes. The best French infantry were
mercenary "aventuriers", at first mainly Gascons, Picards and Bretons, but later including Italians.
Francs archers do not seem to have been used in Italy, but the "old bands" pikemen raised from
them were. Both were replaced by the regular "legions" of Picardy, Champagne, Normandy and
Languedoc. Some of these were to survive to become the senior infantry regiments of the modern
French army, but were as yet poor troops. Not all Swiss mercenaries proved to be the superb
soldiers expected and paid for. A very inferior contingent raised by the Count of Gruyeres broke
at the first shock at Ceresole in 1544. If by a very unlikely combination of dice this happens to
you on the table, blame the Count! Pikes were added to some French and Italian arquebusier
units about 1512 to protect them against cavalry. Stradiots were Albanian skirmishing cavalry.
Argoulets wore light armour and were originally armed with crossbow and mace, but later with
wheel-lock arquebus. From 1529, Arquebusiers a cheval differed only in being recruited from
native Frenchmen and attached in support of the gendarmes. Swiss and lanquesnet (French for
landsknecht) skirmishers must stay within 1 move from their respective pikemen. The minimum
marked * applies only if any lanquesnets are used. Most alliances with Italian cities involved the
latters' troops being placed under French control, so these are not treated as allied contingents.
French and Italian generals can command any troops.

3. SWISS CONFEDERATE 1494 AD - 1515 AD

Cold. Ag 4. Rv, 5), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pk (S) @ 25 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pk (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Mounted crossbows and arquebusiers - 1/2 LH (F), 1/2 LH (I), @ 4 AP. 0-4
Pikemen - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 31-94
Replace pikemen with halberdiers - Bd (F) @ 4 AP. (5 ' 0-12
Skirmishers - Sk (O) @ 2 AP ( v r 1 per 4 Pk
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Only 1500 AD to 1513 AD:
Milanese ally-general - Ln (S) @ 25 AP. *1
Milanese famiglia ducale - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. *l-2
This list covers Swiss national armies from 1494 until their effective declaration of permanent
neutrality in the "Perpetual Peace" of 1515 following their defeat at Marignano by the French.
This neutrality did not prevent them providing large mercenary contingents for the French. In
1500 and 1512 they installed new rulers in Milan and maintained these for a time as virtually
puppets before abandoning them to their fate. The last great Swiss victory was over the French at
Novara in 1513 where they employed 1 large and 2 small columns. Command was exercised by
committees of captains, so the functions of generals are vested in front rank centre pike elements.
Swiss tactics were based on a high speed approach and an immediate attack. This requires narrow
formations and maximum exploitation of march moves. Giving PIP priority to the same command
each bound will often disconcert opponents with the speed of your advance and produce a natural
echelon effect. Pike units still contained a proportion of halberdiers. This should normally be
represented by using halberdiers as the centre figures of the centre 2 elements of each 4 deep
pike block. However, at Novara 400 Swiss halberdiers came out from behind the pikemen, drove
off enemy arquebusiers and then attacked the flank of the opposing pikemen. We accordingly
allow the option of instead having separate halberdier elements for this role. Foot skirmishers
were used to cover the front or flanks of all pike blocks and sometimes also as a diversion,
arquebuses having now almost entirely replaced crossbows. Minima marked * apply only if any
Milanese troops are used. Any Milanese ally-general must command all Milanese and can also
command Swiss.
4. NEAPOLITAN SPANISH 1495 AD - 1518 AD

Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), O, V, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.

C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Spanish sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP 1-2
Spanish gente d'armas - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 1-6
Spanish ginetes - LH () @ 5 AP. 10-30
Sword-and-buckler men - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 4-8
Spanish crossbowmen - Sk () @ 3 AP. 4-24
Spanish arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1-12
Field guns - Arty () @ 20 AP. 0-4
Ditch and bank - FO @ 2 AP or F @ 4 AP. 0-12
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Galleys - Gal (O) @ 4 AP [Bd (F)l. 0-4
Only from 1503 AD:
Downgrade sub-general to condottiere - Ln () @ 32 AP. 0-1
Italian elmeti - Ln () @ 12 AP. 2-6
Italian horse arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-5
Italian foot crossbowmen or arquebusiers - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-10
Re-arm Spanish crossbowmen as pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. All

Only from 1508 AD:

Upgrade Spanish pikemen to Pk () @ 4 AP. All
Only in 1512 AD:
War carts - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 5-12
Re-classify C-in-C as Sk (S) @ 24 AP. 0-1
Papal allies - List: Italian Condotta.
This covers Spanish armies based in Naples from the arrival of the great Gonsalvo de Cordova
until Charles V united Spain and the Empire. Despite Machiavelli's contrary opinion, Spanish
gente d'armas, though few, were highly respected by their opponents. Ferdinand and Isabella are
said to have abolished horse armour and replaced the heavy medieval lance with a lighter "lanza
d'armas", but these changes appear to have been at least partly reversed during the Italian Wars.
At Ravenna in 1513, 2/3 of the men-at-arms rode barded horses, though this is noted as unusual.
Montluc reports of the men-at-arms he fought in 1525 that "In those days, the Spanish carried
few lances, and those very slender, long and shod with iron at both ends". They sought to kill an
opponent's horse, which the French considered unfair. Ginetes or genitors were skirmishing light
horse using javelins and were thought at least equal to stradiots. After his army was swept away
by the French at Seminara in 1495, Gonsalvo discarded his crossbows, increased the proportion of
arquebusiers to l/6th of his foot and equipped many of his infantry with pikes, which however
still proved too short to match those of the Swiss. This forced him to avoid offensive battle until
better pikes could be found, but replacement was not complete when he was superceded by Pedro
Cardona. The war carts Cardona used at Ravenna were described as with 2 wheels, a 6 foot spear
protruding in front and iron wings projecting 12 feet on either side, and variously as either
having multiple firearms fastened to their bed for simultaneous discharge or as protecting men
standing between them behind the wings and firing heavy arquebuses off rests. Possibly both are
correct. Although they had a pole behind for pushing, they apparently were not shoved into the
enemy. We choose therefore to class them as organ guns. Organ guns had been used in small
numbers against Grenada in the previous decade, together with large bombards which were not
brought to Italy and more modern medium-size guns. Cardona was accompanied at Ravenna by a
personal escort of 50 sharpshooters firing heavy matchlocks from rests which must have been
muskets in all but name. The success of the sword-and-buckler men at Ravenna made a great
impression on contemporary commentators, who compared them with Roman legionaries. Since
the Spanish then got rid of them as rapidly as possible, it must be concluded that they did not
share the good opinions.
5. SPANISH IMPERIAL 1519 AD - 1558 AD

Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), O, V, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.

C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Spanish or French rebel sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP 1-2
Downgrade sub-general to condottiere - Ln () @ 32 AP. 0-1
Spanish gente d'armas - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 1-3
Burgundian men-at-arms - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-4
German men-at-arms - up to 1/2 Ln (O) @ 12 AP, rest Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 0-8
Italian elmeti - Ln () @ 12 AP. 2-4
Spanish ginetes - LH () @ 5 AP. 4-8
Italian horse arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 4-8
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Unregimented arquebusier companies - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-6
Skirmishing Spanish musketeers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-4
"Indifferent" Italian foot - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-6
Field guns - Arty () @ 20 AP. 0-4
Ditch and bank - FO @ 2 AP or F @ 4 AP. 0-12
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Galleys-Gal () @ 4 AP |Sh|. 0-4
Venetian allies - List: Venetian Italian.
Catholic German allies - List: German Minor States.
English allies - List: Early Tudor English.
Only before 1534 AD:
German mounted crossbowmen - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Spanish colunela foot: Pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 8-22
Arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1 per Pk
Sword-and-bucklermen - Bd (F) @ 5 . 0 or 1 per 2 Pk
Only after 1534 AD:
Replace ginetes with herguletiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1/2-all
Spanish tercio foot: 1/2 pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP,
1/2 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 32 or 64

Only from 1544 AD:

Convert German men-at-arms to reiters with boar spear and pistol - Pi (O) @ 10 AP. All
This list covers the combined armies of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, from the year the
son of Maximillian I that had married the heiress to the throne of Spain inherited both titles as
Emperor Charles V, until the end of the Italian Wars. Charles V had already abdicated in 1556,
Spain, the Burgundian lands and Italy then passing to his son as King Philip II, but the elective
Imperial crown going to Charles' brother as Emperor Ferdinand I. Despite attempts to standardise
on the Burgundian gendarmes, many German feudal cavalry were still the older types. Burgundian
lancers can have rear support from other Burgundians and Germans from Lancers (I). Spanish
infantry were at first partly organised into colunellas which may still have included 1/5 sword-and-
buckler men. In 1534 these were replaced by larger permanent units called tercios. A tercio of
this period is simulated in normal scale by a large block of pikemen 4 elements wide by 4
deep with 4 smaller blocks of arquebusiers at its corners, each 2 elements wide by 2 deep. As
well as looking good, this is an effective formation on the table. The Milanese militia at Bicocca
by their Duke in 1522 were described as "indifferent foot" and sent off to make a show of being
a flank guard. Musketeers were initially used as long range snipers. They were used at the siege
of Parma in 1521, 800 skirmished successfully from cover against gendarmes at Pavia in 1525,
and at Miihlberg in 1547 they demoralised and drove off troops defending a ford who believed
themselves beyond the range of small arms. The rebel French Constable de Bourbon fought on
the Imperial side in 1523-25 accompanied by a few personal followers and was entrusted with
subordinate commands. Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their pikemen.
Only 1 allied contingent can be used. English allies can include, or be entirely, naval elements.
6. VENETIAN ITALIAN 1494 AD - 1617 AD
Warm. Ag 2. WW, Rv, O, V, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 1-2
Elmeti - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-12
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 3-8
Mounted arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Turks - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Stradiots - LH () @ 5 AP. 4-10
Mercenary arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 10-16
Mercenary foot crossbowmen - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-12
Mercenary sword-and-buckler men - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-6
Heavy or field guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP or () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Militia pioneers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-4
D i t c h a n d b a n k - F @ 4 A P . U p t o 3 p e r H d
Scapoli - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Gal
Galeasses - Gal (S) @ 5 AP [Wb or Sh|. 0-1
Galleys - Gal (F) @3 AP|Wb|. 0-4
Carracks- Shp (I) @ 3 AP |Any|. 0-4
Galleons and barche - Bts (S) @ 3 AP or () @ 2 AP |Sk). 0-4
Only 1504 AD to 1506 AD:
Romandiole pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 8-12
Only from 1560 AD:
Downgrade elmeti to cavalleria leggiera - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 1/2-all
Re-arm mounted crossbowmen with arquebus - LH (1) @ 4 AP. A ^"f'
Re-arm foot crossbowmen with arquebus - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. All
Only from 1606 AD:
Re-arm all lancers as pistoleers - Pi (S) @ 32 AP if generals, 12 AP if not.
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Upgrade arquebusiers to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 1/2-all
This covers the mostly mercenary armies of the Republic of Venice in Italy until the end of its
last large land war of the period. Elmeti ("helmets") were men-at-arms in full plate enlisted by
condotta, the previous use of lanze spezzate having largely died out. Cavalleria leggiera are at
first included in the elmeti, since they mainly differed only in riding unbarded horses, but after
shedding leg armour are treated as demi-lances. The Venetians' most useful cavalry were their
light horse, at first mostly Italian mounted crossbows, but increasingly supplemented by Stradiots.
These were Albanians, Greeks and Croats fighting in Albanian style with a double-headed zagaie
spear and a fearsome sabre, later also a mace to fight gendarmes. They were experts in looting
enemy baggage. Mercenary Italian pikemen from the Romagna dressed in a distinctive uniform of
red slashed with white held fought bravely against the French at Agnadello in 1506 until charged
in flank by gendarmes while engaged to the front. This bad luck made pike-fighting unpopular
among the Venetians. At home in Italy, Venetian militia served only as pioneers for constructing
fortifications. Venetian galleys were faster than their rivals, had relatively light specialist boarding
crews, relying instead on armed rowers, and favoured long range gunnery and sudden surprise
attacks. The galleass was just coming into use. Scapoli ("blades") were galley crews, mostly
swordsmen but some also having composite bow or arquebus. If they are used, their galleys must
be paid for. Venetian carracks did not yet carry a heavy gun armament. Galleons and barche
were rowing craft, some with light guns, used on the River Po.

10
7. GERMAN MINOR STATES 1494 AD - 1609 AD
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP or Pk () @ 24 AP. 0-2
German men-at-arms - up to 1/2 Ln (O) @ 12 AP, rest (1) @ 10 AP. 9-18
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 1-3
Petronels - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Change petronels to mounted arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 16-32
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Other foot arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 3-12
Organ guns or other light artillery - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Only after 1518 AD:
Change crossbowmen and petronels to mounted arquebusiers - LH (1) @ 4 AP. All
Only from 1544 AD:
Change generals to reiter generals - Pi () @ 30 AP. 1-3
Ally-general - Pi 0) @ 20 AP. 0-1
Replace men-at-arms with reiters - Pi () @ 10 AP. All
Only from 1555 AD:
Downgrade reiters without boar spear to Pi (I) @ 18 AP if ally-general,
28 AP if other general, 8 AP if not. All
Upgrade "other foot arquebusiers" to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
This list covers the minor states of Germany until the partial replacement of the old reiter type by
the new charging cuirassiers copied from the Dutch. Although these states were part of the Holy
Roman Empire, they maintained considerable independence and several adopted Protestantism
despite Imperial disapproval. In 1530 the Protestant states formed the Schmalkaldic League. This
was tolerated by Charles V while he had troubles elsewhere, but war finally broke out in 1546
when 3 armies, that of the Elector of Saxony, that of the Elector of Hesse and one raised by the
the free cities of Suabia and Franconia marched on the Emperor. Other Protestant states hung
back, as did Catholic Bavaria, but the Protestant Margrave Moritz of Misnia was bought-off and
attacked his confederates from the rear. A hastily gathered Spanish Imperial army beat the Saxons
at Miihlberg in 1547 after the surprise effect of the new long range musket covered an opposed
crossing of the flooded Elbe. The other Protestant states then hurriedly made terms. Religious
peace now settled on Germany until the outbreak of the 30 Years War, the Princes contenting
themselves with the profits to be made sending mercenaries to aid their co-religionists in the
Huguenot and Dutch wars. At the start of the period, German heavy cavalry fought in very deep
formations with well-mounted and superbly armoured nobles in front, but with the rear ranks
made up of troops in little armour on clumsy unbarded horses. Lacking the financial resources
that became available to the Empire from Aztecs and Incas loot, they could not imitate the
Emperor's new Burgundian-style lancers, so were forced to adopt a cheaper path. This became
available with the invention of the pistol to equip a new cavalry type called "reiters" (often
"black reiters" after either the colour of their armour and sombre dress or their burgeoning
reputation for cruelty and rapacity). These first appear in battle in 1544 armed with boar spear as
well as pistols, both in the employ of Henry VIII of England and shooting 2 unfortunate French
gentlemen in a cavalry skirmish in Champagne. They were still charging home in close formation
and carrying boar spears at Sievershausen in 1554, but by the 1560s the boar spear had gone and
they were firing pistols at a distance while caracoling. In this later form they became the standard
European mercenary cavalry, as Maximilian's landsknechts had become the standard mercenary
infantry. Lancer (O) can have rear support from (O) or (I). Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay
within a move from their pikemen.
 ARMIES OF THE VALOIS - HAPSBURG - TUDOR WARS
8. VALOIS FRENCH 1494 AD - 1561 AD Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G),
Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
French sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1-2
Ordonnance gendarmes - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 5-9
Ordonnance archers or chevaux legers - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. Up to 1 per 2 Ln (S)
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 1-4
Old bands of Picardy and Piedmont - Pk (1) @ 3 AP. 0-12
Aventurier crossbowmen - Sk () @ 3 AP. 6-16
Francs archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-12
Heavy or field guns - up to 1/2 Art (O) @ 20 AP, rest Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-5
Carracks - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Sk,Sh]. 0-2
Galleys - Gal (F) @ 3 AP [Sk,Sh]. 0-2

Only after 14% AD:

Stradiots - LH () @ 5 AP. 1-4
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only after 1512 AD:
Upgrade mounted crossbowmen to Argoulets - LH (S) @ 7 AP. All
Lanquesnet pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 4-16
Lanquesnet arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk (O)

Only after 1522 AD:

Re-arm argoulets with arquebus - LH (I) @ 4 AP. All
Re-arm aventuriers as foot arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. All
Wagon barricade to protect arquebusiers - FO @ 2 AP. 0-2
Only after 1535 AD:
Replace franks archers and old bands by legions - 1/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Pk (I) @ 3 AP. All
Only after 1543:
Foot arquebusiers mounted on nags - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 0-2

Only after 1554 AD:

German mercenary reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-3
This list covers French armies at home until the start of the Huguenot wars. The gendarmes now
only fought mounted. Ordonnance archers had given up their bows and fought as half-armoured
lancers, often as an advance guard supported at a distance by gendarmes. The best native French
infantry were mercenary "aventuriers", mainly Gascon, Picard and Breton crossbowmen. After the
francs archers failed dismally at Guinegate in 1479, an attempt was made to convert them into
pikemen. 10,000 were collected in each of 2 training camps, in Picardy and on the Italian border.
The successors of those that did not desert became the "old bands" of Picardy and Piedmont.
Both these and the rump of the francs archers were replaced by the regular "legions" of Picardy,
Champagne, Normandy and Languedoc. Some of these were to survive to become the senior
infantry regiments of the modern French army, but they were as yet poor troops. Pikes began to
be added to some French arquebusier units about 1512 to protect them against cavalry. Stradiots
were Albanian skirmishing cavalry. Argoulets wore light armour and were originally armed with
crossbow and mace, but later substituted a wheel-lock arquebus. After 1529, arquebusiers a cheval
differed from argoulets only in being recruited from Frenchmen and being attached in support of
gendarmes. Lanquesnet (French for landsknecht) skirmishers must stay within 1 move from their
pikemen. Although the Swiss had a treaty obligation to provide contingents for the French crown,
these were not present at any battles covered by this list, usually being fighting in Italy.

12
9. MAXIMILIAN IMPERIAL 1494 AD - 1518 AD
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 1-2
Burgundian and similar men-at-arms - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-12
German men-at-arms - up to 1/2 Ln (O) @ 12 AP, rest (I) @ 10 AP. 0-12
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 1-2
Petronels - Pi (1) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 16-36
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk (O)
Arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-12
Organ guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
English allies - List: Early Tudor English.
Only before 1507 AD:
Landsknecht "verlorene haufe" - Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-3
This covers armies of the Holy Roman Empire from the accession of the Emperor Maximilian I
until the union with Spain on his death. At the start of the period, German heavy cavalry fought
in deep formations with a few well-mounted and superbly armoured nobles on barded horses in
front, but with the rear ranks filled with troops in little armour on clumsy unbarded horses.
Maximillian thought the existing cavalry past redemption. Instead of seeking to improve it, he
recruited new gendarmes on the Burgundian model, but still fighting in the old deep German
formations. Accordingly, all lancers in this list can have rear support, Burgundians only from
other Burgundians, Germans only from Lances (I). Mounted crossbowmen were more heavily
armoured than those of most nations and were expected to charge into their betters' flank after
delivering their volley, rather than ride off to reload. "Petronels" is used here as a name for
obsolescent cavalry in full plate armour armed with a large calibre match-fired hand gun. The
flamboyantly dressed landsknechts Maximilian had organised earlier in imitation of Swiss pikemen
soon became the standard European mercenary infantrymen and were quite happy to fight other
landsknechts. The Swiss were not flattered by the imitation and quarter was neither given nor
expected when the two rivals met. Halberdiers were normally used only as a colour guard. This
is represented by using halberdiers as the centre figures of the centre 2 elements of a 4 deep pike
block. However, at the start of the period Imperial landsknechts sometimes used a small verlorene
haufe ("folorn hope") in front of each large pike formation to disorder an enemy pike block. This
was mainly armed with halberds or two-handed swords. If there were insufficient defaulters and
volunteers, others were chosen by lot. When the practice (or practitioners?) died out, the name
was transferred to supporting arquebusiers. If used, these were either spread in front as a screen
of skirmishers or formed on one flank of the pikemen. The former was specially suitable when
attacking artillery, the skirmishers rushing ahead in the last moments to hopefully prevent a close
range discharge. Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their pikemen. There
were also other independent arquebusiers, who though attested in 1507 as producing continuous
fire from circulating ranks may not have used the technique earlier, hence the option to represent
them as skirmishers. An armoury inventory of 1515 includes 4,000 arquebuses and several organ
guns, but 35,000 pikes and halberds. The elderly and pragmatic Maximilian was an ally of the
young and boisterous Henry VIII of England against the French and visited him on campaign, so
although he himself preferred to supply Henry with Burgundian men-at-arms and landsknechts at
Henry's own expense rather than bring an army to his aid, the more romantic Henry might well
have come to Maximilian's aid.

13
10. EARLY TUDOR ENGLISH 1494 AD - 1558 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C and King's Spears or Gentlemen Pensioners - Ln (S) @ 35 AD. 1
Sub-general - Ln (O) @ 32 AP or (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
English men-at-arms - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-2
Burgundian men-at-arms - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-4
English demi-lances - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 2-6
English javelins and staves - LH () @ 5 AP. 5-8
English longbowmen - Bw (S) @ 7 AP. 6-24
English billmen - Bd () @ 7 AP. 1-2 per 2 Bw
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 2 Bw
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Pk
Italian arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Serpentines and sakers - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-1
Organ guns or falconettes - Art (1) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Siege artillery up to 1/2 heavy guns, rest bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Wagon laager for baggage - FO @ 2 AP. 0-8
Carracks - Shp (S) @ 6 AP |Bw|. 0-2
Pinnaces- Bts (S) @ 3 AP |Bw). 0-1
Imperial allies - List: Maximilian Imperial, or Spanish Imperial.

Only until 1513 AD:

Dismount generals as - Bd (S) @ 29 AP. All/0
Dismount men-at-arms and demi-lances as Bd (S) @ 9 AP. All/0
Only from 1544 AD:
Replace Burgundians by reiters with boar spear and pistol - Pi () @ 10 AP. 1/2
Italian horse arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Convert billmen to English pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 1/4
Convert longbowmen to English arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-6
This covers the armies of Henry VIII, the Protector Somerset and Mary Tudor both at home and
abroad. All the English cavalry fought on foot at Flodden in 1513 except for a mounted reserve
of 1,500 border staves. This seems to have been the last time that the English fought dismounted
in their old style. The King's Spears and later the Gentlemen Pensioners were elite bodyguards of men-
at-arms. There were few other English men-at-arms and attempts were made to supplement these
by hiring Burgundians, though in 1544 many of those that arrived turned out to be an early type of
mercenary reiter armed with pistol and boar spear. Burgundian Lancers (O) can have rear support
from other Burgundian Lancers (O). Demi-lances were lesser armoured lancers riding unbarded
horses and were the staple English heavy cavalry type. Javelins, staves, prickers and border horse
were all names for the standard English light cavalry type primarily armed with a light spear,
sometimes supplemented with a crossbow or firearm. These were expert scouts and looters, but not
always correspondingly valuable on the battlefield, though they saved one flank at Flodden and
destroyed a Scots army at Solway Moss. English infantry were still mainly the old longbows and
bills. The first shot down badly-armoured Highlanders at Flodden, but was less effective against
the Scots nobles that provided the Lowland pikemen with a front rank that was "so surely
armoured... that shot of arrows did them no harm". However, the bill proved more than a
match for Scots pikes "for they shortly disappointed the Scots of the long spears wherein was
their greatest trust...they could not resist the bills that lighted so thick and sore upon them". Efforts
were being made to persuade the English adopt pike and arquebus, but these still had to be
supplemented with foreign specialists. Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their
pikemen. Gunnery from English ships off-shore was important both at Pinkie in 1547 and in aid of
the Spanish at Gravelines in 1558. Although Henry VIII was frequently allied with the Empire
and was visited by and lavishly entertained Maximilian I while on campaign, he could count
only on a supply of mercenaries rather than on a co-operating allied army. However, he was
usually under the impression that he could expect one. Mary Tudor was married to Philip II of
Spain, sent him allied contingents and might reasonably have expected help if she had needed it.

14
11. SCOTS COMMON ARMY 1513 AD - 1602 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW,Rv, H(S), H(G), WD, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pk (S) @ 25 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pk (S) @ 25 AP or Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Highland ally-general - Wb () @ 14 AP. 0-1
Borderer ally-general - LH () @ 15 AP. 0-1
Borderers - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-7
Lowland pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 16-68
Upgrade Lowland pikemen as armoured gentry - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 0-1/4
Highlanders - Wb () @ 4 AP. 11 -23
Heavy cannon - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 2-3
Only in 1513 AD:
Dismount Borderers as Pk () @ 14 AP if general, 4 AP if not. All/0
Re-arm Highlanders with pikes - Pk (I) @ 13 AP if general, 3 AP if not. Any
French nobles - Pk (S) @ 5 AP or Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 1
French foot - Pk (1) @ 3 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-12
Only after 1513 AD:
Downgrade artillery to - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Earthworks to protect artillery - F @ 4 AP. 0-3
This covers the armies of the independent Kingdom of Scotland from James IV's introduction of
the long continental pike until James VI inherited the English crown as James I of England. They
are included here because of the Scots invasions of England at French request which led to the
disasters of Flodden Field in 1513 and Pinkie in 1547. The Scots nobility and gentry no longer
fought mounted against English cavalry that both out-numbered and out-classed them, fighting
instead on foot in the front rank of the pikemen. A disadvantage of this was that early casualties
could deprieve the army of its command structure. However, the nobles' physique, honour and
heavier armour provided the pike blocks with a tough outer crust - "they were so well cased in
armour that the arrows did them no harm, and were such large and stout men that one would not
fall when four or five bills struck him". However, at Pinkie the corpses of the nobles and gentry
could not be distinguished from those of commoners, so by that time the heavy armour may have
disappeared. A Highland ally-general can command only Highlanders and French. A Borderer ally-
general can command only Borderers and Highlanders. A C-in-C or sub-general can command any
troops. Borderers normally fought as raiding light cavalry, but at Flodden were persuaded to leave
their horses and become pikemen. After defeating their initial opponents, they were said to have
taken no further interest in the battle and were later accused of collusion with their English
counterparts to pilfer both sides' baggage. American wargamers may be interested to learn that
the Johnstons and the Nixons were both prominent Borderer families. At Pinkie, the Borderers
rashly challenged the English cavalry the day before the battle and could provide only a flimsy
flank guard for the main event. Opinions differ as to whether the Highlanders at Flodden were
armed with pikes or fought in their traditional manner, so both are allowed. At this time their
front ranks were normally mailed gentry with long sword and bow, those behind unarmoured and
many only with a dirk. However they were armed, they suffered badly from archery. Those that
formed the other flank guard at Pinkie were certainly bowmen. The French contingent present at
Flodden is variously put at 40 officers to train the Scots in pike tactics and at 5,000 men, with a
Venetian diplomatic source also referring to "several hundred arquebuses" being sent (at a time
when the French had none). The only mention of the French during the battle is of their senior
officer's advice being disregarded by the Highlanders. Both the main options are allowed, but a
sceptical approach is justified. Scottish artillery was normally drawn by oxen, but at Pinkie by
men, which implies that it may now have been lighter than at Flodden, where its poor mobility
compared to the English guns had been a crippling disadvantage. Organ guns were planned to be
sent to Pinkie, but may not have arrived.

15
 ARMIES OF THE TURKISH WARS
12. OTTOMAN TURK 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Warm. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cx4
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-2
Qapukulu cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 1-5
Feudal sipahis - Si () @ 8 AP. 9-18
Akinjis - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 10-18
Delis, Kurds or Bedouin Arabs - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-4
Janissary archers - Reg Bw (S) @ 7 AP. 2-12
Azabs - up to 1/2 archers Bw (I) @ 3 AP, rest Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 6-8
Levendat or European levy infantry - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-6
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-3
Stakes, ditches and/or tethered camels, or wagon laager - FO @ 2 AP. 0-24
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Galleys - Gal (O) @ 3 AP [Bw]. I f< 0-4
Fustae or Corsair galliots - Gal (F) @ 2 AP [Bw]. > | ' 0-2
Crimean Tartar allies - List: Tartar (Book 2).
Only before 1595 AD:
Downgrade feudal sipahis to - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1/2
Djanbazan, Turkomans, Tartars or similar horse archers - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-6
laylars - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Voynuks - Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-4
Janissary skirmishers with long arquebus - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Re-arm Janissary archers as arquebusiers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
War wagons carrying light guns - WWg () @ 10 AP. 0-4
Foot with fire lance or other incendiaries - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Wallachian vassal allies - List: Wallachian, Moldavian and Transylvanian.
Only from 1595 AD:
Downgrade Qapukulu to - Si () @ 8 AP. Any
Downgrade feudal sipahis to - Si (I) @ 5 AP. All
Replace akinjis with additional feudal sipahis - Si (I) @ 5 AP. All
Re-arm Janissary bowmen as arquebusiers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 1/2-all
Slav or Anatolian sharpshooters - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 3-12
Change sharpshooters with horses to - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-3
Zamburak camel guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-2
Only after 1625 AD:
Downgrade generals to - Si (F) @ 28 AP. Any
Upgrade Qapukulu to - Si (F) @ 8 AP. All
Upgrade feudal sipahis as Roumeliot to - Si (F) @ 8 AP. 0-18
Re-arm Janissary bowmen as - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. All
Only 1533 AD to 1629 AD:
Danube flotilla - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Bw,Sh,Sk]. 0-3
Transylvanian allies - List: Wallachian, Moldavian and Transylvanian.
This list covers Ottoman Turkish armies from 1494 until 1700. Qapukulu ("court slaves") were
regular household cavalry regiments. Initially heavily armoured and equipped with lance and bow,
by the end of this period they wore little armour and fought with scimitar and pistols. According
to Christian writers only a small proportion of the feudal sipahis were equipped with lance as
well as bow, although most wore helmet and mail corselet at the end of the 15th century. Little
armour was made after 1600, though existing armour, often fabric covered, continued to be used
for a time and a few ornate textile horse armours were part of the Austrian loot from the Vienna
campaign of 1683. Anatolian sipahis remained behind the times and in the 18th century were still

16
mostly armed only with a scimitar, sometimes supplemented by such obsolete weapons as bows,
light lances or matchlocks. They were still the equal or superior of the best Christian cavalry of
their day. Akinjis were unpaid rapacious light horsemen serving for religion as well as loot, not
necessarily in that order. Djanbazan ("daredevils") were light cavalry picked from among the
akinji to serve as the vanguard of the army. The delis ("madmen") were a similar body of light
cavalry raised from among converted Serbs, Bosnians and Croats for use as scouts and often paid
by provincial rulers out of their revenues, as also were gonullus (included here among the feudal
sipahi) and beshlis (included among the horse archers). Janissaries (Yeni-ceri - "new troops")
were elite regular infantry recruited from Christian children forcibly converted to Islam. They
were at first armed with powerful composite bows, later with an unusually long arquebus, but
were always willing to charge with the scimitar. In 1542, Janissaries were reported "skirmishing
with their long guns with great nimbleness". A janissary is depicted sniping from concealment by
a contemporary fresco of the siege of Malta in 1565 and such men were reported to have made a
rampart walk untenable at 500 feet. This sniping role was later taken over by Slav or Anatolian
infantry armed with long accurate firearms, such as tufekcis, segmens, sarica, arnauts or klephts.
Azabs ("bachelors") were foot troops recruited for the duration of each campaign, supported by
money and provisions from their home villages. laylars were religious fanatics serving on foot.
The voynuks were armoured Balkan infantry armed with spears, long handled axes or other pole-
arms. One early deployment put a screen of akinjis in front with azabs behind them. Further to
the rear were the janissaries and artillery, protected by field defences of stakes, ditch, iron chains
and the war wagons. This defensive position was flanked on one side by the feudal sipahis of
Roumelia (Europe) and on the other by those of Anatolia, while the qapukulu remained behind in
reserve. At Mohacs in 1526, even more depth was provided by putting both the Roumeliot and
Anatolian sipahis in 2 lines in front and splitting the qapukulu into two bodies on each flank of
the janissaries. Detached flank units were often concealed to the left and/or right of the main
formation. An allied contingent drawn from this list need not include qapukulu or janissaries.
Marines were mostly provided by sipahis dismounted to serve aboard as Bows (S) or by azabs,
sometimes by janissaries. To match the reported strength of the largest armies fielded even in
condensed scale would require the element numbers above to be multiplied by at least 4.

13. ANATOLIAN TURKOMAN 1494 AD - 1515 AD

Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), H(G), E, BUA, Rd, RGo.
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Turkoman ally-general - Si (O) @ 18 AP or LH (S) @ 17 AP. 1-2
Nobles - Si () @ 8 AP. 6-15
Upgrade generals or nobles to Si (S) @ 20 AP if general, 10 AP if not. 0-8
Tribesmen - LH (S) @ 7 AP. , 15-32
Infantry - up to 1/2 Wb (I) or Bw (I) @ 3 AP, rest Sk () @ 2 AP. 0-30
Akhiya town militias - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-8
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Only Dulgadir:
Mamluk allies - List: Mamluk Egyptian.
This list covers the last Turkoman emirates of Asia Minor; Kastamonu, Karaman and Dulgadir,
from 1494 until the fall of Dulgadir to the Ottomans in 1515. Many Turkoman cavalry wore
leather lamellar armour, richer men wearing iron mail or lamellar armour with arm and leg
defences. Kastamonu had 400 "large and small" guns in 1461.

17
14. MAMLUK EGYPTIAN 1494 AD - 1517 AD
Dry. Ag 2. WW, E, RGo, M, D, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-2
Mamluks - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 6-30
Bedouin Arabs - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-12
Camel-mounted scouts - Cm (F) @ 6 AP. 0-1
Halqa archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP 0-3
Only before 1517 AD:
Mamluk ally-general - Si (S) @ 20 AP. 0-1
Halqa, Ashir and other non-mamluk armoured cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 0-5
Turkomans - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-8
Ashir or other archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-4
Jabaliyya or other javelinmen - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-3
Only in the Red Sea or in 1517 AD:
Arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 2-6
"Huge iron bombards of great weight" - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Galleys - Gal (S) @ 4 AP |Bw,Sk,Sh|. 0-1
Galliots - Gal (F) @ 3 AP [Bw,Sk,Sh|. 2-3
Baghalas - Shp (I) @ 3 AP (Bw,Sk,Sh|. 0-2
Only in 1517 AD:
Ox-drawn war wagons - WWg () @ 10 AP. 2-4
Camel guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 2-6
Hurriedly purchased ex-ship cannon - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-1
Three-sided stone redoubt for artillery - F @ 6 AP. 1 per Art (S) or (O)
Ditch and palisade - FO @ 2 AP. 0-30
City rabble - Hd () @ 1 0-8
This list covers Egyptian armies from 1494 until absorption by the Ottomans after their defeat at
Raydaniyah in 1517. The Mamluks were a self-perpetuated corporation of mainly Circassian slave
soldiers bought in youth and converted to Islam. Having made themselves indispensable, they had
seized political power and now appointed their own sultans. The halqa were non-mamluk cavalry
recruited from Arabs, native Egyptians and the sons of mamluks, who, not being steppe-born,
were thought inferior to their fathers. Those based in Syria who could still afford to fight
mounted were mainly armoured horse archers. Those in Egypt had deteriorated into undisciplined
home defence foot archers. A typical deployment before 1517 consisted of a centre, 2 wings and
central reserve, all of armoured cavalry, with Turkomans extending one wing and Bedouin the
other. Accordingly, Turkomans and Bedouin cannot be in the same command. Although some
contemporary manuals prescribe the occasional dismounting of cavalry, in practice these utterly
refused to do so. Infantry were disdained and used only for sieges, garrisons, hunting hill robbers
or if there was a desperate shortage of men. A unit of 500 negro arquebusiers formed around
1495 was disbanded in 1498 in response to popular pressure and successor units were restricted
before 1517 to use against the Portugese in the Red Sea. A 1,000 strong unit raised in 1510 was
nicknamed the al-Askar al-Mulaffaq ("the army of patches") since it included Turkomans, Persians
and Egyptians in addition to blacks. Ashir may have been Druse bandits from the Lebanon and
jabaliyya were tierce javelinmen from Aleppo. Wagons containing light guns and arquebusiers,
heavy artillery in stone redoubts, camel-mounted light swivel guns and a ditched obstacle with
wide gaps were all used at Raydaniyah.

18
15. HUNGARIAN 1494 AD - 1526 AD
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(G), RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Hungarian ally-general - Ln (O) @ 22 AP or LH (F) @ 14 AP. 1-2
Royal banderium - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 0-2
Hungarian nobles - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-10
Hussars - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 16-40
Upgrade hussars to Szekelers - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-6
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. *4-8
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Italian arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Polish drabs - up to 1/2 Bd (I) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Hungarian archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 10-24
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Upgrade light guns to field guns - Art (O) @ 20 AP, or bombards - (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Wagon laager for camp - FO @ 1 AP. ( 2 A P) 0-12
The only pitched battle fought by the Kingdom of Hungary during this period was the close but
disasterous battle of Mohacs against the Ottoman Turks that ended its existence. The Hungarians
at that time were still the main shield of Christian Europe against the Turks, a task for which
their native combination of plate-armoured nobles with light horse archers made them eminently
suitable. Unfortunately, organisation had declined so far from the days of Matthias Corvinus that
in 1521 an army could not be put in the field before a Turkish invasion had besieged and taken
important fortresses and returned home. The situation was better in 1526, since church leaders
had provided the money to hire large numbers of western mercenary foot. These were to be the
only foreigners present at Mohacs other than a few Bohemian nobles. Most of them were German
landsknecht pikemen, joined by German and Italian arquebusiers and a force of Poles especially
welcomed because it was thought that its leader might know something about wagon laagers!
Native infantry are thought to have been mainly light troops from disputed border regions. The
various national groups providing light horse had now merged in a new category called hussars
(from "husz", meaning "1 in 20"). Szekeler service was in final decline and numbers dwindling.
Weights quoted for Hungarian artillery are sometimes taken as those of the shot they fired. Since
it is unlikely that a wagon could mount 1 gun firing a 50 pound shot, let alone 6 such guns, we
assume that Hungarian artillery consisted mostly of organ guns and other small pieces. The King's
influence over his nobility was minimal; and his 2 most competent potential generals were one,
an archbishop, the other a rival for the throne and future traitor, both convinced they knew much
more about war than the King. The formation adopted at Mohacs was in 2 lines with a reserve.
The first line was of 10,000 foot including all the mercenaries and flanked on each side by 3,000
light horse. The second was of 3,000 nobles flanked on each side by 1,500 foot. The reserve was
the banderium, 1,000 strong and led by the King. Artillery was lined up in front to open the
battle. The minimum marked * applies only if any landsknechts, Italians or Poles are being used.
Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their pikemen.

19
16. KNIGHTS OF ST JOHN 1494 AD - 1575 AD
Warm. Ag 1. WW, H(S), H(G), E, RGo, Rd, BUA. Only before 1522 Wd, O. Max N400
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP or Bd (S) @ 29 AP. 1
Sub-general - as above. 1-2
Brother knights - Ln (S) @ 15 AP or Bd (S) @ 9 AP. 2-8
Serving brethren - Ln (O) @ 12 AP or Bd (S) @ 9 AP. 5-10
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Light and organ guns - Reg Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Galleys - Gal () @ 4 (Up to 1/4 Bd (S), rest (O)|. 0-4
Only until 1522 AD:
Turcoples - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Greek and Cretan archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 12-20
Greek, colonist and mercenary crossbowmen - Bw () @ 5 AP. 4-8
Mercenary halberdiers - Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-4
Mercenary arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-8
Only after 1522 AD:
Downgrade serving brethren on foot to - Bd () @ 7 AP. All
Mercenary pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 8-12
Mercenary arquebusiers - Sh (1) @ 4 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 8-12
Upgrade bombards to heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. All
Only in 1565 AD:
Surplus mercenary oarsmen (only if no galleys used) - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-7
Maltese levies - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. , , / ' 3-6
Sicilian allies - List: Neapolitan Spanish, (i... ?- ( otshl - ::,
This list covers the land forces of the Knights Hospitaller, now usually known as the Knights of
St John, first on Rhodes until its fall to the Ottomans in 1522; then on Malta, where they were
to withstand an even more famous siege in 1565, until the end of the Turkish maritime wars in
1575. The Knights kept up a campaign of maritime and coastal piracy against the Muslim states,
so that their low aggression factor reflects only their inability to deploy large land forces away
from home. Even in their Maltese period, the Knights were noted for wearing heavier armour on
ship board than other nations and contemporary paintings of the siege of Malta show men on foot
in full plate, together with swordsmen in 3/4 plate carrying large oval shields marked with the
cross of the order, who we assume depict serving brethren. Only 1 in 6 of the Maltese possessed
proper weapons. Not all knights and brethren fought on foot. The Turkish siege of Malta was
much hindered by raiding cavalry from outlying garrisons. Because of the moderate numbers of
troops in the armies represented, this list is not suitable for condensed scale.

20
17. VENETIAN COLONIAL 1494 AD - 1606 AD
Warm. Ag 2. WW, Rv, O, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 1-2
Stradiots - LH () @ 5 AP. 10-16
Mercenary arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-12
Militia arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-10
Scapoli - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Gal
Galeasses - Gal (S) @ 5 AP [Wb or Sh]. 0-1
Galleys - Gal (F)@3APfWbl. 0-4
Carracks - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any]. 0-4
Only until 1559 AD:
Elmeti - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-10
Mounted crossbowmen - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 2-8
Mounted arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Mercenary foot crossbowmen - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-6
Mercenary sword-and-buckler men - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP fVI,VG,N]. 0-6
Heavy or field guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP or () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Only after 1559 AD:
Downgrade elmeti to cavalleria leggiera - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 1/2-all
Reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 2-6
Mounted arquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 2-4
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 8-12
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1-2 per 4 Pk
Guns - Art (O) @ 20 AP or (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
This covers those armies of the Republic of Venice that defended its eastern possessions in Friuli,
Istria, Dalmatia, Montenegro, Cyprus and Crete against the Turks until the peace treaty of 1606.
Elmeti ("helmets") were men-at-arms in full plate enlisted by condotta. Cavalleria leggiera are at
first included in the elmeti since they mainly differed only in riding unbarded horses, but after
shedding leg armour are treated as demi-lances. The Venetians' most useful cavalry were their
light horse, at first mostly Italian mounted crossbows, but increasingly provided by Stradiots.
These were Albanians, Greeks and Croats fighting in Albanian style with a double-headed zagaie
and a fearsome sabre, later also a mace for fighting gendarmes. Rapacious looters, they were the
mainstay of border defence against the Turks. Militia from Friuli and the colonies were trained as
arquebusiers from 1490 on. Venetian galleys were faster than their rivals, had relatively light
specialist boarding crews, relying instead mainly on armed rowers, and prefering distant gunnery
and short sharp attacks. The large rowing galleass with a broadside battery was just coming into
use. Venetian carracks did not yet carry a heavy gun armament. Scapoli ("blades") were galley
crew, mostly swordsmen, but many also using composite bow or arquebus. If they are used, their
galleys must be paid for. Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their pikemen.

21
18. WHITE SHEEP TURKOMAN 1494 AD - 1504 AD
Dry. Ag 2. Rv, H(S), H(G), O, E, BUA, Rd, RGo. Max Cx5
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-3
Pushan-push - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 3-7
Tirkash-band - Si (O) @ 8 AP or LH (F) @ 4 AP. 6-16
Qullughchi - Si () @ 8 AP. 3-10
Turkoman tribal horse - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 5-16
Archers - Bw (O) @ 5 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 6-16
Camp followers and levy foot - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 2-8
Kurdish cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 0-8
Downgrade archers to Bw (I) @ 3 AP as Persian militia. Any
Handgunners - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 4-6
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Wagon-laager - FO @ 2 AP. 0-6
The White Sheep (Aq-Qoyunlu) Turkoman and Kurdish confederation survived Timur's invasions,
overthrew the rival Black Sheep (Qara-Qoyunlu) confederation, fought against the Ottomans, but
fell to the Safavid Persians 1499-1504. Both the White Sheep Sultan and his local leaders kept
forces of paid trained cavalry. Pushan-push or Pushan-dar ("armoured men") were the best armed,
probably the minority with barded horse, bow, and usually lance seen in the Persian art of this
period. Tirkash-band ("quiver-bearers") were the mounted archers who provided the main strength
of the army, while qullughchi ("servants") were mounted retainers. Since they were included in
the troop muster lists, we assume that they were the mounted servants who were described as
wearing armour and carrying shields; those of the Sultan included functionaries of his household
including cooks, lion keepers, falconers and messengers. Both tirkash-band and qullughchi may
have been the armoured archers without lances on unarmoured horses who are the commonest
type in art, though we allow for the possibility that some or all of the tirkash-band may instead
have been Mongol-style light horse archers. At a review in 1476, an elite unit with a white
banner and mounted on armoured horses led the right wing. The left wing also had an elite unit
of armoured cavalry, though this time horse armour is not mentioned. A Venetian traveller states
that 2,000 of 20,000 cavalry horses at a review in 1474 had metal armour and others had leather
or quilted armour. A 15th-century drawing of a Turkoman infantryman with bow, sabre, dagger,
short axe and round shield suggests that some infantry were well enough equipped to rate as Bw
(O). The White Sheep captured some Ottoman guns in 1472, and guns and handgunners stationed
in the centre of a White Sheep army are said to have chased off opposing skirmishers in 1478.
Normally infantry formed the centre, with cavalry wings and an advance guard "fore-head"; some
armies had only a few infantry, but in others they were 1/3 or more. Allied contingents drawn
from this list need not include otherwise compulsory infantry. Even at condensed scale, maxima
are only 1/5 of the largest known historical army.

22
19. SAFAVID PERSIAN 1499 AD - 1639 AD
Dry. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), O, E, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cx2
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-2
Qizilbashes and other feudal cavalry - 1/5 to 1/3 Si (S) @ 10 AP, rest () @ 8 AP. 10-48
Turkomans - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-8
Levy archers behind fixed spears - Bw (I) @ 3 AP + PO @ 1 AP. 0-16
Other levies and/or camp followers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 2-6
Only 1520 AD to 1590 AD:
Tribal or garrison arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
"Darbzan" light cannon on wagons - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Only after 1590 AD:
Regrade C-in-C with qullar bodyguard - Si (F) @ 28 AP. 1
Regrade sub-generals with qullar bodyguard - Si (F) @ 28 AP. All/0
Replace feudal cavalry with qullar - Si (F) @ 8 AP. 8-16
Tufangchis - Sh (O) @ 6 AP. 6-12
Mercenary swordsmen - Wb (O) @ 4 AP or Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Mercenary matchlockmen - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Topchis artillery - Art () @ 20 AP. 1-2
Zamburak camel guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-6
This covers the armies of the Safavids from the founding of the dynasty by Shah Ismail until the
final peace treaty with the Ottomans. The army initially often consisted almost entirely of feudal
armoured cavalry divided into 2 wings. We call them feudal because they were were maintained
by grants of small fiefs. However, most were also Qizilbashes, members of a religious military
order. Contemporary paintings of battle scenes depict cavalry wearing spired acorn helmets, with
solid cheek pieces rather than aventail, and with brightly coloured but usually plain coats over
their armour. All carry both bow and scimitar, but only a few have shields. Up to 1/3 have a
slender lance wielded with both hands and are riding horses with brightly coloured and patterned
armour. Occasional unarmoured Turkomans wearing hats are always shown shooting, sometimes
to their rear. Levy infantry were of low quality, the best being archers wearing long robes and
blue turbans who shot from behind a row of spears stuck in the ground and slanting forward.
Although their White Sheep predecessors had used both handguns and some artillery, the Safavids
apparently initially scorned firearms before meeting those of the Turks. An entirely cavalry army
was beaten by the Ottomans at Tchaldiran in 1514, though after first inflicting terrible losses.
War continued sporadically with the Turks generally on top. Arquebusiers and light artillery are
heard of in the 1520s and some heavy cavalry were reported in 1572 to have an arquebus in
addition to their bow. In 1590, Shah Abbas negotiated peace by surrendering several provinces,
took advantage of the lull to reform his army, then used it to take back all the lost provinces!
His most important innovations were regular corps of artillery and 6,000 "tufanghis" musketeers
trained by European drill masters. Other mercenary infantry were irregulars, probably Afghans
with very accurate long range matchlocks. He also disbanded half his feudal cavalry and replaced
them by qullar ("slaves"). How these differed is uncertain. Since at least some carried a pistol,
we have assumed as a working hypothesis that they may have followed the same development as
Ottoman qapakulu. Tufangchis and the "topchis" artillery were uniformed and it is possible that
the qular were also. Camel artillery is not mentioned by the sparse sources, but was later to be a
favourite Persian arm and had already been used by the Mamluks. Even at condensed scale, this
list does not duplicate the enormous numbers of cavalry doubtfully reported in historical armies.

23
20. WALLACHIAN OR MOLDAVIAN 1494 AD - 1648 AD
TRANSYLVANIAN 1533 AD - 1629 AD
Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N400
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si () @ 28 AP. 1-2
Other rich boyars - Si () @ 8 AP. 2-5
Lesser boyars or viteji - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 12-24
Peasants with spears, javelins, axes, halberds, flails, maces and
scythes - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-15
Ottoman allies - List: Ottoman Turk.
Only Moldavians:
Upgrade rich boyars to Ln (F) @ 31 AP if general, 11 AP if not. All
Ditch and earth bank to protect front of army - F @ 4 AP. 0-40
Felled trees to block forest track or gap between woods - FO @ 2 AP. 0-2
Crimean Tartar allies - List: Tartar (Book 2). Polish
allies - List: Polish and Lithuanian (Book 2).
Only before 1606 AD:
Armoured voynuks with pole arms - Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-4
Archers - Sk (1) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 18-48
Upgrade archers to curteni - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-16
Mercenary crossbowmen - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-4
Mercenary arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Only from 1533 AD:
Upgrade rich boyars to - Ln (F) @ 31 AP if general, 11 AP if not. All
Downgrade lesser boyars and vitechi to - LH (F) @ 4 AP. All
Only from 1606 AD:
Transylvanian haiduks - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. *6-10
Upgrade Transylvanian peasant hordes with arquebus - Sk (i) @ 3 AP. *A11
Wallachian seimeni - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Wallachian dorobanti - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-4
Szecklers - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-3
Mercenary cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-2
Mercenary harquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Mercenary pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 4-8
Mercenary musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 2-4 per 4 Pk
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 1-2
The Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia became Turkish vassal states in 1476 and 1504
respectively, but maintained a semi-independent existence. Transylvania was split from Hungary
by the Ottomans in 1533 as a similar semi-detached vassal and only rejoined in 1629. All three
nations employed the others' troops and occasionally shared rulers. Boyars were the nobility.
Viteji were the land-owning peasants, who were now steadily being reduced to serfdom except in
Transylvania. Curteni were paid regular foot. Haiduks were military border settlers. Seimeni were
mounted arquebusiers. Dorobanti had a berdische axe used as weapon rest for their matchlock
musket and as a close quarter weapon. The start of the 30 Years War saw Prince Bethlen Gabor
of Transylvania intervene on the Protestant side with a small standing army of mailed lancers,
horse archers and conventional pikemen and musketeers, supplemented by peasant foot carrying
firearms. The minima marked * apply only if a Transylvanian army. Items marked ** can only
be used by a Transylvanian army. Polish and Tartar allies cannot be used together. Mercenary
musketeers must stay within 1 move from their pikemen.

24
21. AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL 1556 AD - 1609 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Archduke's guards - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-5
Austrian feudal horse - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 3-12
Reiters - P|/jfe 8 AP. 4-15
Carabins - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 3-12
Hungarian hussars - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-16
Pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 16-32
Arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-4 per 4 Pk
Upgrade arquebusiers to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP 0-1/2
Grenzer - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Heavy and field guns - up to 1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest () @ 20 AP. 0-4
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Burgher guard to defend BUA - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-5
This covers the armies of the Holy Roman Empire from the accession of Emperor Ferdinand I
until the partial replacement of the old reiter type by the new charging cuirassiers copied from the
Dutch. Following the defeat and subsequent partition of Hungary in 1526 AD, the Austrian lands
of the Empire became the first line of defence against Turkish invasion. In 1552, Ferdinand made
a peace with the Turks that lasted until 1593. After that, despite set-backs such as the snatching
of defeat from the jaws of victory in the 2 day battle of Kerestes in 1596, the Imperials had on
the whole the best of it and expanded their frontiers. A battle plan of 1532, when the Turks had
declined battle, was based on 3 large blocks of pikes with the cavalry in the two gaps. "20,000
nimble arquebusiers" five ranks deep were placed before and behind the pikes and the artillery
"both great and small" was deployed in front. Only generals and elite guards were now fully
armoured men-at-arms, most cavalry now being either less well-armoured lancers or mercenary
reiters. The reiters had now lost both their boar spears and much of their aggression. Instead of
charging, they now shot from the circulating ranks of a caracoling column. Lancers can have rear
support from other lancers of the same grade. Imperial foot were now becoming more soberly
dressed than the old landsknechts and fought in large Spanish-style blocks. Spanish infantry were
occasionally on loan. Grenzer were border settler foot specialising in sniping from cover with
accurate long firearms.

25
 ARMIES OF THE CHINESE AND JAPANESE WARS
22. MING CHINESE 1494 AD - 1683 AD
Until 1644 AD: Max Cx4
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.

After 1644 AD; and Wo-k'ou pirates 1542 AD to 1570 AD:

Tropical. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), WD, O, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - as above. 1-2
Chinese regular cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 0-10
Chinese mercenary cavalry - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 6-9
Chinese infantry - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 12-16
Chinese archers or crossbowmen - Bw (I) @ 3 AP or () @ 5 AP. 12-16
Chinese handgunners - Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Dare-to-die men - Bd (F) @ 5 AP, Sk (O) @J AP or Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-3
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Upgrade light guns to bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. Any
Rocketeers - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-8
Chinese militia - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-20
Chuang or other southern tribes - Wb (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-12
Palisades - FO @ 2 AP. 0-24
Only after 1540 AD:
Replace rocketeers by European-style cannon - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Replace remaining rocketeers with handgunners - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1/2-all

Only Wo-k'ou pirates 1542 AD to 1570 AD and southern Ming after 1644 AD:
Small junks - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bd,Bw,Sh]. 0-3
Only Wo-k'ou pirates 1542 AD to 1570 AD:
Convert C-in-C to - Bd (I) @ 24 AP, Bw (O) @ 25 AP or Sh (O) @ 26 AP. 1
Convert sub- to ally-generals - Bd (I) @ 14 AP, Bw (O) @ 15 AP or Sh () @ 16 AP. All
Replace Chinese cavalry with matchlockmen - Sh () @ 6 AP. All
Replace militia hordes by lesser-armed pirate followers - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. All
Large junks - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Bd,Bw,Sh]. 0-4
Japanese pirate allies - List: Japanese.
Only 1568 AD to 1571 AD:
War wagons with light guns - WWg () @ 10 AP. 0-8
Portable barriers to protect handgunners or gaps between wagons - PO @ 1 AP. 0-4

Only 1592 AD to 1598 AD and in 1616 AD:

Korean allies - List: Korean.

Only before 1620 AD:

Jurchen allies - List: Jurchen
Only before 1624 AD:
Mongol allies - List: Mongolian.
Only Shun rebels from 1634 AD to 1647 AD:
Bandits and ill-equipped rebels - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 10-15

26
Only after 1644 AD:
Downgrade sub- to ally-generals - Si (S) @ 20 AP. All
Portugese musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-2
Portugese heavy guns on naval carriages - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Portugese galleons - Shp () @ 5 AP [Sh (O)|. 0-2

Only "The Three Feudatories" 1644 AD to 1681 AD:

Wu San-kuei's elephants - El () @ 20 AP. 1-3
This list covers the Ming from 1494 until the end of the last resistance to the Manchu with the
capture of Taiwan. Ming armies assisted Korea against Japan from 1592 to 1598. Chinese troops
had deteriorated badly. Most cavalry now had bows. Close-fighting infantry are classed as Bd to
represent the preponderance of mixed halberd-type weapons and an emphasis on individual combat
and head-taking rather than cohesion. Bowmen elements can be completely of bowman figures or
alternate them with men with shield and banner spear. "Dare to die" troops were picked bodies
used for special missions; they may be armed with halberds or swords (Bd), handguns (Sk (O))
or fire-lances (Sk (X)). Other handgunners fired in ranks by relief and are classed as Sh (I).
Handguns used in the south were slightly-inferior imitations of the European matchlock arquebus
called "bird necked guns", but these were apparently considered unreliable in the strong winds of
the north, more primitive types being preferred there. Mongol allies cannot be used together with
southern tribesmen. The earlier large sea-going Ming fleets had vanished, though quite substantial
squadrons were to be employed on inland waterways by the southern Ming after 1644. In 1525
an edict even ordered coastal officials to destroy all junks with more than one mast. This caused
an explosion of illegal trading and opened the way for pirates such as the Wo-k'ou (or "Wako"),
who both attacked ships and terrorised cities with strong land forces usually better armed than the
goverment troops. Their ships are described as having up to 7 masts and tall sides like a city wall
and being well-armed with cannon, rockets and strong bows. The Wo-k'ou were mostly Chinese,
though the distinctive swordplay and long bows of a Japanese minority attracted great attention
and many Chinese pretended to be Japanese to hide their identity from the authorities. The bases
of the Wo-k'ou were mostly on the coasts of Southern China. They had at first more and better
firearms than government troops, having access to smuggled Japanese matchlocks. They cannot
include southern tribesmen or Mongol or Jurchen allies. We treat genuine Japanese pirate bands as
allied contingents. When they operated together, Chinese pirate leaders would allegedly persuade
the Japanese to do the serious fighting, while using their own local knowledge to secure most of
the loot. Japanese allies cannot use cavalry, Ikko-ikki, militia or sohei, but can include ronin,
artillery (I), ships and galleys, and from 1554 must upgrade at least 1/3 of their ashigaru to shot.
An interesting tactic used against the Wo-k'ou by an innovative Chinese general named Ch'i Chi-
kuang was called "The Mandarin Duck Formation". This involved men thrusting bamboo trees
complete with branches at the enemy swordsmen to obstruct them while others stabbed them with
long spears. The basic 12 man sub-unit also included a man with a big shield and long sword,
another with small shield, sword and javelin and two men with a variant of the fire lance. While
this would make an impressive wargames unit, Bd (I) still seems to provide the best simulation of
its function. When Ch'i was transfered to the northern frontier to fight nomad horsemen, he still
used the mandarin duck formation, but added up to 4 handguns to each section. However, he also
provided war wagons in the form of large 2 wheeled mule carts with unfolding sections, each
carrying 2 light guns and 10 soldiers including 4 handgunners and having another 10 as escort.
His cavalry sheltered behind these wagons before emerging to counter-attack or pursue. In May of
1644, a rebellion led by Li Tzu-ch'eng took Peking and proclaimed the Shun dynasty. Originally
a bandit movement, they had developed a disciplined and partly uniformed army which is said to
have included more cavalry and firearms than the government forces opposing it. Defeated by
Chinese troops under Wu San-kuei and a Manchu army the same month, the Shun lost Peking in
June and reverted to banditry until the death of Li in 1645 and of his ally Chang Hsien-chung in
1647. The Manchu now took over northern China, but Ming forces still continued a faction-riven
resistance in southern China until 1662. The "Three Feudatories" were 3 former Ming generals
(Wu San-kuei, Shang K'o-hsi and Keng Chi-mao), who went over to the Manchu, but rebelled in
1673. Before then, they can only be used as allies for the Manchu. Portugese shot are saved from
being classed as warband only by the fact that they all had firearms. Their standard tactic was a
single volley followed by a wild disordered charge in the expectation, usually rewarded, that the
enemy would then run away.

27
23. MONGOLIAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Eastern Mongols, Urianghkhai and Khorchin: Cold. Others: Dry.
Ag 3. Rv, H(S), Wd, D, RGo.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP or LH (S) @ 27 AP. 0-2
Mongol cavalry - up to 1/2 Si (O) @ 8 AP, rest LH (S) @ 7 AP. 24-60
Upgrade Si (O) to (S) @ 10 AP. 0-1/2
Serfs and camp-followers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-4
Only Oirat:
Mounted matchlockmen - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Only Oirat from 1640 AD to 1696 AD:
Tibetan allies - List: Tibetan.
This list covers the remaining steppe-based Mongol armies, except for the Golden Horde and
Khanates covered by the Tartar list, until the establishment of the Chinese protectorate over
Mongolia by the Ch'ing in 1696 had left only the Zungar sub-group of the Oirat independent. It
provides an enemy for the Ming, Timurids (Book 2), Safavids, Manchu and Ch'ing. It includes
the Uzbek offshoot of the Golden Horde which had taken Transoxania (now Uzbekistan and
Tajikistan) from the Timurids; the Kazakhs "adventurers" who had since separated from the
Uzbeks; the Eastern Mongols in Mongolia among whom the Khalka were dominant; the western
Mongolian Oirats that besieged Peking in 1550 and invaded Tibet 1573-78; the branch of the
Jagatai that had settled in Moghulistan until they were chased east into Sinkiang by the Uzbeks in
1508; the Urianghkhai absorbed by the Eastern Mongols in the 1560s; and the Khorchin until
their submission to the Manchu in 1624. The old Mongol discipline must have disappeared since
the Manchu regarded Mongolian troops as undisciplined and a bad influence on their own troops.
The Oirat are said to have acquired Chinese firearms even before our period and 18th century
Chinese engravings of the battle of Altshur in 1759 show pictures show Zungar cavalry using
matchlocks skirmishing with, and being routed by, Manchu horse archers.

24. JURCHEN 1494 AD - 1635 AD

Cold. Ag 2. Rv, H(S), H(G), RGo, M, Wd. Rd, BUA, 1.
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Ally-generals - Si () @ 18 AP. 0-3
Cavalry - up to 1/2 Si (O) @ 8 AP, rest LH (S) @ 7 AP. 24-56
Slaves and levies - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-10
Only from 1613 AD to 1619 AD:
Ming allies - List: Ming Chinese.
This list covers the Jurchen tribes of the Manchurian forests until the last independent tribe, the
Hurkas of the Amur valley, were absorbed by the Manchu state. It includes the Manchu from
their origin in the mid-16th century until the founding of the banner system in 1601, including
the allied contingent that the Manchu ruler Nurhachi offered to the Ming for the Korean War of
1592-98; indeed, this list exists mainly to provide allied contingents for Ming and Korean armies.

28
25. KOREAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I. Max Cx2
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si () @ 28 AP. 1-2
Cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 6-22
Light cavalry - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-12
Archers - Bw () @ 5 AP. 8-24
Halberdiers - Bd (1) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Spearmen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 8-20
Peasant spearmen - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-12
Mixed skirmishers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-6
Chinese-type rockets - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 2-4
Ditch and bank - F @ 4 AP, or palisade - FO @ 2 AP. 0-24
Turtle ships - Gal (S) @ 5 AP [Bw,Sp,Art (I)]. 0-4
Galleys - Gal (I) @ 2 AP (Bw,Sp). 0-2
Transport junks - Shp (I) @1|AP [Cv,LH,Sp,Bw,Bge|. 0-4
Only until 1598 AD: Jurchen
allies - List: Jurchen.
Only 1592 AD to 1598 AD:
Guerilla bands - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-6
Chinese allies - List: Ming Chinese.
Only after 1598:
Re-arm archers as hand gunners - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-8
Only after 1628 AD:
Upgrade light guns to heavy or field - Art (S) @ 25 AP or () @ 20 AP. 0-3
This list covers Korean armies of the Yi dynasty. The Manchu conquest of 1637 did not abolish
the Korean state, which continued as a tributary with its own army. Until the Japanese invasion
under Hideyoshi in 1592, the only enemies were pirates and Manchurian tribes. The core of the
armed forces were professional soldiers, with the cavalry and the navy as the best branches. 16th
century cavalry are depicted with bow plus a weapon wielded in both hands, which could be a
halberd, a lance or a flail, but without horse barding. Koreans were renowned for their skill with
the bow and the Japanese found that Korean archers outshot their own. They were also impressed
by the Korean use of long spears, which increased the popularity of the yari among the Japanese.
Nevertheless, the infantry were less impressive than the cavalry, and the militia, although armed
with the same spears, performed poorly. The skirmishers were a mixture of men with long sword
and shield, others with repeating crossbow or grenades, and latterly with a few handguns. Korean
armies of the period were well equipped with cannons and rockets, though the former were very
small, the Japanese boasting that they could be fired from Japanese guns! Traditionally, Korean
armies relied on the heavy use of temporary and permanent fortifications. Many local guerrilla
movements arose to fight the Japanese. The principal Korean innovation of the Japanese wars was
the turtle ship, a covered rowing vessel armed with cannon and possibly a bow flame-thrower,
which wrecked the Japanese fleet. Three Dutch castaways were employed to improve the army's
weapons in 1628 and a western gun variously described as a cannon and a musket was presented
to the court by another source in 1630-31. We postulate that such western influences may chiefly
have improved the artillery.

29
26. JAPANESE 1494 AD - 1614 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max Cx3
C-in-C seated with guard - Bd (O) @ 27 AP, or mounted - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Bd (O) @ 27AP or Si () @ 28 AP. 1-2
Mounted samurai mostly with bow - Si (O) @ 8 AP. 0-11
Foot samurai mostly with yari or naginata - Bd () @ 7 AP. 12-30
Ashigaru with yari or naginata - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 12-30
Ashigaru bowmen - Bw (1) @ 3 AP. 0-8
Upgrade bowmen provided with pavise to - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-4
Ronin and mercenary swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Palisade - FO @ 2 AP. 0-8
Armed boys or ladies with naginata guarding baggage - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP[Bd, Bw, Sh]. 0-3
Only until 1571 AD:
Sohei warrior monk ally-general with portable shrine and escort - WWg (I) @ 23 AP. ' *1
Sohei warrior monks mostly with naginata - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. *8-16
Sohei mounted warrior monks - Si (O) @ 7 AP. ' ' 0-2
Only until 1574 AD:
Ikko Ikki fanatics - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. *30-60
Town militia - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. * 12-24
Only after 1542 AD:
Convert Si (O) except Sohei to yari-armed Ln (F) @ 31 AP if general, 11 AP if not. All
Re-arm any ashigaru with matchlock - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-16
Light cannon - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Galleys - Gal (I) @ 2 AP [Bd,Bw,Sh]. 0-3
This list covers Japanese armies from 1494 until the battle of Tenno-ji, the last pitched battle
between armies of samurai. During this period, the Japanese mainly fought each other, with the
exceptions of the Korean expeditions of 1592 to 1598. Although many samurai now carried the
spear-like yari and some clans specified that these should be of pike length rather than the usual 8
feet, they still fought as individuals rather than in formation, so are classed as Bd. Their two
swords were now used only when the long weapon was broken or inconvenient. Their armour
was lighter than the cumbersome oyoroi of previous times, but the addition of arm and thigh
armour made it heavier than the do-maru of the ashigaru "light feet" and monks who also used
yari or naginata. Large bombards were used only in sieges, so are omitted. We assume that as
the bow lost favour for use on foot, the standard of use declined. Circumstantial evidence tending
to confirm this is the use of pavises by small groups that needed to stand up to dense enemy
shooting, and that Japanese bowmen in 1592 were outshot by Koreans. Ikko Ikki were a mass
militant religious movement based on the peasantry, but with a hard core of conventional warriors
and Sohei. They were sometimes beaten off by improvised town militias reinforced with local
samurai, but such democratic self-defence organisations were considered to be almost equally
subversive! Ronin were impoverished masterless samurai. We assume that they would have little
armour or weapons except the cherished swords that were their only remaining sign of samurai
status, so would be faster moving and less cohesive. The Sohei monks still meddled in politics,
but were less impetuous in battle. Their few cavalry were still often depicted in the later period
with bow as well as naginata, so are classed as sipahis. Bow-armed samurai cavalry fought in
wedge or "with bridles aligned". Those with yari are depicted charging without any regard for
formation. The most famous use of palisades was at Nagashino in 1575, where a heavy rolling
fire of matchlocks from behind sections of palisade broke up rash cavalry attacks, leaving them
vulnerable to foot samurai counter-attack through gaps between the sections. Minima marked *
apply only if any troops of that origin are used. Sohei monks or Ikko Ikki cannot be used with
militia. A Sohei general can command only Sohei and ashigaru and must command all Sohei.

30
27. MANCHU AND CH'ING CHINESE 1601 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd. From 1644 AD add O, E, M, Rd, BUA. Max Cx4
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si () @ 28 AP. 1-3
Manchu banner cavalry - Up to 1/2 LH (S) @ 7 AP, rest Si () @ 8 AP. 8-52
Only from 1618 AD:
Mongol allies - List: Mongolian.
Only from 1621 AD:
Chinese cavalry - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 2-6
Chinese spearmen and swordsmen - Bd (I) @ 4 AP or Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 4-12
Chinese archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 4-12
Chinese matchlockmcn - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Chinese-cast bombards or European-style heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Chinese jingals or other light artillery - Art (F) @ 10 AP or (I) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Only from 1634 AD:
Mongol bannermen - Up to 1/2 Si (O) @ 8 AP, rest LH (S) @ 7 AP. 4-16
Only 1644 AD to 1672 AD:
"Three Feudatories" allies - List: Ming Chinese.

Only 1654 AD to 1658 AD:

Korean allies - List: Korean.
This covers the Manchu armies that proclaimed the Ch'ing dynasty in 1636, conquered Korea in
1637, took over north China in 1644, conquered the remainder of China by 1662, put down the
rebellion of the "Three Feudatories" in 1681, subdued Taiwan in 1683, and in the next century
subdued Tibet and Mongolia and made vassals of Nepal, Annam, Laos, Siam and Burma, thus
expanding Chinese influence to the borders of India. At this time Manchu China was a dynamic
culture which welcomed European influences, very different to the ossified state of the 19th
century. The Manchu army was organised in 1601 into 4 "Banners", with respectively yellow,
white, red or blue standards. In 1616 4 extra Manchu banners were created by adding coloured
borders. Chinese troops previously attached to Manchu banners were formed into a separate
Chinese banner in 1630, expanding to 2 banners in 1637, 4 in 1639 and 8 after 1642. The first
Mongol banners were formed in 1634 and there were 8 Mongol banners by 1644. The army's
main strength lay in the Manchu and Mongol cavalry. Although 18th century illustrations of
bannermen depict them as predominantly unarmoured light cavalry, 17th century battle scenes
show only armoured Manchu. However, we have allowed for the possibility that the old Jurchen
combination of heavy and light cavalry was still used. Mongols were regarded as good warriors,
but ill-disciplined and likely to lead Manchu cavalrymen into bad habits. 19th century illustrations
depict Mongol bannermen in traditional Mongol dress, but Manchu in uniform. Chinese banners
were markedly inferior troops and were rebuked severely on one occasion for halting inertly while
Manchu did the serious fighting. By the 19th century, there were few Chinese bannermen and
Chinese troops were mostly grouped under a separate "Green Standard". Chinese were however
highly important as artillerymen. Most artillery was initially of siege guns, but a favourite weapon
18th and 19th century was the jingal, a very light gun carried by 2 men or occasionally by pony
or camel. When these became common is uncertain, but light man-portable guns, sometimes made
of wood, had been experimented with by the later Ming. We assume that, like the later "Green
Standard" troops, Chinese banners were predominantly infantry. A somewhat confusing secondary
account of Manchu forces in the 1640s suggests that the army's cavalry were kept in reserve
while (presumably Chinese) heavily armoured spearmen and swordsmen backed by archers in
textile armour commenced the fighting. 19th century infantry used a front line of jingals and
skirmishing matchlocks to do most of the fighting, supported by a reserve of infantry with pole
weapons fronted by archers. Intimidating noise and banner waving were valued. Tactics were now
extremely cautious with only the banner cavalry behaving aggressively, in accordance with the
military aphorism "Rash and arrogant soldiers must be defeated".

31
28. TIBETAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), H(G), RGo, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Tibetan ally-generals - Si (S) @ 20 AP. 0-3
Armoured cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 9-24
Upgrade cavalry with horse armour to - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-1/2
Armoured archers - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-24
Levied serfs - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 10-24
Herdsmen with slings - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-12
Stone breastworks - F<3(@ 2 AP. 0-12
Nomad ally-general - LH (F) @ 14 AP or Si (S) @ 20 AP. *1
Nomad nobles - Si () @ 8 AP. 0-3
Nomads - LH (F) @ 4 AP. *7-20
Mongol allies - List: Mongolian.
Only before 1644 AD:
Ming allies - List: Ming Chinese
The centralised Tibetan monarchy had long since collapsed; 13th century Mongol overlords had
established the Dalai Lama as ruler, but his power had also declined and rival monasteries and
noble families now maintained their own armies and fought incessant small wars. An 18th century
Chinese observer describes armoured cavalry (probably wearing the styles of armour well known
from modern museum collections and sometimes with horse armour, though not now as heavily
armoured as in the days of the Tibetan Empire) with sword, lance and matchlock, and also foot
with sword, bow and shield and sometimes a spear. Modern observers note the slings carried by
herdsmen. Nomads now included some ethnic Tibetan groups (including clans descended from
garrison units of the ancient Tibetan Empire's army), as well as the Ch'iang. Minima marked *
apply if any nomads other than up to 4 elements of LH are chosen. Nomad generals can also
command levied serfs and herdsmen with slings. Various Mongol chieftains, notably Altan Khan
of the Oirats in the 1540s, sided with the Dalai Lama's Sakya faction in attempts to control the
country and thus influence the Tibetan Lamaist Buddhism then popular in Mongolia. The Ming
backed the rival Tsangpa kings, who took over much of central Tibet, but lost power after their
Ming patrons fell in 1644. Other Mongol tribes then gained influence in Tibet; for instance in
both 1644 and 1657 Tibetan invasions of Bhutan were assisted by Mongol forces. The Ch'ing
established Manchu-Chinese overlordship of Tibet in 1720 after expelling the Zungar Mongols.
Ming and Mongol allies cannot be used together.

32
 ARMIES OF THE AMERICAS
29. AZTEC 1494 AD - 1521 AD Dry. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd,
M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Bd (I) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-General - Bd (I) @ 24 AP. 1-3
Warrior priests - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 1-3
Cuachic shock troops - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 2-8
Suit wearers - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 12-40
Clan warriors - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 36-90
Skirmishers with slings or bows - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 8-24
Mercenary archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Otomi - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-10
Large war canoes - Bts (O) @ 2 AP [Wb or Bd]. 0-1
Other canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP [Hd]. 0-5
Toltec-Chichimec allies - List: Tarascan or Tlaxcallan.
Aztec is the most usual name for a people also called Tenocha and Colhua Mexica who founded
the lake island city of Tenochtitlan in 1325. In 1428, Tenochtitlan joined the two nearby lake side
cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan in a federation called the "Triple Alliance", which was for all
practical purposes a unitary Aztec state. This expanded aggressively under Motecuhzoma I and his
successors, but was conquered under Motecuhzoma II by Cortez' Spaniards and Tlaxcalan allies
from 1519 to 1521. "Suit wearers" includes military orders such as the Eagle, Jaguar and Arrow
knights, and those noble youths supporting them as rear rank apprentices. They fought separately
from the ordinary clan warriors who had not yet captured a prisoner and whose inexperience and
rashness provided most of the prisoners taken for sacrifice by the enemy. These were stiffened by
a sprinkling of officers, but were both less skilled than the suit wearers and less easily controlled
by the drum and conch signals of the four generals. They usually formed the flanks of the army
where their numbers could often envelop the enemy wings. Cuachic were a high ranking grade of
individualist suit wearers who had refused promotion to officer to serve instead as shock troops,
finding a wild charge more congenial than rational thought. They acted as vanguard and rearguard
and as weapons instructors and are also described as lying concealed in ambush. Aztec charges
were described by Spaniards as "harder to face than French artillery and fiercer than the Moors".
The favourite primary weapon of these three warrior groups was the maquahuitl, a wooden sword
edged with razor sharp black obsidian glass, effective against flesh, but not against metal armour.
The larger two-handed cuahololli was uncommon among the Aztecs. Atlatl dart-throwers and other
missile weapons were often used in conjunction with the shorter. The spear-like cut and thrust
tepoztopilli is particularly associated in art with generals and sometimes with apprentices. A dense
swarm of skirmishers with slings and less probably bows, used to prepare attacks and then cover
flanks, were probably provided by the non-warrior lower classes. Better skilled archers capable of
mass shooting are likely to have been Chichimec mercenaries. The Otomi were an ethnic group
living north of the Aztecs, who did not fight on their own account, but only as well-regarded
mercenary shock troops in Aztec, Tarascan and Chichimec armies. The largest Aztec war canoes
may have held as many as 20 men, but most were much smaller, a Spanish account mentioning
2,000 canoes carrying 20,000 men. Contemporary depictions usually show one warrior using an
atiatl and one paddler, but also show Spanish bergantines known to have a crew of 25 with only
3 men. Two accounts describe the larger canoes being concentrated together in groups to ambush
the bergantines. Baggage was carried by porters. Note that what may appear at first sight to be
ungenerous troop type classifications for this army do not diminish its chances of victory: they do
ensure that the army is realistically larger than those of historical opponents.

33
30. TARASCAN OR TLAXCALAN 1494 AD - 1521 AD
Dry. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), Wd, E, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Bd (I) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-General - Bd (I) @ 24 AP. 1-3
Suit-wearers - Bd (1) @ 4 AP. 6-16
Archers and shield bearers - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-30
Archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 30-50
Scouts or skirmishers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-10
Otomi mercenaries - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-8
Only Tlaxcalan after 1518 AD:
Upgrade C-in-C to Spanish - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Spanish war dogs - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Spanish sword-and-buckler men - Bd () @ 7 AP. 3-7
Spanish arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Spanish crossbowmen - Bw (S) @ 7 AP. 1-2
Spanish field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Spanish light guns - Art (1) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Spanish Totonac levies - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 4-12
Replace Art_M" by bergantines - Bts (S) @ 3 AP |Bw (S)]. , , r. 0-3
?
Re-classify Sh (1) mixed with crossbownen on bergantine to - Bw (S). 0-1
Spanish mobile towers - WWg () @ 10 AP. 0-1
Both these peoples fought in a similar manner emphasising the bow, through they were separated
geographically by the Aztec Triple Alliance. The Tarascans called themselves Purempecha, but a
Spanish mistake inflicted on them for ever a name derived from the Aztec words for "distant
relations". They lived to the west of the Aztecs and fought them to an expensive stand-off. They
differed from other peoples of the area in often edging their wooden weapons with copper instead
of obsidian. To the east of the Aztecs were a number of Toltec-Chichimec city states, of which
Texcala "the crags" survived long enough to ally with the Spanish conquistadors to destroy the
Aztecs, though at the cost of having their city's name corrupted to Tlaxcala "tortilla" by the
cloth-eared Spaniards. A contemporary Spanish account reports that the Tlaxcalans "manoeuvred
marvellously well". Their army was grouped into 4 commands and liked to counter or envelop
the enemy flanks with massed archers before assaulting their centre. Suit wearers are the military
orders such as the Eagle and Jaguar knights. Although some archers had cotton armour, this was
not proof against the bow, and they are not depicted with side arms. However, some archers
were mixed with warriors with maquahuitl and shield whose role was to protect them while they
shot. Cortez' Spanish force was untypical of homeland armies and exceptionally confident due to
the ineffectiveness of native weapons against their armour and of native cotton armour against
their own swords and crossbow bolts. Although in a Spanish army of this date sword-and-buckler
men are classed as Bd (F), this does not fit their role under Cortez. Similarly, his crossbowmen
are also upgraded, since their bows were exceptionally powerful by local standards and they were well-
equipped for hand-to-hand combat against such light opponents. Half pikes were initially carried
by some men, but abandoned immediately in favour of the more effective sword. The few Spanish
lancers were dreaded by natives who were totally unfamiliar with horses. Some Totonacs are
described as having swords made from swordfish snouts and shields made from turtle shells. The
bergantines were Cortez' greatest asset in the fighting around Tenochtitlan. They were only 40
feet long, but carried a light cannon in the bow and a crew of 25, half of paddlers and half of
crossbowmen with a sprinkling of arquebusiers. Towers manned by arquebusiers and crossbows
were used in the break-out from Tenochtitlan. All and only "Spanish elements" must be in a
Spanish C-in-C's command. Spanish artillery draft teams and all baggage must consist of porters.
If Spanish are used, condensed scale is unsuitable. The Spanish troops can also be used separately
as a 100 AP Conquistador army to fight other pre-1524 armies from this section. However, these
will still not exactly be small games, since 100 AP can be a lot of natives.

34
31. MIXTEC OR ZAPOTEC 1494 AD - 1521 AD Dry.
Ag 1. Rv, H(S), RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Wb (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Ally-General - Wb (I) @ 13 AP. 0-2
Upgrade Zapotec general to Wb (S) @ 25 AP if C-in-C, 15 AP if ally. 0-1
Warriors - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 45-140
Peasant slingers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 20-40
Only if Mixtec priest is C-in-C:
Upgrade Mixtec C-in-C to - Wb (S) @ 25 AP. 1
Upgrade Mixtec ally-general to sub-general - Wb (I) @ 23 AP. 0-1
Upgrade warriors to temple soldiers - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-20
Only 1494 AD to 1495 AD:
Tolter-Chichimec allies - List: Tarascan or Tlaxcallan.
The fall around 900 AD to internal subversion of the Zapotec empire centred on Monte Alban
left a political vacuum that was rilled from 1280 AD by two new alliances between groupings of
Mixtec and Zapotec cities. The first was centred on Zapotec Zaachila and the second on Mixtec
Cuilapan. These were enemies of the Aztecs during the latters' aggressive campaigns between
1486 and 1495. They occasionally allied at this time with Toltec-Chichimec city states, which
were mostly enemies of the Aztecs. The primary weapon of the warrior classes was the atlatl dart-
thrower, which they used to maintain a distant combat, rather than to precede a charge like the
Aztecs. Their usual side arm was a short copper axe or a stone-headed or obsidian-studded
mace, but there is one reference to a Zapotec general fighting duels with a spear. Accordingly, a
Zapotec general can be upgraded to (S). Peasants slingers provided a dense barrage. Zapotecs in a
Mixtec army or Mixtecs in a Zapotec army must be commanded by an ally-general of their own
nation. Mixtec armies were sometimes commanded by the priest of a major oracle dressed as his
god, and often backed by a rigidly disciplined temple army. Temple soldiers can only be used in
such a C-in-C's own command. Baggage should be a train of porters.

32. PUEBLO CULTURES 1494 AD - 1692 AD

Dry. Ag 2. H(S), RGo, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Bw (I) <^3 AP or Sk (I) &2 AP. 1
Sub-general - Bw (I) ( AP or Sk (I) <g2 . 1-2
Warrior societies - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Tribesmen with bow - Bw (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 60-167
The Pueblo peoples include settled agricultural villagers such as the Navaho, Hopi, and previously
the Anastazi, living in adobe and/or rock-cut houses clustered for defence and often built into
natural cliffs. They were then much more warlike than modern perceptions of them. Destruction
of villages in inter-tribal wars, together with natural disasters such as the great drought of 1276-
1299, may have been responsible for the successive immigrations into Mexico of what the Aztecs
called Chichimec ("dog peoples") with whom some of them have a linguistic affinity. The various
peoples were divided into clans with animal totems and included warrior societies that provide
possible prototypes for the Eagle and Jaguar knights of nations ino which the immigrants merged.
The list ends with the Spanish defeat of the Pueblo Rebellion of 1692, before the acquisition of
horses and firearms that was to enable formerly pedestrian tribes such as the Comanche and the
Sioux to dominate the Great Plains.

35
33. NORTH WEST AMERICAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, BUA. Max N300
C-in-C - Bw (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-general - Bw (I) @ 23 AD. 1-2
Warriors - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 42-106
Skirmishers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 3-12
War canoes - Bts () @ 2 AP [Bw,Sk]. 0-6
Although the first contact of the northern coast culture with Europeans was not until 1770, it
could have been made at any time after the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The culture was highly
stratified, it even being said that each individual belonged to a different class and knew exactly
how his position related to that of each other individual. Chiefs had absolute power over their
followers. Their main weapon was the bow, but wooden rod armour and wooden helmets were
worn. Warfare differed from that elsewhere in America in being played for keeps, the intention
being to destroy or expel opponents and take their land. A spectacular feature of the culture was
its huge red cedar war canoes painted with yellow and black designs, which voyaged for long
distances and are claimed to have reached Hawaii.

34. MAYA 1494 AD - 1697 AD

Tropical. Ag 0. WW, Wd, M, Rd, BUA. After 1546 AD add H(S). Max N500
C-in-C - Wb (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Ally-generals - Wb (1) @ 13 AP. 1-2
Maya warriors - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 42-150
Archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 18-24
Peasant slingers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-16
Road weasels - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 1-2
Hornet nest throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-4
This list covers the last of the Post-Classical Maya, now reduced to 16 city states in the flat and
near riverless forests of the Yucatan peninsular. The Maya fought off an initial Spanish invasion
from 1528-1535, but were conquered by another in 1542. After an unsuccessful rebellion in 1546,
only pockets of their original culture survived. One such established a new capital hi the hillier
Peten which fell in 1697. The typical Maya warrior carried a short thrusting spear, a club and a
light rectangular shield that could be rolled up like a window blind. Leaders added jaguar hide or
quilted cotton armour and wooden or hide helmets. The former Jaguar and Eagle military orders
are not reported by the Spaniards, so had probably ceased to exist after the rebellion of 1461
replaced autocratic foreign Itza rule with native Maya anarchy. The bow was a relatively recent
innovation formerly restricted to the Itza's bodyguards and mercenaries, but the Spaniards mention
encountering it all over Yucatan, so it must have spread rapidly. Slingers are mentioned by the
Spanish, but are not depicted in art, so we assume they were limited to the peasantry. The "road
weasels" are scouts mentioned in Spanish accounts. How they were armed is uncertain. Hornet
nest throwers are one of the more colourful Sk fjjft varieties, projecting an early multiple homing sub-
missile warhead! Although some coastal Maya used unusually large sea-going canoes for long
distance trading, these seem never to have been used in war.

36
35. INCA 1494 AD - 1572 AD
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C in command litter - WWg (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-general - Wb (I) @ 23 AP. 1-3
Inca regulars - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 24-100
Militia - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 12-36
Skirmishing slingers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 12-36
Stone breastworks or areas of pits - Fjgf @ 2 AP. 0-12
Only before 1533 AD:
Chimu - Wb (S) @ 5 AP 0-6
Sailing rafts - Bts (I) @i AP. [Wb or Sk|. 0-4
Forest Indian archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-3
Colla armed with bolas (sometimes incendiary) - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Other subjects - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 0-12

Only from 1533 AD:

Spanish ally-general - Ln (S) @ 25 AP. *1
Spanish cavalry - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 0-2
Spanish sword-and-buckler men - Bd () @ 7 AP. *2-4
Spanish crossbowmen - Bw (S) @ 7 AP. *l-3
Spanish arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. *l-2
Spanish wardogs - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Spanish field or light guns - Art (O) @ 20 AP or (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Spanish Canari auxiliaries - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Only if Conquistador army after 1534 AD:
Upgrade C-in-C to Spanish - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Upgrade Spanish ally general to sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Only Manco's revolt 1536 AD to 1544 AD:
Upgrade Inca C-in-C with horses to - Ln (I) @ 30 AP. 1
Inca arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 5 AP. i 0-2
Forest tribe archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 6-12
Captured culverin - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-1
Women with spears - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-5

Only the revolt of 1565 AD:

Inca pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. **8-20
The Inca state in Peru was founded in the 13th century AD, but until the Chanca invasion of
1438 AD had been only one of several Quechua tribes. Pachacutic, the 9th Inca, incorporated all
Quechua into a reorganised state with his original tribesmen as its aristocracy, then launched an
aggressive expansion culminating with the conquest of the coastal Chimu empire in 1464. Civil
war from 1527 to 1532 between Huascar and Atahualpa ended with the defeat of Huascar and his
execution on the orders of Atahualpa, after the latter had been kidnapped by the Spaniards but
before his murder by them! The Spanish then allied with Huascar's successors against those of
Atahualpa. The list ends with the death of the last Inca, Tupac Amaru. The Inca state was highly
regimented, the whole populace being issued with standard clothing from public storehouses and
forbidden to embellish it. The army consisted of 4 large regular regiments, supported by local
militia and unassimilated subject contingents. Inca regulars are mostly depicted with a short spear
decorated with feathers along its shaft's whole length, club, sling, small shield and cotton armour.
The classification is because even today they are described always moving at a "light footed
shuffling trot", walking only when drank! The usual Inca tactic against the Spaniards was to delay
them from behind improvised stone breastworks and then envelop them with skirmishers before
launching a downhill charge slinging a hailstorm of stones in advance. The militia were described
by the Spanish as "hordes adding little to the strength of the army". Mountain subject tribes were
issued with bronze-edged chonta wooden swords as a side arm and Equadorians like the Canari

37
added atlatl dart-throwers. Colla used the bolas and are classed as Sk (X) due to its effect on
horses. The only bowmen were Amazon forest tribesmen, who as an escort for one later C-in-C
came close to defeating a cavalry charge. The litter was a prized status symbol and seems to have
been used by all C-in-C's, not just the reigning Inca, since we read of a non-royal commander
being killed in one. Other generals and guards fought on foot, but substituting a bronze halberd
for the usual spear. Minima marked * apply only if any Spanish are used. All and only Spanish
troops must be commanded by a Spanish general who, unlike his counterpart in a Tlaxcalan army
does not usurp the position of C-in-C, since the Inca continued to command the army as a whole.
Note that classification of Spanish troops here is dictated by their effect in American warfare. For
instance, sword-and-bucklermen are not Bd (F) and arquebusiers not Sk (O), since they sensibly
decided not to try to outrun lightly equipped Amerindians. Similarly, against a foe in cotton
armour using a sling, even a crossbowman becomes (S). The Spanish can also be extracted from
this list as a separate 100 AP army to fight a purely Inca 100 AP army which will still have
around 40 elements. Minima marked * apply only if any Spanish are used. The puppet Inca
Manco who revolted in 1536 used captured Spanish cannon and arquebuses and himself fought on
horseback accompanied by a few other horsemen. His son had 800 pikes made and another 2,000
incomplete in 1565, though these were in the event seized by the Spaniards when his revolt was
nipped in the bud. They are included here in case you wish to try a little alternative history. The
minimum marked ** applies only if any pikes are used. Baggage was carried by porters, often
female, and on llamas. Manco armed women with spears to swell his apparent numbers. Maxima
are for normal scale. If Spanish are used or you are gaming the revolts of 1536 or 1565, only
normal scale is suitable.

36. AMAZONIAN 1494 AD - 1662 AD

Tropical. Ag 0. WW, Rv, Wd, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Bw (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-general - Bw (I) @ 23 AP. 0-1
Ally-general - Bw (I) @ 13 AP. 1-3
Archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 46-156
Spearmen - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 3-12
Blowpipe men - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 3-6
Canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP |Bw]. 0-6
This list covers the well-organised riverine tribes of the Upper Amazon until the expulsion of
their Jesuit protectors led to the depopulation of most of their settlements by disease, migration
and Portugese slave-raiding. Similar peoples may have inhabited the Amazon Basin for millennia,
but evidence for them comes almost exclusively from the reports of 16th century Conquistadores,
who describe large fleets of canoes manned by archers. One account claims that an army of the
Tapajos tribe comprised 60,000 bowmen. Other weapons included hardwood clubs, spears and
blowpipes, but archery was overwhelmingly the most important tactic.

38
37. NATCHEZ AND MOUND BUILDERS 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, , , BUA. Max N500
C-in-C in litter - WWg (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-general - Bd (I) @ 24 AP. 1-2
Guards - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 2-4
Nobles - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 8-16
Honoured men - Bw (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 45-127
Stinkards - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 16-36
Canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP [Bd,Bw,Sk]. 0-6
This list covers the Natchez and earlier mound builder cultures of the Mississipi basin until the
French destruction of the Natchez. Each nation had a capital town containing massive earthwork
mounds supporting temples and council houses, defended with palisades and moats. They were
rigid theocracies ruled by a leader called "The Great Sun", who was not permitted to put foot to
ground and was borne in a litter. When he died he was buried with his retainers and household
guard. Society was stratified into "Noble", "Honoured" and "Stinkard" classes. Military prowess
was rewarded by promotion to the next class, though that to Noble was rare and very difficult.
The Stinkards were replenished by adding conquered peoples. The Natchez were harder to fool
than Motecuhzoma or Atahualpa, telling De Soto in 1542 that they would believe the Spaniards
were gods if they dried up the river, then chasing him back down it in canoes.

38. EASTERN FOREST AMERICAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), Wd, BUA. If coastal tribe add WW. Max N500
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Ally-general - Wb () @ 14 AP. 1-3
Warriors - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 12-138
Skirmishers, ambushers and scouts - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 12-60
Birch bark canoes - Bts (1) @ 1 AP |Wb,Skl. 0-8
Only if a coastal tribe such as the Narragansets or Wampanoags:
Upgrade canoes to large sea going dug-outs - Bts () @ 2 AP [Wb,Sk|. All
Only after 1636 AD:
Upgrade skirmishers with firearms to - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-1/4
Only after 1668 AD:
Upgrade warriors emboldened by firearms to - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-6
Upgrade skirmishers with firearms to - Sk () @ 3 AP. All
The forest peoples of the Atlantic coast were culturally more advanced than they are usually given
credit for, living in fortified agricultural villages with substantial buildings, combining in large
leagues and some having a pictographic written language. War leaders' authority derived solely
from their own charisma and depended on persuasion and example. Formal battles with other
tribes consisted mainly of indecisive archery and dodging arrows from the short-ranged bows
"fighting with leaping and dancing, that no arrow hits", but with leaders especially following up
success by "venturing into the thickest with great valour and courage to bring away enemy heads"
wielding stone-headed tomahawks. Bows were deadly accurate in ambush, the more normal form
of warfare, "sneaking up like foxes, fighting like lions, then disappearing like birds". Indians
buying firearms insisted on flintlocks as far more convenient for hunting and surprises than the
colonist's matchlocks and, in the colonists' view unfairly, aimed at individuals and used cover.
Loading with several pistol balls instead of a single close-fitting ball prevented any long range
accuracy.

39
39. CANADIAN FRENCH 1603 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, BUA, I. Max N300
C-in-C- Sh (F) @ 26 AP or Sh (I) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Sh (I) @ 24 AP. 0-2
Militia - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-40
Light or heavy guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP or (S) @ 25 AP. 0-3
Coureurs de bois - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 1-16
Canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP. 1 > 0-1 per Sk (S)
Indian allies - List: Eastern Forest American. 24-40
Only from 1663 AD:
French regular infantry - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 4-12
The first successful French settlement in America followed the explorations of Champlain from
1603 and his founding and fortifying of Quebec in 1612. Its purpose was to exploit the fur trade
with the Indians rather than engage in agriculture, so numbers were initially small. 6,000 Breton
settlers arrived in the mid-17th century, but the population remained lower than in the English
colonies, reaching 300 by 1645, about 15,000 by 1700 and 55,000 by 1750. It was mostly in
semi-feudal manorial settlements along the St.Lawrence river with big communal strip fields, but
the most important part of the community had escaped government control by vanishing into the
interior to trade with the Indians as "coureurs de bois". Indian allies are compulsory and can have
canoes. Regulars are classed as (F) to match their 18th century tactics in Canada.

40. ENGLISH OR DUTCH COLONIAL 1607 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, E, Rd, BUA. Max N300
C-in-C - Pk (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pk (I) @ 23 AP or Sh () @ 26 AP. 0-1
Ally-general from different colony - Sh () @ 16 AP. 0-1
Colonists with half-pike - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 6-24
Colonists with matchlock - Sh () @ 6 AP. 12-24
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Indian allies - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 3-8
Longboats - Bts (O) @ 2 AP [ Sh]. 0-3
Only from 1637 AD:
Replace colonist half-pikes with snaphaunce - Sh (S) @ 27 AP if general, 7 AP if not. All
Colonist horsemen - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Colonist mounted musketeers - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Re-arm Indian allies with snaphaunce - Sk () @ 3 AP. All
Only from 1676 AD:
Replace colonist matchlocks with snaphaunce - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. All
Woods-wise colonists - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 1-4
Birch bark canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP [Sh,Sk]. 0-6
Dutch colonial settlement was for trade, while the English were there to clear forest and live by
agriculture. The English settler population increased swiftly, reaching 5,000 in 1645 and around
50,000 by 1700 and a million by 1750. Although the first colonists owed their survival to Indian
help, they were not long in quarrelling with them, with sizeable wars in 1622-34, 1636-37 and
1675-76. Indians were employed from very early on as hunters with firearms, being both adept in
stalking and accustomed to aiming. The colonists were very slow in changing from matchlocks to
snaphaunces, although the Indians sensibly insisted on these, and the colonists were even slower
in acknowledging the propriety of aiming at individual targets and shooting from cover. Only
during "King Philip's War" 1675-76 did a few begin to learn woodcraft and start using the handy
birch bark canoe, but by the 1690s a real skill in forest warfare had developed.

40
41. SPANISH COLONIAL 1524 AD - 1700 AD
Tropical. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, M, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N300
C-in-C - Bd (O) @ 27 AP or Sh (F) @ 26 AP. 1
Ally-general - Ln (I) @ 20 AP or Sh (I) @ 14 AP. 0-2
Lancers - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 1-6
Regular foot: 1/2 pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 1/2 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 4-16
Regular arquebusiers of independent company - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-2
Militia: 1/3 with firearms - Sh (I) @ 4 AP, 2/3 with half-pikes - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 24-48
War dogs - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-4
Breastworks for artillery - F @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Art
Galleys - Gal (O) @ 4 AP [Sh]. 0-1
Carracks - Shp (S) @ 6 AP f Sh]. 0-4
Caravels - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Sh]. 0-1

Only until 1534 AD:

Substitute crossbows for militia firearms - Bw () @ 5 AP. 1/2-all
Only after 1534 AD:
Escopeteros - LH (1) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Only after 1659 AD:
Upgrade Sh (I) to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. All
This covers the Spanish colonies after Cortez' 1524 edict instituted obligatory militia service. The
governor of Nueva Espana had a halbardier guard, sent by the King for his personal protection.
Lesser colonial leaders were prone to back-biting, so are classed as ally-generals. Regular infantry
arrived on each 6 monthly fleet from Spain to train and support the militia, returning with the
next fleet. Although their pikemen were re-armed for the purpose with 12 foot half-pikes, they
were so well armoured until the end of the period with morion, corslet and tassets as to retain
(O) grading. The lighter arquebus was prefered for colonial warfare to the musket, which is first
depicted in America in 1664, about the time it finally replaced the arquebus at home. Lancers
include both those of the back country of Neuva Espana and the "cow killers" of Hispaniola who
were so deadly to Cromwell's foot. Similar lancers were used on the Apache frontier in the 18th
century. Escopeteros using an arquebus from the saddle are first depicted in America in 1603, but
could have been used at any time after 1534. Large fierce dogs were used to hunt down escaped
Indians and Cimaroons. Artillery is assumed to be from coastal fortifications.

42. BUCCANEER 1624 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, M, Rd, BUA. Max 400N.
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Ally-general - Wb () @ 14 AP. 1-3
Pirates with cutlasses, pistols and/or half-pikes - Wb () @ 4 AP. 24-36
Pirates with muskets - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 12-18
Sharpshooters - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Guns on naval carriages - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Cimaroons - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-6
Longboats - Bts () @ 2 AP [Wb]. 0-5
Pinnaces - Bts (S)@3 AP|Wb,Sh]. 0-2
Ships - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Wb,Sh,Sk(S),Artl. 0-6
This covers piratical activity by French, English and Dutch entrepreneurs after the establishment
of permanent bases hi the West Indies. Buccaneers several times gathered large forces to attack
the coastal cities of Spanish America. Cimaroons were fugitive negro slaves living free in areas
difficult of access and were both hostile to Spain and well supplied with firearms.

41
 ARMIES OF THE REFORMATION
43. ELIZABETHAN ENGLISH 1559 AD - 1603 AD Cold. Ag 3. WW,
Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C-Ln(F)@31 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Demi-lances - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 2-6
Light staves - LH (O) @ 5 AP. 3-5 per Ln (F)
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per Sh (I)
Billmen - Bd (O) @ 7 AP. 1 per Sh (I)
Calivers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 4-12
Longbowmen - Bw (S) @ 7 AP. 1 per Sh (I)
Heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Downgrade heavy guns to field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-1
Race-built galleons - Shp () @ 5 AP [Sh,Pk]. 0-4
Only in 1560 AD:
Gentlemen pensioners - Ln (S) @ 15 AD. 0-1
Scots cavalry - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-5
Scots foot - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-8
Only after 1575 AD:
Replace billmen with pikemen or downgrade them - Pk (O) or Bd (), @ 4 AP. All
Replace longbowmen with musketeers - Sh (O) @ 6 AP, or calivermen - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1/2-all
Only from 1586 AD:
Petronels - LH (1) @ 4 AP. 1-2 per 2 Ln (F)
This covers the armies of Elizabeth I. Although popular attention is focussed on the levies for
defence against the Spanish Armada in 1588, English armies intervened in Scotland on behalf of
the Scottish Protestants against the French party in 1560 and 1570, in France on behalf of the
Huguenots against the Catholics and Spanish in 1562-63 and 1591-97, and in the Netherlands
against the Spanish from 1572 onwards. There were also rebellions in Ireland in 1566-67, 1569-
81 and 1595-1601, the last aided by a substantial though belated Spanish force that necessitated
the largest English expedition sent overseas during the reign, at first under the command of the
Earl of Essex and later of Elizabeth's best general, Mountjoy. The fully armoured men-at-arms
riding barded horses of the Gentlemen Pensioners made their last appearance during the Scottish
expedition of 1560. Although tilting in full armour remained a popular sport at court, the lighter
demi-lance in 3/4 armour on an unbarded horse was now the standard heavy cavalryman. These
were always greatly outnumbered in English service by the light horsemen variously known as
light staves, spears, javelins, prickers or border horse. Although cavalry primarily armed with
firearms had long been used on the continent and the Dutch from 1577 routinely re-armed their
English and Scots volunteers as pistoleers, the first appearance of English specialist firearm
cavalry was in 1586 in the form of skirmishing petronels. These were named from their weapon,
a larger calibre version of the arquebus. English infantry at the start of the period were roughly a
quarter each from the centre outwards of billmen, pikemen, longbowmen and calivermen. The
bills were quickly replaced by a small number of halberdiers as a colour guard and extra pikes,
the longbows more slowly by "fiery shot". However, when trained billmen were re-armed with
pikes, their bills were sometimes given to untrained men. Regular forces had no bows after 1588,
but some county militia still used them until bowmen were ordered to be recorded as unarmed
men in 1595. Even then they remained a favourite weapon on the turbulent border with Scotland,
where bills also survived as the minimum acceptable home-defence weapon.

42
44. OLD IRISH 1494 AD - 1601 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - LH (O) @ 25 AP, Ln (F) @ 31 AP or as galloglaich Bd (O) @ 27 AP. 1
Irish ally-general - LH (O) @ 15 AP or Bd () @ 17 AP. 1-3
Irish horse - LH () @ 5 AP. 2-12
Galloglaich - Bd (O) @ 5 . (- A' ; 12-24
Bonnachts - Wh (I) @ 3 AP. 16-48
Kerns armed with darts - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 24-48
Kern archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-8
Plashed wood edges - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Ditch to block road - FO @ 2 AP. 0-1
Only if before 1594 AD and the C-in-C is also the Kings Deputy:
English Pale spearmen - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 1-3
English Pale billmen - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-2
English Pale longbowmen - Bw (S) @ 7 AP. 4-12
Only from 1525 AD:
Upgrade kern archers to marksmen with arquebus - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. Any.
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only after 1560 AD:
Change Pale longbowmen to arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1/2
New Scots "red shanks" mercenaries - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-24
Only from 1594 AD:
Re-arm galloglaich as - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-1/2
Re-arm bonnachts as - 1/2 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, 1/2 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. All
Upgrade kerns with darts to "kerns with pieces" - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-1/2

Only in 1601 AD:

Spanish allies - List: Low Countries Spanish.
In 1494, the English parliament enacted that no Irish subject should make war or peace without
the special licence of the king's representative, nor shout a private war cry. This interference with
the national sports of raiding, feud and faction fight was naturally disregarded. Irish cavalry wore
mail, but rode light horses. "As light scourers", it was said, "there are no properer horsemen in
Christian ground", but "they were more ready to turn upon the hand, to shake and sometimes to
charge with their spears above hand, than to come close to the charge, or strong to endure the
shock when they were charged." Galloglaich were mailed professional axe men of Scots descent,
described as "men of great stature, of more than ordinary strength of limb, powerful swordsmen,
but at the same time altogether sanguinary and by no means inclined to give quarter___they either
soon kill or are killed." The boys accompanying galloglaich are assumed to be included in the
galloglaich element or among the kerns. Whether any large number of galloglaich converted to
pikemen as John Dowdall claimed in 1596 is disputed. Mailed pikemen are also mentioned and
the two may have been confused. Bonnachts were Irish professionals, armed with javelins until
Hugh O'Neill trained them into solid pikemen and arquebusiers. Kerns were amateur skirmishers,
originally armed with javelins or weak bows, later partly skirmishing arquebusiers. Their tactics
were compared to a morris dance, complete with pipers. The Irish took happily to hand firearms.
In 1543 a Englishman wrote "As for (hand) gunners, there be no better in no land than they be,
for the number of guns they have, which be more than I would wish they had." Artillery was
only occasionally used in the field. Troops from the English "Pale" around Dublin must be in the C-
in-C's command. "New Scots" mercenaries from the Highlands and Isles start as mailed archers
with twa-honded swerds, but shed their mail as their wealthier members replaced their bows with
firearms. They were called "red shanks" from the bare legs showing beneath their plaids. This
army is at its best in dense terrain, especially bogs and woods, and should make extensive use of
ambushes, which can include plashed wood edges.

43
45. FRENCH HUGUENOT 1562 AD - 1598 AD
Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Ally-general - Ln (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-12
Argoulets or carabins - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 3-6
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 4-12
Landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk (O)
Huguenot arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 4-24
Reclassify arquebusiers mounted on country nags as - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. All/0
Enfants perdus - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-3
English allies - List: Elizabethan English.
Only before 1576 AD:
Gendarmes - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 3-6
Chevaux leger - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 0-3
Huguenot pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-4
Downgrade guns to light - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Trenches - FO @ 2 AP. 0-16
Burgher home defence forces to defend BUA - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 0-4
Only from 1576 AD:
Re-classify generals as - Pi (S) @ 32 AP if C-in-C, 22 AP if ally. All
Cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 8-16
Only from 1589 AD:
Royal Swiss pikemen - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 12-16
Royal Swiss arquebusiers - Sh (I) @4 AP or Sk (O) @ 3 AP . 1 per 4 Pk (S )
French royal foot: 1/2 pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP,
1/2 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-12
Upgrade any arquebusiers to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
Dutch allies - List: Dutch Rebellion. 0-18
This covers Protestant armies of the French Wars of Religion from the massacre of Protestants at
Vassy that ignited rebellion until the Edict of Nantes. It subdivides into three parts; the period
until 1575 during which the Huguenots were led by Conde and Coligny; the middle period until
1589 when their leader was Henri of Navarre before he had been crowned; and the period after
he had been crowned as Henri IV and had been joined by both the royal troops and moderate anti-
Spanish Catholics. Huguenot armies often had only 2 commands, and once had effectively only
1. Classification as ally-generals is because they "could never be trusted to carry out with
strictness the orders of their Commander-in-Chief". The aggression factor is low only because
French armies were too busy at home for foreign adventures. The Catholics inherited most of the
regular gendarmes of the compagnies d'ordonnance, but both sides agreed that these were not now
as good, hirelings having partly replaced gentlemen. The Huguenots were compensated by getting
the best of the nobility and quickly established a cavalry ascendency. Battle illustrations from the
1560s depict them all with lances, though accounts suggest they often also had a pistol. As the
nobility were thinned by casualties and were replaced by bourgeois, pistol use increased, and
Henri abolished the lance when he took command. Unlike reiters, his cuirassiers charged home at
the trot in solid deep formations. Huguenot generals believed that defeat of the enemy cavalry
would automatically be followed by mat of their infantry. Huguenot infantry other than hired
landsknechts had very few pikes. Landsknecht, French royal and Swiss arquebusiers must stay
within 1 move from their pikemen. Bodies of consisting entirely of arquebusiers were often placed
to support cavalry, when their survival would depend entirely on the cavalry's success, and others
sent in front to skirmish as enfants perdus ("lost children"). Burghers fought fanatically, but only
in defence of their home towns, so must be deployed in BUA. Dutch allies must include some
naval elements.

44
46. FRENCH CATHOLIC 1562 AD - 1597 AD
Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 1-2
Gendarmes - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-10
Archers and chevaux leger - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 4-8
German reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-6
Argoulets - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Enfants perdus - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-9
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Road barricade - FO @ 2 AP. 0-4
Paris militia - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-8
Armed friars to defend BUA - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 0-2
Only until 1589 AD:
Burgundian men-at-arms - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-2
Italian men-at-arms - Ln () @ 12 AP. 0-4
Royal Swiss pikemen - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 12-16
Royal Swiss arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Sk (O) @ 3 AP. 1 per 4 Pk (S)
French royal foot: 1/3 pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP,
2/3 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 6-12
German landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-4
German landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk (O)
Downgrade guns to light - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only from 1568 AD:
Re-arm archers and chevaux leger as pistoleers - Pi () @ 10 AP. 4-8
Only after 1589 AD:
Spanish Walloon lancers - Ln (F) @ 12 AP. If 0-8
Spanish Walloon herguletiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Ln (F)
French foot: 1/3 pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP,
2/3 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Catholic Swiss pikemen - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Catholic Swiss arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Sk (O) @ 3 AP. 1 per 4 Pk (S)
Barricade of wagons to protect initial flank of Swiss - FO @ 2 AP. 0-3
This covers Catholic armies of the French Wars of Religion from the outbreak of the Protestant
rebellion until the last Catholic hold-out was bribed with 500,000 ecu to accept the conversion of
Henri IV to Catholicism (as the Pope had done 3 years earlier), leaving his Spanish allies in the
lurch. It subdivides into two parts; first a period during which the Catholic party controlled the
resources of the crown; then after the death of Charles X in 1589 left the Protestants' leader,
Henri of Navarre, as the only heir by salic law and transferred the royal forces to his control.
The aggression factor is low because French armies were too busy for foreign adventures. The
Catholic armies deployed in 2 to 4 commands. They had inherited most of the regular gendarmes
of the compagnies d'ordonnance, but both sides agreed that these were not as good as before,
hirelings having partly replaced gentlemen. Despite earlier disasters, the gendarmes still charged in
the shallow "en haye" formation at Dreux, but thereafter used the new deeper formations unless
short of troops. Accordingly, after 1562 Lancers (O) can have rear support from other Lancers
(O). Some Catholics were still using the lance long after the Huguenots had changed to pistoleers.
The argoulets were also called Albanians, although they no longer resembled the earlier stradiots
and skirmished with arquebuses. The Catholic side also initially controlled the royal infantry of
the legions, who were now 1/2 pikemen, 1/2 shot, and of the "old bands" of aventuriers, and the
Swiss. Swiss, French royal and landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their
pikemen. The Paris militia took part in the battle of St.Denis in 1567, but more usually manned
the city's defences, as did the black friars. A typical Catholic deployment used mixed commands,
each of large blocks of foot interspersed with cavaky, their fronts screened by skirmishing enfants
perdus ("lost children").

45
44? LOW COUNTRIES SPANISH 1559 AD - 1659 AD
Cold. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, D, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1-2
Gente d'armas - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 0-1 per 6 Ln (F)
Caballos ligeros - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 4-12
Herguletiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Ln and Pi (O)
Tercio foot: 1/2 pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP,
1/2 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 14-64
Skirmishing musketeers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh (I)
Heavy or field guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP or () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Pontooneers - Pont () @ 5 AP. 0-2

Only from 1568 AD:

German reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-6
Only after 1578 AD:
Herreruelos - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-6
Upgrade Spanish or Swiss arquebusiers to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
Only in 1588 AD:
Carracks - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Pk,Sh,Artl. 0-4
Galleasses - Gal (S)@ 5 AP|Sh]. 0-1
Invasion barges - Bts () @ 2 AP [Anyl. 0-8
Only 1589 AD to 1592 AD:
French Catholic gendarmes - Ln () @ 12 AP. 2-4
French Catholic archers and chevaux leger - Pi () @ 10 AP. 4-6
French Catholic foot: 1/3 pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP,
2/3 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Papal Swiss pikemen - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Papal Swiss arq uebu si ers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP o r Sk (O) @ 3 AP. 1 p er 4 Pk (S)

Only 1593 AD to 1600 AD:

Downgrade sub-generals to ally-generals - Ln (S) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Only after 1630 AD:
Convert gente d'armas to caballos corazas - Pi (S) @ 32 AP if general, 12 AP if not. All
Replace herguletiers with dragoons - Dr (1) @ 6 AP. Any
Replace tercio pikemen with arquebusiers or musketeers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or () @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
This covers Spanish armies from the end of the Italian Wars until the Peace of the Pyrenees in
1659. This is the period of the Dutch Wars, the Armada and intervention in France against the
Huguenots. The army's base is now assumed to be in modern Belgium, currently the centre of
Spanish military power. A tercio before the reduction of 1584 can be simulated in normal scale
by a block of pikemen 4 elements wide by 4 deep, with smaller blocks of arquebusiers in side
edge contact with each corner element, each 2 elements wide by 2 deep. After the introduction of
musketeers, these replace the outer arquebusier elements. The later tercio's pikes are 2 elements
wide by 3-4 deep and it omits the rear corner shot blocks. The Spanish were the first to adopt
the musket, initially using it for long range sniping. Parma increased his musketeers until they
equalled arquebusiers, but the lighter arquebus may later have partly regained its position and
seems to have continued in use until the end of this list. At its start, gente d'armas had mostly
been replaced by caballos ligeros and the ginetes had been replaced by herguletiers. Pistol-armed
herreruelos were introduced later in imitation of German reiters. They were more likely to charge
home, but still inferior to Dutch pistoleers, who were not equalled until the gente d'armas were
converted to caballos corazas. Downgrading to ally-general covers Mansfeldt's difficulty getting
himself obeyed by any general and the "mutineer" troops at Nieuport in 1600.

46
48. DUTCH REBELLION 1568 AD - 1648 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, Wd, M, E, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP or Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (O) @ 32 AP or Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
German reiter - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 6-15
Carabins - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1 -6
Burgher guard to hold BUA - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
3-sided earthwork redoubt for artillery - F @ 6 AP. 0-2
Earthwork ditch and bank - FO @ 2 AP or F @ 4 AP. 0-24
Cromsters - Shp (F) @ 4 AP fSh]. 0-4
Boats - Bts () @ 2 AP [Sh|. 0-2
Hellburners - Shp (X) @ 4 AP or Bts (X) @ 3 AP. 0-2
Only in 1568 AD:
Dutch levies - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-24
Only before 1577 AD:
German landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 12-16
German landsknecht arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Only from 1577 AD:
Dutch, English and Scots demi-lances - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 3-8
Huguenot volunteers - Pi (f}) @ 12 AP. 0-3
Dutch, English, Scots or Walloon foot: 1/3 pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP,
1/3 arquebusiers - Sh (1) @ 4 AP,
1/3 musketeers - Sh (O) @ 6 AP. 18-36
Only 1585 AD to 1594 AD:
English allies - List: Elizabethan English.
Only from 1590 AD:
Re-classify generals as - Pi (S) @ 32 AP. All
Change demi-lances to cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. All

Only 1606 AD to 1621 AD:

Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-2

Only from 1622 AD:

Upgrade all arquebusiers to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. All
This list covers the armies of the States General from the revolt of the Spanish Netherlands until
the Peace of the Hague. Dutch armies depended on mercenaries, at first all German reiters and
landsknechts; later English and Scots equipped like the Dutch, and French Huguenots. Burgher
guards depicted with halberds fought only in defence of their town. Maurice of Nassau's
reorganisation of 1592 made the army a model that other nations imitated. The cavalry became
cuirassiers in 3/4 plate armour charging at the trot in deep formations and firing their pistols on
contact. These were supported by skirmishing carabins with arquebuses. His foot kept the old
proportions of pikemen, musketeers and arquebusiers, but units were smaller and handier than the
old Spanish tercios. They can be simulated in normal scale by pikes 1 element wide and 3 deep
flanked by shot. Shot did not charge with the pikemen, halting before contact to fire by
circulating ranks. Landsknecht arquebusiers must stay within 1 move from their pikemen. The
greatest Dutch asset was their terrain. This was flat and cut-up by arms of the sea, rivers and
canals (depicted as straight rivers). Much use was made of deliberate inundations (depicted as
water, but treated as marsh unless frozen). Cromsters were small handy ships equally suitable for
inshore work and commerce raiding. Hellburners were explosion vessels greatly dreaded by the
Spanish.

47
 INDEX
Amazonian. Page 38 Jurchen. Page 28
American. Dutch Colonial, 40 Knights of St.John. 20
American. English Colonial, 40 Korean. 29
American. Eastern Forest, 39 Low Countries Spanish. 46
American. Mound Builder, 39 Mamluk Egyptian. 18
American. Natchez, 39 Manchu and Ch'ing Chinese. 31
American. North West, 36 Maximilian Imperial. 13
American. Pueblo Cultures, 35 Maya. 36
Anatolian Turkoman. 17 Ming Chinese. 26
Aq-Qpyunlu. 22 Minor German States. 11
Austrian Imperial. 25 Mixtec. 35
Aztec. 33 Moldavian. 24
Buccaneer. 41 Mongolian. 28
Canadian French. 40 Mound Builder. 39
Catholic French. 45 Natchez. 39
Chinese. Manchu and Ch'ing, 31 Neapolitan Spanish. 8
Chinese. Ming Dynasty, 26 North West American. 36
Ch'ing Chinese, Manchu and, 31 Old Irish. 43
Conquistador. 34 Order of St.John. 20
Dutch Colonial American. English or, 40 Ottoman Turk. 16
Dutch Rebellion. 47 Persian. Safavid, 23
Eastern Forest American. 39 Pueblo Cultures. 35
Early Tudor English. 14 Safavid Persian. 23
Elizabethan English. 42 St.John. Order of, 20
English, Early Tudor, 14 Schmalkaldic League. 11
English or Dutch Colonial American. 40 Scots Common Army. 15
English. Elizabethan, 42 Spanish Colonial. 41
French. Canadian, 40 Spanish Imperial. 9
French Catholic. 45 Spanish. Low Countries, 46
French Huguenot. 44 Spanish. Neapolitan, 8
French. Italian Wars, 6 Swiss Confederate. 7
French. Valois, 12 Tarascan. 34
German Minor States. 11 Tibetaa. 32
Huguenot. 44 Tlaxcalan. 34
Hungarian. 19 Tudor English. Early, 14
Imperial. Austrian, 25 Turk, Ottoman. 16
Imperial. Maximilian, 13 Turkoman. Anatolian, 17
Imperial. Spanish, 9 Turkoman. White Sheep, 22
Inca. 37 Transylvanian. 24
Irish. Old, 43 Valois French. 12
Italian Condotta. 5 Venetian Colonial. 21
Italian. Venetian, 10 Venetian Italian. 10
Italian Wars French. 6 Wallachian. 19
Japanese. 30 White Sheep Turkoman. 22
Zapotec. 35
For details of other WRG wargames rules, army lists and reference books, send your stamped
addressed envelope or International Reply Coupons to: W.R.G, The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks,
London Road, Devizes, Wilts SN10 2ER, UK. Phone credit card orders for air or suface mail
delivery to 01380 724558. Phone list suggestions or comments to Phil Barker on 0121-472-6207.

"If we have seen further, it is because we have stood on the shoulders of greater men."
Amongst those who have contributed lists and suggestions, Duncan Head's work on the Orientals
is pre-eminent and provides a very comforting feeling that at least one section should be above
criticism! However, above all others stand the past achievements of George Gush, who with his
articles, books, rules and army lists practically invented renaissance period wargaming.

48
43.
 D.B.R. ARMY LISTS
For use with the De Bellis Renationis Wargames Rules

BOOK 2

ARMIES OF THE
EUROPEAN EARLY NORTHERN WARS,
THIRTY YEARS WAR AND GREAT REBELLIONS
AND OF THE
MOGHUL CONQUEST OF INDIA

Compiled by PHIL BARKER

WARGAMES RESEARCH GROUP

SEPTEMBER 1996

D.B.R. ARMY LISTS

For use with the De Bellis Renationis Wargames Rules

BOOK 2
ARMIES OF THE
EUROPEAN EARLY NORTHERN WARS,
THIRTY YEARS WAR AND GREAT REBELLIONS
AND OF
THE MOGHUL CONQUEST OF INDIA

Compiled by

PHIL BARKER
 All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing
from the copyright holder.

(c) Wargames Research Group September 1996.

The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks, London Road, Devizes, Wiltshire SN10 2ER
Printed in England

WARGAMES RESEARCH GROUP SEPTEMBER 1996

 D.B.R ARMY LISTS BOOK 2
These lists are intended for use with our "De Bellis Renationis" wargames rules for Renaissance Warfare, more
familiarly known as DBR. While mainly intended for competition games, they also provide a general guide to
armies' troop classification, proportions and numbers for scenario games and wargames campaigns, especially
when used in conjunction with more detailed sources such as the W.R.G army handbooks.
They follow the general form of the DBM lists, except that, instead of the armies being arranged in chronological
order, each is grouped together with its main historical opponents. It is often a criticism of competition gaming
that it necessarily encourages unhistorical matches. Our army grouping should enable competition organisers to
arrange that at least the first round of a "Swiss Chess" competition matches most armies with a contemporary from
the same group, while still permitting enough meetings with unusual opponents to provide variety.
The lists are primarily intended to produce 300 AP to 500 AP armies which closely simulate their real life
prototypes, while still allowing sufficient flexibility to cover historical variations during the period and minor
differences of opinion or personal preference. They are less permissive than some previous Renaissance lists which
did not restrict choice by year within a longer period.
A list usually includes about 200 AP of compulsory troops. Unless otherwise specified, the total value of troops
listed as able to be used together is normally around 600 AP, excluding naval elements, artificial defences and
allied contingents; more where historical armies were unusually varied. This will usually allow the army's largest
historical battle to be refought in condensed scale. If you wish to renght such battles in normal scale as a multi-
player game, for instance as a public demonstration at a convention, you must multiply the listed minima and
maxima by 4 for cavalry and foot and by 2 for all other troops other than pontooneers, then expect it to take much
longer to complete. Where a historical army was small, its list specifies that only normal scale should be used in
historical refights and quotes the maximum army size provided for.
300-400 AP is a typical army size for games with 1 player on each side. Larger games really require at least 2
players on each side, ideally 1 player per command. Each army must include a commander-in-chief (C-in-C) and
usually at least 1 other general, who may be a loyal subordinate or independently enough minded or so fractious as
to be classed as an ally. It must also include 2 baggage elements per command, all deployed with the same command.
There is also provision for much smaller games using a single command and only one general. For these,
halve the extra cost of the general and divide all minima and maxima by 3, rounding up to the nearest whole
element. A 100 AP condensed scale army is very similar to a DBA army and can be used for the same kind of
quick games on a small board.
ALLIED CONTINGENTS
These are specified by reference to their own list. Each such contingent must include 1 general and 2 baggage
elements, loss of which affects only the contingent and not the army joined. An allied contingent's general can
be his list's C-in-C or any of its other generals, but is always costed and behaves as an ally-general. Unless
stated otherwise in a particular list, he commands only his own contingent and this can include only compulsory
troop types. It must have at least a 1/4 of the normal minima for each such type and not exceed 1/g of the maxima,
or 1 element, whichever is greater. Only 1 allied contingent of each nationality can be used. Allied contingents
must be of the same year as the army they join.
NAVAL
Naval elements each replace a land element of the types that follow it in square brackets and disembark as that
element. The AP quoted is for the naval element, the land element being paid for separately. AP spent on naval
elements are wasted if they have no access to the table. Their landing troops can then still be deployed, being
assumed to have disembarked before the battle. The elements allowed represent a small squadron co-operating with
the army, not the main fleet.
CLIMATE, AGGRESSION, TERRAIN AND ARMY SIZE
The 2nd line of each list specifies the army's home climate, its aggression factor, codes for the types
of terrain feature it can choose from if the defender, and a note of any unusual army size.
The terrain permitted to a defending army is based either on that of its nation's heartland or its capital
or on that of a foreign base of operations. Terrain codes are:
Waterway suitable for ships, such as the sea, lakes or great rivers.
Ordinary rivers.
Hill with some or all slopes steep.
Hill or lesser rise with only gentie slopes.
Woods.
Orchards or olive or palm groves.
Vineyards.
Small fields enclosed by hedges, walls or irrigation ditches.
Rough going, such as moderately boggy or rocky ground or brash.
Inland marsh not on a river.
Non-coastal sand dunes.
Roads or frequently used tracks.
Built-up areas, such as villages or towns.
Ice, if waterways and rivers can freeze solid enough to bear troops.
WW
Rv
H(S)
H(G)
Wd

V
E
RGo
M
D
Rd
BUA
I

If some types listed for an army are underlined, this means that they are compulsory. Even if not listed, a single
patch of coastal dunes or marsh can always be used if in contact with a waterway, or a single patch of marsh if in
contact with a river.
Any notation of unusual army size starts with "Max". This can be followed by:
N, meaning that the listed maxima will reproduce the largest historical army in normal scale, followed by the AP
of the largest wargames army for which it is considered suitable.
multiplied by a number, which means that at condensed scale listed maxima must be multiplied by that number
to reproduce the largest reported historical army and that those maxima before multiplication will provide a 500 AP
wargames army with some margin for choice.
No notation means that at condensed scale the maxima will reproduce the largest historical army and that the
maxima will provide a 500 AP wargames army with some margin for choice.
FORTIFICATIONS
An army allowed a BUA can provide it with artificial defences. Otherwise, these can only be used if specified
by the army's list. Note that the costs of defences for a BUA and the extra costs of any gateways, although not
mentioned in lists, must still be paid. Defences specified as for camps must rest both ends on a table edge and
-contain all the army's baggage. Any AP spent on BUA defences are wasted if the terrain includes no BUA or if
you are the invader. Troops which are specified by lists as to defend camps or BUA must remain within these.

TROOP TYPE ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations are used for troop types in these lists:
Ln
Pi
Si
LH
Cm
Lancers. Pistols. Sipahis. Light Horse. Camelry.
Dr Pk Sh Bd Bw Sk Wb Hd
Dragoons.
Pikes.
Shot.
Blades.
Bows.
Skirmishers.
Warband.
Hordes.
Art = Artillery. Shp
Pon = Pontooneers. Gal
WWg = War Wagons. Bts
El = Elephants

PO = Portable obstacle. FO = Fixed obstacle.

F = Fortification.
Ships.
Galleys.
Boats.
ARMIES INCLUDED
ARMIES OF THE EARLY NORTHERN WARS
26. Scandinavian Union. 1494 AD to 1523 AD Page 6
27. Early Danish. 1524 AD to 1587 AD 7
28. Early Vasa Swedish. 1524 AD to 1617 AD 8
29. Russian Traditional. 1494 AD to 1647 AD 9
30. Jagiellonian Polish and Lithuanian. 1494 AD to 1575 AD 10
31. Tartar. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 11
32. Polish-Lithuanian Rzeczpospolita. 1576 AD to 1631 AD 12
33. Early Gustavian Swedish. 1618 AD to 1629 AD 13
34. Free Cossack. 1550 AD to 1700 AD 14
35. Georgian or Circassian. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 15
36. Siberian Tribes. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 16

ARMIES OF THE THIRTY YEARS WAR

37. German Catholic. 1609 AD to 1648 AD 17
38. German Protestant. 1609 AD to 1648 AD 18
39. Christian IV Danish. 1588 AD to 1648 AD 19
40. Swedish Thirty Years War. 1630 AD to 1648 AD 20
41. French Thirty Years War. 1599 AD to 1648 AD 21

ARMIES OF THE GREAT REBELLIONS

42. Bishops' War English. 1639 AD to 1640 AD 22
43. Bishops' War Scots Royalist. 1639 AD 22
44. Scots Covenanter. 1639 AD to 1651 AD 23
45. Scots Montrose Royalist. 1644 AD to 1647 AD 24
46. English Civil War Royalist. 1641 AD to 1647 AD 25
47. English Civil War Parliamentarian. 1642 AD to 1648 AD 26
48. English New Model Army. 1645 AD to 1660 AD 27
49. Irish Confederate. 1641 AD to 1652 AD 28
50. Regency and Fronde French. 1649 AD to 1660 AD 29

ARMIES OF THE MOGHUL CONQUEST OF INDIA

51. Moghul. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 30
52. Muslim Indian. 1494 AD to 1687 AD 31
53. Hindu Indian. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 32
54. Maratha. 1646 AD to 1700 AD 33
26. ARMIES OF THE EARLY NORTHERN WARS 1.
SCANDINAVIAN UNION 1494 AD - 1523 AD
If Union: Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, E, Rd, BUA, I. If Swedish: Cold.
Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Ln (O) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln () @ 32 AP. 1-2
Feudal cavalry - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-12
Smaasvende - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 1-3
Skytter - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 2-6
Replace skytter with kjobstadskytter - LH (I) @ 4 AP. Any
Cogs or hulks - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bw]. 0-4
Only Swedish armies:
Leidang - 1/2 Bd (O) @ 7 AP, 1/2 Bw () @ 5 AP. 18-56
Lapp or other scouts - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-3
Upgrade Lapps mounted on elk or reindeer to LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Timber abatis or barricades - FO @ 2 AP. 0-16
Only Union armies:
Obudshaer - up to 1/3 Bw (O) @ 5 AP, rest Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 8-24
Landevaernet - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-24
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 12-24
Landsknecht supporting arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP. 1 per 4 Pk
French mercenaries - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-5
Scots mercenaries - Wb (O) @ 4 AP or Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-2
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Exchange cogs or hulks for skyttebaade - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Bw]. 0-2
Lubeck or other North German allies - List: German Minor States (Book 1).
Swedish allies - List: Scandinavian Union. 0-17
This list covers the armies of Norway, Denmark and Sweden from 1494 until the end of the Union and the
accession of Gustavus Vasa to the Swedish throne. Although the three kingdoms had been unified in 1390 AD,
dissident Swedish rulers with predominantly leidang armies fought against the union's armies, which in turn could
include a Swedish contingent. Feudal cavalry included Hofmaend (nobles' contingents), Frelsemaend (church
contingents) and Laenstropperne (gentry). Smaasvende were mainly unarmoured mounted attendants drawn up
separately behind these as a reserve. Skytter were armoured cavalry armed with crossbows, now being replaced by
kjobstadskytter with arquebus. Leidang were the Swedish home defence militia. Contemporary depictions of
Swedish foot in battle show them in kettle hat or sallet, crossbowmen in front with a second rank loading for
them, and men with mixed pole arms behind these. Of the pole arms, half resemble Swiss halberds, the rest
being a sword blade with cross guard on a 5 foot pole called a "svaerdstav". Some, including crossbowmen,
wear plate corslets. Such Swedish peasant infantry, especially those of Dalaraa, had a fearsome reputation.
Obudshaer were a Danish select levy of single men for foreign service, mostly armed with a halberd supplemented
by a short flail pushed through the belt, but some with crossbow, and charging rapidly. Landevaernet were a levy
of all men capable of bearing arms. They were no longer allowed to keep traditional weapons at home and were
mostly armed with a short spear called a "spiud". It is uncertain whether Swedish rule yet extended to Lappland.
Lapps were not warlike and are included only for scouting and local colour. Swedish leidang made great use of
felled trees as barricades and abatis, especially to block roads through woods or gaps between woods. Much of
the Swedish campaigning was in winter, when frozen rivers provided an equivalent of rough roads. Skyttebaade
were oared vessels with light guns which specialised in the support of troops ashore. German allies need not
include cavalry and can field their C-in-C as Bd (O) representing the Burgermeister and his halberdier guard.
Whether the French mercenaries of 1520 were crossbowmen or pikemen or the Scots were Highlanders or lowlanders
is unclear.
2. EARLY DANISH 1524 AD - 1587 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, E, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Feudal cavalry - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 4-12
Kjobstadskytter - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 2-6
Obudshaer - up to 1/3 Sk (O) @ 3 AP, rest Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-18
Landevaernet - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. * 12-24
Artillery of the train - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Other artillery - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Ledingskibs - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Bd,Sk]. 0-2
Hulks or fluiten - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any]. 0-2
Skyttebaade - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Bd,Sk]. 0-2
Prussian, Lubeck or other North German allies - List: German Minor States (Book 1).
Only before 1550 AD:
Smaasvende - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 1-3
Landsknecht pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 12-24
Landsknecht supporting arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Pk
French mercenaries - Sk (O) @ 3 AP, Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-5
Scots mercenaries - Wb (O) @ 4 AP or Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-2
Only from 1550 AD:
Re-arm feudal cavalry as reiter - Pi () @ 10 AP. 1/2-3/4
Danish foot - 1/3 to 1/2 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, rest Pk () @ 4 AP. 18-48
Downgrade obudshaer to Hd (O) @ 1 AP. Any
Only 1559 AD to 1575 AD:
Polish allies - List: Jagiellonian Polish and Lithuanian.
Only after 1570 AD:
Re-arm generals and remaining lancers as - Pi () @ 30 AP if general, 10 AP if not. All
This list covers the armies of Denmark from the end of the Union until the accession of Christian IV. Feudal
cavalry included Hofmaend (nobles' contingents), Frelsemaend (church contingents) and Laenstropperne (gentry).
Smaasvende were unarmoured mounted attendants usually drawn up separately behind these as a reserve. By 1550,
most of these had been replaced by pistoleers, who at Axtorna in 1565 proved to be much more aggressive than
opposing German reiters in Swedish service. Kjobstadskytter with arquebus had replaced the skytter. Obudshaer
were a Danish select levy of single men for foreign service, mostly armed with a halberd supplemented by a short
flail pushed through the belt, and charging rapidly. The minority formerly armed with crossbows now substituted
arquebuses. Obudshaer declined in utility as the century progressed, but were still called out on campaign to
provide ship crews, guards for the train, cannon fodder and pioneers. Landevaernet were a last resort levy of all
men capable of bearing arms. They were no longer allowed to keep traditional weapons at home and were mostly
armed with a short spear called a "spiud". The minimum marked * applies only if any landevaernet are used.
Greater reliance was placed on foreign mercenaries paid from the King's personal fortune, at first mostly German
landsknechts hired from contractors. French mercenaries were probably arquebusiers. Whether the Scots were
Highlanders or lowlanders is unclear, but the first seems slightly more likely. The term "Danish foot" includes troops
recruited directly by the King's agents, for instance Rantzau's own regiment of landsknechts at Axtorna.
Skyttebaade were oared vessels with light guns specialising in the support of troops ashore. Ledingskibs were big
ships with large numbers of relatively small guns. A Lubeck allied contingent need not include cavalry and can
field its C-in-C as Bd (O) representing the Burgermeister and his halberdier guard.
3. EARLY VASA SWEDISH 1524 AD - 1617 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I. Max N500
C-in-C - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Noble cavalry - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 2-8
Skytter - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1-2 per Ln
Finnish skirmishers with bows, arquebuses and crossbows - Sk(O) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Lapp or other scouts - Sk () @ 2 AP. 0-3
Upgrade Lapps mounted on elk or reindeer to LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Artillery - up to 1/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest () @ 20 AP. 0-6
Timber abatis or barricades - FO @ 2 AP. 0-16
Fluiten - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bw,Sh]. 0-4
Skytterbaade - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Bw,Sh]. 0-2
Only until 1560 AD:
Arquebusiers and crossbowmen - 1/4 to 1/2 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, rest Bw () @ 5 AP. 18-48
Landsknechts - 4/5 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 1/5 Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-10
Only after 1560 AD:
Convert generals and lancers to landsryttare - Pi (I) @ 28 AP if general, 8 AP if not. All
Galleons - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Shi. 0-3
Only 1560 AD to 1592 AD:
Pike regiments - 3/5 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/5 Sk () @ 3 AP. 10-15
Crossbowmen and arquebusiers - up to 1/4 Bw (O) @ 5 AP, rest Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 8-48
Only after 1592 AD:
Musketeers and calivermen - 1/4 to 1/2 Sh (O) @ 6 AP, rest Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 18-56
Only after 1600 AD:
Convert C-in-C and landsryttare to cuirassiers - Pi () @ 30 AP if general, 10 AP if not. 0-2
Upgrade skytter to landsryttare - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. All
Swinesfeathers - PO @ 1 AP. 0-4
Carts mounted with organ gun or row of half pikes - 1/2 Art (I) @ 5 AP, 1/2 PO @ 1 AP. 0-6
Only from 1606 AD:
Pikemen to support musketeers and calivermen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-6
This covers Swedish armies from the accession of Gustav Vasa and the break-up of the Danish-dominated Scandinavian
Union until the military reforms of Gustav II Adolf, better known as Gustavus Adolphus. Gustav Vasa formalised the
military obligations of the nobility who provided the cavalry. Half of these were now to be 3/4 armoured lancers and
the remainder unarmoured and armed with an arquebus. He also increased the production of crossbows and these
rapidly replaced the pole arms that had previously armed half the foot levies and were now retained only by a few
individuals. His efforts to similarly popularise the pike were unsuccessful, so that a typical infantry "fanika" of
400-700 men could have between 1/8 and 1/2 calivermen, the rest being crossbowmen with a minor sprinkling of
pole arms. His successors Eric XIV (1560-1568) and Johan III (1568-1592) did raise some regiments, 3/5 of each of
which deployed as a pike column fringed with shooters, while the remaining 2/5 went ahead as 2 forlorn hopes. Erik
also re-armed the lancer cavalry as caracolling pistoleers. Johan's successor Sigismund (1592-1599) was also King of
Poland (1587-1632) as Zygmunt III. After being deposed, he sought to regain his throne with Polish troops. The
Swedes were commanded by Karl of Sodermanland, later Karl IX (1607-1611). Karl replaced the skytter with
pistoleers, including the Adelsfana noble guard. The pike had disappeared and various expedients were tried to
compensate. In 1605, a Swedish army reported to have "not one pike" was ridden down by Polish cavalry. The musket
was not introduced until 1592 and the lighter caliver remained popular. Swedish warships had a large number of
guns, but most of these were light man-killers firing 2 pound or smaller shot. The fluit was the new cargo ship that
had replaced the hulk. Skytterbaade were rowed gunboats.
4. RUSSIAN TRADITIONAL 1494 AD - 1647 AD
Cold. Ag 1. Rv, Wd, M, BUA, I. Max Cx4
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (O) @ 28 AP or Si (I) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Dvor - Si (9) @ 8 AP. 4-12
Boyars, their retainers and deti boyarskiye - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 2-4 per Si (O)
Cossack light horse - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Pischali - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Gulay gorod - PO @ 1 AP. 0-12
Lurking peasants - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-2
Cossack foot - Sh (F) @ 6 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-4
Cossack chaika - Bts () @ 2 AP [Sh(F),Sk]. 0-4
Only before 1553 AD:
Tartars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-6
Town militia spearmen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Town militia bowmen - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Town militia arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-12
Mount town militia arquebusiers on nags as - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
Puchka - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Only from 1553 AD:
Reclassify C-in-C as - Bd (I) @ 24 AP or LH () @ 25 AP. 0-1
Re-arm Cossack light horse as - LH (I) @ 4 AP. Any
- Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 4-24
Puchka - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-3
Upgrade Cossack Sk (O) to - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. All
1630 AD:
- 3/7 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 4/7 Sh () @ 6 AP. 7-14
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-4
- Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 0-2
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 1-2
This covers Russian armies from 1494 until Alexei Mikhailovitch's institution of conscription. They were still
were predominantly cavalry. The usual formation consisted of an advance guard, a strong centre (the "bolshoi
polk"), left arm, right arm and rearguard, the right arm being senior. Russians were sensitive to outflanking and
liked to fight with a river to their rear and woods or marsh on each flank. Dvor were the paid troops of the
prince. They and the boyars "nobles" wore Turkish-style lamellar and mail armour, but most figures of a boyar
element might better be retainers in quilted armour. Horse armour made a belated appearance after 1600 as a rare
status symbol for rich individuals. Deti boyarskiye "sons of the boyars" were lesser men also on the service
rolls, including some mounted streltsi. The bow was still the main weapon, but lances had largely been replaced by
short "jid" javelins in a case. All rode small active horses bought from the Nogai Tartars. Infantry were at first
almost entirely provided by town militia in separate bodies of spearmen, bowmen or arquebusiers, and by
Cossacks. Although we think of the latter as light horse, they also provided infantry. They specialised in
riverine boat work in 30-oared chaika "seagulls". Ivan IV Grozny "the Terrible" replaced the old town militia
with a standing force of uniformed streltsi armed with a long matchlock and a berdische axe doubling as a musket
rest. The provision for the C-in-C to be Bd (I) or LH (O) reflects the various small halberdier bodyguards and
Ivan's hussar-winged "jintsi" lancer bodyguard. Ivan was also a great believer in puchka, big guns up to 36 inch
calibre! The first western-style troops were added in the 1630s by Mikhail Romanov in the form of 4 new
regiments of German and 6 of native soldatski "soldier" foot, plus some dragoons and possibly reiters and
Polish-style lance-armed hussars. The gulay gorod "walking fort" cannot be classed as WWg since it needed to
be set up, its loopholed wall sections having to be removed from the wagons and fastened between them. It is
first mentioned in 1522. Peasants now rarely appeared in the battle line, but when lurking in woods could be a
danger to isolated enemy parties.
5. JAGIELLONIAN POLISH AND LITHUANIAN 1494 AD - 1575 AD
Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I. Max Cx3
C-in-C - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (S) @ 35 AP. 1-2
Kopijnicy (pronounced "kop-ee-nee-tsy" - Ln () @ 12 AP. 4-8
Upgrade kopijnicy to Royal Household curienses - Ln (S) @ 15 AP. 0-2
Strzelcy - Si (O) @ 8 AP. 2-3 per Ln
Lithuanian Tartars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 2-3
Polish noble levy - Si (I) @ 5 AP. *9-24
Draby - 1/3 Bd (O) @ 7 AP, 2/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 9-24
Replace draby with war wagons - WWg () @ 10 AP. 0-6
Falconets - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Fortress or siege guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Artillery barges-Bts(O)@ 2 AP[Art(S)l. 0-1
Tabor - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Only from 1506 AD to 1526 AD:
Serbian-style light hussars - LH () @ 5 AP. 2-6
Only from 1527 AD:
Convert generals and kopijnicy to hussars - Ln (F) @ 31 AP if general, 11 AP if not. 3/4-all
Drabant and harcerze halberdier bodyguards - Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-2
Only until 1569 AD:
Lithuanian sluzhba zhemska - 1/3 Si (S) @ 10 AP, 2/3 Si (I) @ 5 AP. **9-18
Only from 1557 AD: ^
Convert remaining kopijnicy to hussars - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. "I J- ? All
Convert strzelcy to Polish cossacks - 1/2-3/4 Si (S) @ 10 AP, rest LH (F) @ 4 AP. All
German reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Hungarian or Polish haiduks - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
German mercenary pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-8
German supporting arquebusiers - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Poland and Lithuania were ruled by a single king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, but not formally united until 1569,
before which the two armies differed sharply in character. The Polish army was largely professional and based
on the kopijnik "lancer". He was supported by the strzelec "shooter", at first armed with a crossbow, but after
1524 with a composite bow more useful against Tartars. Draby foot fought as 1 rank of part-armoured pavisiers, 1
of heavily armoured half-pikes and halberds, and 6 of shooters. The latter mostly used Polish-made handguns,
with at first a few crossbows and later imported arquebuses. The pospplite ruszenie "noble levy" was still called-up in
time of need. This undisciplined and argumentative mass of noblemen was hard to raise, almost unmanageable,
prone to panic and would serve only under the king. The Lithuanian army was now very Russian in appearance. It
had few professionals, most troops being provided by boyars under the sluzhba zhemska "land service" scheme.
A few were kopijnicy, but most were worse mounted than the Poles and much worse equipped, more wearing
quilts than mail. Instead of skirmishing like their predecessors they tended to huddle in masses. In 1538, King
Zygmunt I complained that Lithuania was incapable of defending itself without Polish aid. An exception were the
Tartars settled in Lithuania, who provided excellent light cavalry for both Poland and Lithuania. From 1569,
Polish practices were adopted and the sluzhba zhemska was absorbed into the noble levy. Items marked * or **
apply only if 1 but not both are used. Noble levy or drabants must be in the C-in-C's command. The first
hussars were Serbian mercenary light horse with lance and shield. Poles soon filled the ranks and by 1527 they
were armoured lancers and the dominant cavalry type. After 1552, the strzelcy were progressively transformed
into Polish "cossacks", some with short lance, bow and armour, others unarmoured. The standard artillery piece was a
lightly-crewed long 2pdr falconet drawn by 2-4 horses.
6. TARTAR 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag: Golden Horde, Kazan, Astrakhan and Sibir 1, Crimean Khanate 3. Max Cx4
All: Rv, H(G), RGo, BUA. Golden Horde, Kazan and Sibir only: Wd. Crimean only: WW.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP or LH (S) @ 27 AP. 1-2
Tartar heavy cavalry - up to 1/2 Si (S) @ 10 AP, rest () @ 8 AP. 6-16
Tartar light cavalry - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 12-54
Only Golden Horde or Khanate of Kazan:
Bessermeni - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-8
Only Khanate of Sibir:
Replace LH (S) by Khanty and Mansi - Up to 1/3 Wb (I) @ 3 AP, rest Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 1/3
Only Golden Horde or Crimean Khanate before 1S56 AD:
Armen and "Fryazei" - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-4
Only Crimean Khanate:
Ottoman allies - List: Ottoman Turk (Book 1).
Only Crimean Khanate after 1556 AD:
Downgrade heavy cavalry other than generals to oghlan - LH (S) @ 7 AP. All
Downgrade light cavalry to - up to 1/2 LH (O) @ 5 AP, rest LH (F) @ 4 AP. All
Petyhortsy vassals - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-3
Segban - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 6-10
Volga Germans - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-8
Linear earthworks - F @ 4 AP. *24-30
Peasant foot - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 0-1 per 2 F
This covers the Golden Horde until its overthrow by the Crimean Khanate in 1502, the Khanates of Kazan and
Astrakhan until they fell to the Russians under Ivan the Terrible in 1552 and 1556 respectively, the Khanate of Sibir until
its final defeat in 1598 and the Crimean Khanate until beyond the end of our period. Sigmund Horberstein, an
Imperial ambassador of the early 16th century, noted that the Russians called the Tartar battle tactic "khorovod"
(dance). It consisted of two "arrow strikes" by light cavalry followed by a charge by armoured cavalry, the best of
whom rode barded horses, and many of whom carried a lance. Golden Horde armies could include large numbers of
infantry, mostly the inhabitants of Muslim towns of the Horde, called "Bessermeni" and rated brave if unenthusiastic, a
lesser number of "Armen" or Crimean Armenians considered skilful and firm and "Fryazei" crossbowmen provided by
the Italian colonies of the Crimea. The Crimean Khanate was now an invaluable vassal ally to the Turks and the
main enemy of the Poles. It controlled not only the settled tribes of the Crimea, which provided both foot and 20
organised companies of "segban" mounted arquebusiers as well as cavalry, but also the nomads of the Nogai steppe to
its north. After 1556, the supply of armour was much reduced and the old discipline was confined to the Khan's
regular "oghlan" cavalry and the segban. These were supplemented by irregular horsemen commanded by tribal
aristocrats. Oghlan "sons of the nobles" carried a light lance and inspired the later "uhlan" lancers of later Polish armies.
Lances were increasingly attested in the 17th century, apparently replacing the bow. One foreign account of doubtful
date mentions a Crimean army of whom only half had bows, the rest being armed only with "sheep bones" tied to sticks,
which we charitably interpret as bone-headed spears. The Volga Germans had an obligation to provide musketeers.
Petyhortsy were a Circassian people from me Caucasus armed with lance and bow and wearing mail, red and grey
caftans and shaggy cloaks. They were much prized for their scouting ability. Crimean Tartars wore sheepskins turned
fleece-in in winter, but fleece-out in summer, so that they were described as looking like white bears on horseback. Other
Tartars differed in wearing mostly black sheep skins turned fleece-out in winter and white cloth caftans in summer. Rich
nobles wore coloured and embroidered silk garments of Turkish or Persian style like their armour. Tartar baggage was
carried on light 2 wheeled carts unsuitable for forming a laager. The minimum marked * applies only if any
fortifications are used other than for a BUA. Allied contingents from this list need not include segban.

7. POLISH-LITHUANIAN RZECZPOSPOLITA 1576 AD - 1631 AD

Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I. Max Cx2
C-in-C - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Hussars - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 6-9
Polish armoured cossacks - Si () @ 8 AP. 1-2 per 2 Ln
Replace Polish armoured cossacks by Lithuanian petyhortsy - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-1/3
Polish unarmoured cossacks - 1/3-1/2 LH (F) @ 4 AP, rest LH (I) @ 4 AP. 2-3 per 2 Ln
German reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Lithuanian Tartars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-3
Haiduks - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 4-8
Mercenary shot - up to 1/2 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, rest Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-12
Mercenary supporting pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Sh (O) or (1)
Registered Cossacks - up to 1/3 Dr (O) @ 7 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-12
Wybraniecka peasant infantry - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-4
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 1-2
Noble levy - Si (I) @ 5 AP. *9-24
Fake hussars - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-4
Tabor - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Upgrade tabor to war wagons - WWg () @ 10 AP. 0-4
Only after 1618 AD:
German or Livonian cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-2
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 1-2
Unregistered Ukrainian Cossack allies - List: Free Cossack.
Only in 1629 AD:
Imperialist allies - List: German Catholic.
This covers armies of the Polish-Lithuanian Rzeczpospolita "Commonwealth" from the election of Stefan Batory
until the end of the 2nd Polish-Swedish War. The standing Quarter Army (from the proportion of the king's revenue
supporting it) was supplemented in emergency by large numbers of mercenaries, if the rusty state machinery felt
sufficiently threatened to approve extra taxation. Only when really desperate would the noble levy be called-up. As
one Polish officer remarked "I would rather herd swine than command the Levy in attack". The minimum marked
* applies only if any noble levy are used. If so, they must be in the C-in-C's command. The main striking force
were now the famous winged hussars. Batory abolished their asymmetric shields and standardised their armour and
they began to wear wings attached to their saddles. They were supported by Polish cossacks, some units
armoured, some such as the Lisowski regiment not. Armoured and most unarmoured units had replaced lances
with arquebuses. Other unarmoured units had bow and usually lance. Lithuanian petyhortsy, named from the
Circassian people, retained lances. The foot were now haiduks, Hungarian-style arquebusiers useful to support
artillery or attack fortifications. Wybraniecka conscripts were similarly armed and dressed, but so unenthusiastic and
ineffective as to be mainly used as pioneers. Native infantry were supplemented by mostly German mercenary
regiments, now almost all shot. The Old Polish Order (of battle) still used until at least 1610 had 9 cavalry
blocks called "hufy" in 3 lines. The centre of the 1st line was the huf czelny "leading huf", the flanking hufy
the wings or horns. The centre of the 2nd line included the best and heaviest troops and was called the huf
walny "attack huf. Other hufy were of worse or lighter troops and treated as reserves. Haiduks and artillery
were placed in the intervals. As the number of infantry increased, there was a shift towards western-style multi-line
deployments. War wagons were used to protect both flanks or to break the enemy front. The rest of the "tabor"
wagon fortress were unmodified vehicles. The Poles often used distant camp servants with spare lances on
baggage animals to imitate extra hussars. Players doing this must swap hussar for servant elements if enemy
come within 200p or when shot at. The Cossacks of the Ukraine were now nominally Polish subjects and Batory
instituted a register of those entitled to pay and obliged to serve. These rose from an initial 500 to 8,000 in 1630.
Much larger numbers occasionally aided the Poles under their own leaders. Registered Cossacks cannot be used
with Cossack allies. Men of Cossack race are given an initial capital "C" to distinguish them from Poles called
cossacks.

8. EARLY GUSTAVIAN SWEDISH 1618 AD - 1629 AD Cold. Ag 4. WW,

Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or (S) @ 32 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Swedish Adelsfana cuirassiers - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-1
Swedish landsryttare - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 4-8
Finnish "hackapells" - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 1-4
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-3
Mounted jager - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Swedish and Finnish musketeers and calivers - 1/2 Sh (O) @ 6 AP, 1/2 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 14-28
Swedish and Finish supporting pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 4 per 7 Sh
Finnish skirmishers with bows, calivers and crossbows - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-6
German and Scots mercenary foot - 2/5 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 3/5 Sh () @ 6 AP. 10-40
24pdr siege and 12pdr field guns - up to 1/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Only after 1621 AD:
Replace Swedish landsryttare with latta ryttare - Pi () @ 10 AP. All
Livonian cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-2
Only 1624 AD to 1628 AD:
Swinesfeathers for musketeers - PO @ 1 AP. 1 per 2 Sh
Only after 1626 AD:
German mercenary reiters - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 2-8
German mercenary harquebusiers - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Upgrade Swedish and Finnish pikemen to - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. All
Upgrade mercenary pikemen as German "coloured" regiments - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. Up to 1/2
Leather guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-3
This covers Swedish armies from Gustavus Adolphus' first army reforms until his advance into Germany began the
Swedish phase of the 30 Years War. The single regiment of Swedish noble cuirassiers rarely if ever served abroad
and because of its tiny 14 hand horses cannot be graded any higher than (O). The native Swedish landsryttare rode
even worse horses which were not only smaller still, but too slow for skirmishing tactics. In 1621 Gustavus took
away their carbines and increased the provision of pistols to turn them into shock cavalry now called latta ryttare
(light horsemen). These charged 5 or 6 deep at the trot in a tight formation whose front rank fired its pistols just
prior to contact. Not all could be equipped with corslets. The ferocious Finnish hackapells (more properly
hakkapelitta, from the Finnish for "Hack them down!", a cry still used today by ice hockey fans) were galloping
cavalry riding equally light but faster horses of eastern type, owned little armour and were short of pistols.
There were 4 companies at the start of the list, rising to 12 at the end, of which only 6 served abroad. From
1621, native cavalry were supplemented by German mercenaries. Livonia provided good cuirassiers and there
were some light skirmishing harquebusiers, but most were at first poor quality pistoleers who prefered firing by
caracole to charging. The Swedish conscript infantry had suffered badly for want of pikemen in the 1st Polish
War of 1600-1611. This was remedied by Gustavus before the 2nd Polish War of 1621-1629 and the shot
temporarily provided with "swinesfeathers" for extra protection against cavalry. Pikemen still wore helmet, corslet
and tassets. At this time the muskets were a heavy type with rests and the lighter caliver was retained in service
until 1630. The German "coloured" Yellow, Blue, Red and Green regiments were the elite of the mercenaries.
Scots were reclothed and armed as soon as possible after arrival, but the inclusion of 1 or 2 kilted bow-carrying
recent recruits would be a nice touch. Gustavus was experimenting with various wedge-shaped 3 to 7 battalion
infantry formations, but had not yet hit upon the future triangular "Swedish Brigade". Surplus shot were deployed
in rear of the brigade or commanded off as supports interleaved with the cavalry. Foot were now formed 6 deep
instead of the former 10 deep. The cavalry were now initially arranged in chequer-board formation behind the
foot, where the Poles could not easily get at them.

9. FREE COSSACK 1550 AD - 1700 AD

Siberian: Cold. Ag 4. Rv, Wd, H(G) M, RGo, BUA, I. Max N250
Other: Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, Wd, M, RGo, BUA, I. Max Cx2
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP, Si (O) @ 28 AP, LH (F) @ 24 AP or Sh (F) @ 26 AP. 1
Sub-general - as C-in-C. 1-2
Upgrade light horsemen to armoured cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 0-2
Moloitsy - up to 1/4 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 12-60
Snipers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 2-8
Chaika - Bts () @ 2 AP [Sh(F),Sk(S),Bd(F),Pk(F)J. 0-8
Peasants with improvised weapons - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. * 12-24
Tabor - FO @ 2 AP. **12-24
Small brass guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Tartars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-3
Any except Don or Siberian Cossacks:
Light horsemen - LH (F) or (I) @ 4 AP. 3-12
Only Don Cossacks:
Light horsemen - LH (F) or (I) @ 4 AP. 18-75
Only Siberian Cossacks after 1581 AD:
Streltsi - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-4
Deti Boyarskiye - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Komi, Mansi, Khanty, Tungus or similar native auxiliaries - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-10
Only Zaporozhian or Ukrainian Cossacks:
Mount foot generals or moloitsy on horses as - Dr () @ 27 AP if general, 7 AP if not. 0-12
Plashed wood edges - FO @ 2 AP. 0-8
Transylvanian allies - List: Transylvanian (Book 1).
Only Khmelnitsky's Ukrainian rebellion from 1648 AD to 1657 AD:
Convert peasants into drilled Cossack supporting pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 0-4
Russian-supplied sled guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Captured Polish guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Crimean Tartar allies - List: Tartar.
Don Cossack allies - List: Free Cossack.

Only after 1651 AD:

Re-arm remaining LH (F) as - LH (I) @ 24 AP if general, 4 AP if not. All
Further re-arm Don light horse with lances as - LH () @ 24"AP if general, 5 AP if not. Any
Replace Ukrainian Dr (O) with LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1/2-all
Replace moloitsy half-pikes Pk (F) with berdische as - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 1/2-all
By 1550, the Cossacks had coalesced into free "hosts" settled on borders in areas of uncertain control. The 2 main
hosts were at first the Zaporozhian "below the rapids" Cossacks of the lower Dnieper (described as "picturesque and
reprehensible") and the Don Cossacks of the River Don, whom the Russians mainly relied on. The permanent
inhabitants of the Zaporozhian siech were at first supplemented by summer visitors from the northern Ukraine, but
from 1625 these remained at home as a 3rd Ukrainian or "Little Russian" host (unflatteringly described as "lacking
both the vices and the virtues of true cossacks" and as "a spiritless mass of horse"). However, the Poles confusingly
continued to call both groups Zaporozhians. Several smaller groups included the Terek Cossacks who fended-off raiders
from the Caucasus. The Zaporozhians were nominally and the Ukrainians slightly less nominally subject to the Poles,
who tolerated their turbulence because of their value as a buffer against the Tartars. In 1648, the Ukrainians rebelled
under Khmelnitsky and remained independent until forced to appeal in 1654 for Russian protection. Early in this
revolt they captured much Polish artillery and were sent more by the Czar. They were organised in units with
standards, even including a few conventional pike-and-shot regiments. The colloquial name for Cossack foot was
moloitsy or "lads". They were mostly armed with a sword and an arquebus, or later a musket, but poor men such
as new arrivals might substitute a half-pike. A few men sniped with accurate firearms, often rifled. The first
evidence of the berdische axe is a single example from a battlefield of 1651, but by 1660 it was widely used in
place of the half-pike. Cossack foot were adept at boat work in 40-oar chaika "seagulls" and even attacked Turkish
galleys. Allied contingents from this list can include chaika. Only the Don and Terek Cossacks initially used much
cavalry. These began as horse archers, but soon added firearms. The firelock "sampoly" was in use by 1625
alongside matchlocks. The change to firearm tactics was probably between 1585 and 1635. In the 1650s the
Russians ordered Cossacks to have a sabre, a pistol, a carbine and if possible a light lance. Ukrainians then
skirmished at long range unless greatly superior in numbers. Don Cossacks were less timid, enveloping the
flanks of inactive enemy to spear and shoot at close range without contact, but fleeing if attacked vigorously.
Zaporozhians used horses mainly for transport, countering enemy cavalry by fighting from the protection of the
tabor. The largely Cossack conquest of Siberia from 1581 involved bitter fighting, but the armies rarely exceeded
1,000 men. The larger hosts could field 15,000 to 40,000 warriors, but huge numbers of desperate peasants of
various nations joined in rebellions such as those of Khmelnitsky and Stenka Razin. The minimum marked *
applies only if any troops of that type are used, that marked ** only if no more than 2 chaika are used.

10. GEORGIAN OR CIRCASSIAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Georgian: Warm. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA. N500
Circassian : Cold. Ag 1. Rv, ), Wd, O, V, E, RGo, BUA. N500
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Ally-general - Si (S) @ 20 AP. 1-2
Armoured cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 6-18
Cuman-descended and other light cavalry - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 12-24
Archers - up to 1/2 Sk (I) @ 2 AP, rest Bw () @ 5 AP. 6-16
Spearmen - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 12-36
Javelinmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-6

Only Georgia in 1592 AD:

Russian allies - List: Russian Traditional.
Only after 1625 AD:
Regrade all cavalry as - Si (F) @ 28 AP, if C-in-C, 18 AP if ally-general, 8 AP if not. Any
Replace archers with sharpshooters - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. All
Swordsmen with shashka - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 3-8
Replace spearmen with warriors with kindjal, some with javelins - Wb () @ 4 AP. All
A6ul dry-stone rectangular redoubt on hill - F @ 7 AP. 0-3
This covers both the several Christian relict principalities of fruitful Georgia and the similarly dressed and armed
Muslim peoples of the heavily forested hills of Tchetchnia and the jagged bare mountains of Daghestan who were
loosely called Circassians. Georgia was divided into Turkish and Persian zones of influence, which chiefly
defined who they were rebelling against. Part was taken under Russian protection in 1589, with only fleeting
benefit before 1801. The Circassians held their own against the Persians and raided into Russian territory. A
Persian proverb went "When the Shah is a fool, he attacks Daghestan". Bows disappeared with the arrival of
firearms, but javelins were still in use in the 19th century. The national weapon was now the kindjal, a 2 foot
long double-edged slashing dagger which was worn in the waistband of every man and, in a smaller version, of
every woman. Horsemen and some foot also used the shashka, a huge slightly-curved sabre. A favourite tactic
against the Russians was to snipe at them from cover, then when they deployed their own skirmishing parties, to
ambush these with shashka charges. Cavalry charged furiously at very high speed, firing without checking at 20
paces. Their Kabarda horses were small, but handsome and fiery. Petyhortsy Circassians retained lance, bow and
mail and wore red and grey caftans. Other men are described as wearing black lambskin caps and black goat
hair bourka or if poor "wretched felt" cloaks and as "swaggering warriors prowling cat-like in soft leather boots"
and the women as "doe-eyed beauties". The garrisons of Aduls sometimes lashed themselves together with their
sword belts for a last stand.

11. SIBERIAN TRIBES 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 1. All: Rv, Wd, RGo, BUA, I. Max N250
Mansi: H(S), Wd. Khanty: M. Samoyeds: WW, M, Rgo. Yakuts & Tungus: H(G).
Buryats: WW, H(G), M. Yukagirs: H(S). Chukchis: WW, M, RGo. Koraks: WW, H(S), RGo.
C-in-C - Wb (I) @ 23 AP or Bw (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Wb (I) @ 23 AP or Bw (I) @ 23 AP. 0-2
Warriors with spears - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 0-20
Archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 18-60
Dug-out (or if Yakuts or Tungus birch bark) canoes @ 1 AP [Bw,Wb,Bd]. 0-6
Only if Khanty or Mansi:
Upgrade armoured generals to - Bw () @ 5 AP. Any
Only if Yakuts or Tungus:
Reindeer riders - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Re-arm warriors with palma - Bd (F) @ 25 AP if general, 5 AP if not. All
Buryat allies - List: Siberian Tribes.
Only if Buryats:
Upgrade generals to - Si (S) @ 30 AP or LH (F) @ 24 AP. 1-3
Replace warriors with armoured cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. All
Replace archers with horse archers - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 18-40
Only if Samoyeds, Yukagirs or Yakuts:
Replace archers with skirmishing bowmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. Any
Only if Yakuts:
Replace archers with cavalry - Si (S) @ 30 AP if general, Si () @ 10 AP if not. 6-12
Only if Chukchis or Koraks:
Upgrade archers to - Bw (S) @ 27 AP if general, 7 AP if not. All
Replace warriors with skirmishing bowmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. All
Upgrade canoes to large sea-going dug-outs - Bts () @ 2 AP [Bw,Sk]. All
This covers the tribal peoples of Siberia whom the Russian Cossacks had to subdue on their way to the Pacific
Ocean after the destruction of the Khanate of Sibir. These were so decentralised that the many fierce battles
involved only small forces on each side. The first groups met were the Komi (or Zyrians) west of the Urals,
then the Mansi (or Voguls) and Khanty (or Ostyaks) in and just east of the Urals. These all fought on foot with
bows or spears and some had mail and iron helmets. They had been subdued by 1600 and provided auxiliaries.
Next encountered were the Samoyeds of the Arctic coast, archers mainly fighting from ambush like the Eastern
Forest Americans. They had been subdued by 1630. Next came the Tungus, reindeer pastoralists of the open
steppe, again mostly foot and fond of ambushes, but whose scouts rode reindeer. They were armed with a bow or
the glaive-like "palma" and wore bone, horn and wooden armour. They had been subdued by 1641. They were
allied to the Buryats, a partly-sedentary Mongol people that had emigrated off the steppe to the Lake Baikal
region. The Yukagirs who were met next were semi-nomadic reindeer hunters and proved the easiest conquest yet,
but revolted occasionally until 1670. Next came the Yakut, a Turkic horse-riding people who at some time had
migrated north from the steppe and settled in the Lena valley. Excellent iron workers, their main strength lay in
armoured cavalry with palma and bow, nobles adding horse armour, but they had assimilated many Tungus and
Samoyeds who should be depicted in their native styles. They were finally subdued in 1684. The last groups,
who remained unconquered until after our period were the Chukchis and Koraks, some of whom were coastal
sea-hunters, the others reindeer pastoralists migrating between mountain tundra and lower pine forest. Their
primary weapon was a composite bow and they wore armour of bone-plated sealskin or sometimes iron lamellae,
supplemented by cumbersome wooden armour discarded for close combat. They raided extensively by sea in large
wooden canoes as far as Alaska and the most northern Japanese islands. They were fanatics who routinely died
rather than surrender. Summer tundra can be represented as boggy rough ground.

12. 1609 AD - 1648 AD
Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cxi .5
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1-2
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 2-6
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 3-6
- LH (I) @ 4 AP. 2-6
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-2
- Sh () @ 6 AP. 4-24
- 1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, () @ 20 AP. 0-4
- F @ 4 AP 6 AP. 0-3
: : [ 1].
, :
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 4-7
:
- LH (S) @ 7 AP. 2-5
- LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Targeteers - Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-2
:
- LH (F) @ 4 AP. 2-6
- Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 3-6
Levy with morgenstern or halberd - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
1632 AD:
/ - Ln (F) @ 31 AP, , 11 AP, 0-2
, - Pk () @ 4 AP. 2-3 4 Sh
1616 AD:
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1/2-
1632 AD:
- Pi () @ 10 AP. Up to 1/2
- Pi () @ 10 AP. Up to 2/3
, - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1-2 4 Sh
- PO @ 1 AP. 0-4
- Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-4
/ ,
, .
1632, , ,
, ,
. 1635 . 1637 .
.
1624-1630 1632-1634 . , .
, ,
. - 1617 . ,
, , . 1632 .
, ,
, .

-, , ,
, . , -
, . 1635 . .
1624-1630 .
, 1631 .,
, .
10 , ,
1631 , . 1632 . 6-7
,
, , ,
.
,
.
.
. , ,
 , ,
. ,
, ,
.
. 185 , 1685 150
6 .
1635 . .

13. 1609 AD - 1648 AD

Cold. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA.
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1-2
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 2-4
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 3-12
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-3
- Sh () @ 6 AP. 6-24
, - Pk () @ 4 AP. 2-3 4 Sh
- 1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, Art () @ 20 AP. 0-4
- Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
- Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-2
1618 AD 1623 AD:
1/3 LH (I) @ 4 AP Pi (I) @ 8 AP, Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-6
1/2 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-8
- LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-27
- F @ 6 AP. 0-2
: : [ 1].
- 1631 AD:
- Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 1-2
- Pk () @ 4 AP. 1-2 4 Sh
- Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-2
:
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 2/3-
- FO @ 2 AP. 0-8

1631 AD:
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Sh (I) @ 4 AP Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 3/4-

1632 AD:
- Pi () @ 10 AP.

,
, .
, 1619 .,
1623 ., , 1622 1626 .
, -, , , -.
, ,
.
, 1640 1642 .
1631 . .
6 , 3 1633 ..
14. IV 1588 AD - 1648 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, E, Rd, BUA, I.
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 0-2
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 6-18
- LH (I) @ 4 AP. 1 3 Pi (S)
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-12
- 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 1/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP, 1/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. 18-48
- Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-2
- Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Ledingskibs - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Wb]. 0-2
- Shp (I) @ 3 AP []. 0-2
Skyttebaade - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Wb]. 0-2
- Wb (O) @ 4 AP. 1 Shp (S) Bts (O), 0-1 Shp (I)

1614 AD:
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP.
1625 AD:
- Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 2-6
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-1
(I) - Sh () @ 6 AP.
1626 AD:
: : [ 1].
: : 1609-1648 .

1644 AD:
: : 1609-1648 .
IV, 1611-1613
. , 1626-1629
,
1643-1645 . . Danish cavalry
maintained a high reputation right through to Marlborough's wars. Chevaux legers differed from cuirassiers only in
having lighter limb protection. Firelocks equipped all the guards by 1625. Mansfeld's army of 1626 mostly
comprised the remnants of the Palatinate's mercenaries. They subsisted largely on inadequate loot, which should
be reflected in their dress. By contrast, the Danish state became responsible for providing clothing after 1614
and was able to maintain the use of uniform well into the 1620s. Initially, cuirassiers wore a blue sash and
harquebusiers a light blue coat. The 1st native infantry regiment wore red cassocks and each company had either
red, yellow or blue trousers. The 2nd wore blue cassocks. The colours of the yellow and 2 green regiments formed
later may have referred only to their flags. In 1625 Christian FV ordered all of his cavalry to wear a blue sash as
a field sign and the following year added an orange sash to be worn next to the blue one, tied to it at the sash-
knot with white ribbon, and forbade the wearing of plumes of any colour other than white. Several regiments of
Scots foot arriving 1626-28 were immediately issued uniforms, but later reinforcements probably never got them.
A few figures could be depicted in hodden grey with blue bonnets or in highland dress. An Imperialist army
sent to assist the Danes in 1644 was recalled to deal with a Transylvanian diversionary invasion, but was forced by
the Swedes to retire through devastated areas and perished from starvation.

15. 1630 AD - 1648 AD

Cold. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I.
- Pi (O) @ 30 AP. 1
- Pi () @ 30 AP. 1-2
- Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-6
hakkapellis - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 1 3
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-2
- Pi () @ 10 AP. 2-6
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-6
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 1-4
- Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-1
- Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 14-28
3 - A r t ( I ) @ 5 A P. 1 7 Sh
24 12 - 1/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, () @ 20 AP. 0-3
- Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
: - : .
1634 AD:
, - Pk () @ 4 AP. 3 7 Sh
, - Pk (S) @ 5 AP. 0-1/2
- Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-6
- LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1
: : .
1635 AD:
- Pi (F) @ 31 AP. Any
- Pi (F) @ 11 AP. All/0
- Pi () @ 10 AP. All
- Pi (F) @ 11 AP. All
Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 2 7 Sh
: : .
II
. , ,
,
.
. hackapellis
, . , ,
,
. 1635 , ,
, 1642 ,
- . ,
, , .
.
, ,
. .
, ,
, , -
1632 . , ,
.
: ,
, , ,
.
. 3
, .
1635 . 1/3 ,
, ,
.
. .
1635 .
1631 .
.

16. 1599 AD - 1648 AD

Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA.
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1
- Pi (S) @ 32 AP or Pi () @ 30 AP. 1-2
( ) - Pi () @ 10 AP. 6-11
- Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-6
- LH (I) @ 4 AP. 2-4
- 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 1/3 Sh (O) @ 6 AP, 1/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-24
- 1/3 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, 1/3 Sh (O) @ 6 AP, 1/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 6-30
- 2/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, () @ 20 AP. 0-3
1622 AD:
Sh (I) - Sh () @ 6 AP.
1636 AD:
- Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 3-5
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-2
: : ( 1)
1636 AD 1645 AD:
- Pi (F) @ 21 AP. *1
- Pi (F) @ 11 AP. *5-l 1
- 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh (F) @ 6 AP. *12-24
 1637 AD:
- Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 0-1
- Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pi (F) @ 31 AP.
- Pi (F) @ 11 AP.
- Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-4
- 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh (F) @ 6 AP.
1/6 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 12-24
: : .
: : ( 1).
: - : .

. ,
. ( ) .
, ,
.
, , ,
. ,
1563, 1616 1635.
: , , , ,
. .
1637 .,
.
. . 1 ,
, . ,
,
.
, .
.
-, . ,
, ,
"charge en sauvage" . ,
1670 .
,
. , *,
.
ARMIES OF THE GREAT REBELLIONS
17. BISHOPS WARS ENGLISH 1639 AD - 1640 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, Rgo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pi (S) @ 32 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 0-2
Cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-1
Harquebusiers - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 3-6
Dragoons - up to 1/2 Dr (O) @ 7 AP, rest Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 2-4
Northern militia horse - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-2
Militia or raw levy musketeers - all Sh (O) @ 6 AP or all Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 8-24
Militia or raw levy pikemen with inferior short pikes - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 1 per Sh (I)
Northern militia bows and bills - 1/2 Bw (S) @ 7 AP, 1/2 Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Irish musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-12
Irish pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 4 per 6 Sh (O)
Irish merchant ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Sh(O),Pk(O),Pi(I>]. 0-3
Antrim longboats - Bts () @ 2 AP [Wb,Pk(O),Sh(O),Irish LH(O)]. 0-4
Antrim redshanks - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Bts
Irish light horse - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Culverins and sakers - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Drakes - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Earthwork 3 sided redoubts - F @ 6 AP. 0-2
The Bishops' Wars resulted from Charles I attempting to force religious conformity on Scotland. Despite his total
mismanagement and the actual disaster that ensued, he could have won. In 1639, he was out-bluffed, agreeing a
treaty just as the Scots were running out of food. In 1640, the Scots invaded, blasting their way across the Tyne
with artillery and causing an English debacle. Charles had chosen to leave the trained militia unmustered and use
untrained levies. Obsolete longbows, bills and calivers were sent to the border counties as "they knew how to
use them". Most cavalry were provided by the nobility. Border horse were to turn out with lance and jack, but in
the event provided many dragoons. Arrangements were made to ship over the well-trained Irish army, but Charles'
fear of the political fall-out delayed this until too late. Negotiations for Spanish and Danish troops failed, Charles
refusing to pay the price demanded. An offer to bring over foot and light horse from Antrim did not mature, but the
boats were built, so it is included. Redshanks were bare-legged Scots from Antrim and the Western Isles with sword
and targe.
18. BISHOPS WAR SCOTS ROYALIST 1639 AD
Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, Rgo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N250
C-in-C - Pk (O) @ 24 AP. , 1
Ally-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. /6Af 1-2
Upgrade ally-general to sub-general - Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 0-1
Downgrade ally-general to - Wb () @ 24 AP. ' f ^ M P j 0-1
Harquebusiers - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-2
Pikemen with pots and corslets - Pk () @ 4 AP. 2-6
Musketeers - Sh () @ AP. 2 per Pk
Highlanders with bows and firelocks - Wb () @ 4 AP. 1-9
Small brass field pieces without draught animals - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-1
This covers the Royalist armies of North-East Scotland. These were unusually well-equipped with arms and
armour obtained by the Marquis of Huntly. Huntly having been captured by Montrose, at that time a Covenanter,
the 1st battle was preceded by a 12 hour debate on who should be in charge, hence the classification of ally-
generals. Huntly's son arrived before the next, solving the problem. The total number of Pistols elements including
generals must be between 1 and 3. All highlanders except 1 element representing Grant's company must be
commanded by a highland ally-general controlling no other troops, since they all ran away as one when fired on by
artillery.

19. SCOTS COVENANTER 1639 AD - 1651 AD

Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, Rgo, M, Rd, BUA
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 2-10
Replace horse other than generals with lancers - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 0-1/2
Moss troopers - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-2
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 12-42
Pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 4 per 6 Sh
Highlanders if undrilled or all-musket - Wb (O) @ 4 AP or Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Only during the 1st Bishops War in 1639 AD:
Men on work horses with sword and hagbut - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 6-8
Downgrade musketeers to hagbut men - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 1/2-all
Substitute pikemen for musketeers - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-1/2
Swinefeathers - PO @ 1 AP. 0-8
Except Engagers in 1648 AD:
Frames - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-6
Demi-culverins and sakers - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-5
Culverins and demi-cannon - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1

Only Engagers in 1648 AD:

Sir Marmaduke Langdale's English allies - List: English Civil War Royalist. 8-16
Only from 1650 AD:
Re-arm generals and horse as lancers - Ln (I) @ 30 AP if general, 10 AP if not. All
This covers Scottish government armies from the signing of the National Covenant until the English conquest
of 1652. Originally formed to defend presbyterianism against interference by Charles I, it was later sent to
intervene in the English Civil war in return for the English Parliament's promise to impose presbyterianism on
England. This promise being broken, in 1648 a majority faction of the Scottish government, the "Engagers",
made an identical agreement with the captive Charles I, despite bitter opposition from the Kirk and its supporters.
Retreating into Scotland after defeat in a running battle at Preston, the "Engager" army was embroiled in a civil
war with rival "Whiggamore" forces, halted only by the arrival of Cromwell's army and an imposed peace.
Angered by the execution of Charles I next year, the Scots recognised his son as Charles II and prepared to invade
England. After defeat at Dunbar by Cromwell's pre-emptive invasion, the Scots army retreated into England to be
caught and destroyed at Worcester in 1651. The army of 1639 depended heavily on the contents of parish
armouries, mostly lances, pikes, jacks and swinefeathers, and on private firearms, mostly hagbuts. In the event,
the English army was out-bluffed and imports had improved the situation by 1640. Scottish cavalry were
weakened by poor horses. Their preferred weapon was the pistol, with which they burned much powder at long
range with little result. Those unable to afford pistols were ordered to carry lances, which proved more effective.
By Marston Moor each regiment was half lancers and only lancers were called for in 1650. Moss troopers were
borderers intent on reviving the old tradition of banditry, the largest group recorded being only 200. The
appropriate wargame use for them is attacking enemy baggage. Except for the many mounted hagbuts of 1629,
Scottish dragoons were armed with matchlock muskets. Scots pikemen in Ireland were defeated by Irish
pikemen because their own pikes were significantly shorter. They may have been an especially bad overseas
purchase, but the reverses inflicted by Royalist cavalry at Marston Moor and by New Model pikemen at Dunbar
imply pike shortening was endemic. Few regiments of foot achieved a ratio exceeding 3 muskets to 2 pikes.
Frames were light guns reinforced with leather and carried on a pack horse. Half the English fleet briefly went
over to Charles II in 1648, but did not influence any fighting, so are not included. Element numbers suit both
the largest battles in condensed scale and the small battles against Scots Royalist or Irish armies in normal
scale. In Ireland up to 4/10 of the foot and all the horse were locally raised, but to Scottish standard.

20. SCOTS MONTROSE ROYALIST 1644 AD - 1647 AD

Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, Rgo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N300
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP or Sh (F) @ 26 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pk (I) @ 23 AP, Pk (F) @ 24 AP or Sh (F) @ 26 AP. 1-2
Irish musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 6-12
Undrilled Highlanders - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-14
Forlorn hope - Sk (O) @ 4 AP. (5 A / } 0-1
Drakes or frames - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only in 1644 AD:
Irish pikes - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-4
Militia musketeers - Sh (I) @ 4 . or 4
Militia pikes - Pk (I) @ 3 . or 2
Moss troopers - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Extra frames - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Only 1644 AD to 1645 AD:
Highland musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Highland pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Sh
Lowland and mixed regiment musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Lowland and mixed regiment pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 2 Sh

Only in 1645 AD:

Lancers - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 1-2
Only 1645 AD to 1647 AD:
Upgrade C-in-C or sub-general to Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Pistoleers - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-3
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-3
Convert Irish musketeers to pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1/3
Only in 1646 AD:
Lancers - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 1-10
This covers the armies of Montrose and his associates until the end of his first expedition. The Irish regulars on
whom Montrose mainly depended started with a few short pikes or none at all, so were initially very vulnerable
to cavalry. The musketeers were inadequately provided with ammunition, requiring them to fire by salvee, then
immediately fall on accompanied by their pikemen. Regular cavalry such as the Gordon horse were pistol-armed
and preferred to fire at a distance, but some lancers were present at the end of 1645 and the raw recruits that
fled at Philiphaugh in 1646 had probably been given cheap lances for lack of expensive pistols. Those Highlanders
not conventionally trained and equipped with pikes and muskets were less regarded by contemporary soldiers
than by romantic writers, but effective on some occasions, if providing grey hairs on others. Although Montrose
was a* one time replete with captured light artillery, he buried it for safe keeping in a bog from which it was then
purloined, getting only a couple of brass pieces back. The militia unengaged at Tippermuir in 1644 were not
only raw, but had also been enlisted for the enemy before their colonel changed sides and were later to murder
him. This must cast enough doubt on their reliability to justify grading them as (I). Militia musketeers cannot be
used with cavalry or artillery, or without militia pikemen. Montrose's main talents as a commander were his boldness
and his skill in exploiting the strengths of his Highlanders while minimising their weaknesses, his critical
shortcoming an apparent chronic inability to scout.
21. ENGLISH CIVIL WAR ROYALIST 1641 AD - 1647 AD
In England or Wales: Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
In Ireland: Cold. Ag O. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N350
C-in-C - Pi (S) @ 32 AP or Pi (F) @ 31 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pi (F) @ 31 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Reclassify C-in-C or sub-general fighting on foot as - Pk () @ 24 AP. 0-1
Cavaliers - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 6-27
Dragoons - up to 1/3 Dr (S) @ 8 AP, rest Dr (O) @ 7 AP or Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 6-28
Replace pikemen with billmen to defend BUA - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Drakes, barricades or blinders for muskets and leather guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. *l-2
Upgrade drakes to galloper guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-1
Demi-culverins and sakers - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Turnpike to block road - FO @ 2 AP. 0-1
Only until 1643 AD:
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. * 1 per Sh (O)
Firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-1
Countrymen armed only with farm tools or cudgels - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-1
Only in Ireland from 1641 AD to 1643 AD:
Reduce and downgrade cavaliers to - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 6-12
Only in England and Wales in 1643 AD:
Upgrade Cornish general and pikemen to - Pk (S) @ 25 AP if general, 5 AP if not. 0-16
Only in England and Wales after 1643 AD:
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. * 1 per 3-6 Sh (O)
Firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-4
Upgrade any artillery to siege guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Merchant ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Sh,Pk]. 0-2
Only from 1646 AD:
Irish allies - List: Irish Confederate.
This covers the King's armies in England and Wales from the raising of his standard in late 1642 until his
surrender to the Scots and also those in Ireland under Ormonde from the outbreak of the Irish revolt in 1641 until
the Cessation of 1643. It can also be used to provide Langdale's allied contingent to the Scots in 1648. Cuirassiers
were confined to the King's bodyguard if used at all. From 1642, other cavalry usually charged at the gallop
sword in hand in the style Prince Rupert had learned from Turenne and practised successfully since 1638 at
Rheine. Pistols were in any case in short supply, as were muskets, the foot at first having only the obsolete 1 to
1 ratio of muskets to pikes and some dragoons having carbines. When the army left Shrewsbury in 1642, some
recruits lacked any but improvised weapons. These shortages were fully remedied only when the capture of Bristol
improved access to manufactures and imports. The proportion of muskets then increased until in 1645 the
various lifeguard regiments had 2 muskets to each pike and many, possibly all, other units had no pikes. The
minima marked * apply only if more than 8 elements of musketeers are used. This simulates the use of
commanded shot to support an otherwise mounted force. Cornish pikemen had a reputation for savagery and
fanatic bravery, but were tamed by heavy casualties and loss of leaders at Lansdown and Bristol in 1643.
Barricados were organ guns with multiple small calibre barrels. In 1646, the Irish Confederates agreed to send
10,000 men to assist the King, but by that time no suitable sea port remained in his possession to receive them. The
fleet declared for Parliament in 1642, leaving only merchantmen and a few improvised small warships available.
Although Rupert is conventionally criticised as rash and prone to wild pursuit, it should be remembered that he
gained many victories by his boldness and quick appreciation and by the speed of his marches. If he pressed
pursuits too far, at least his defeated opponents were not given time to rally, as some of Cromwell's occasionally
were.

22. ENGLISH CIVIL WAR PARLIAMENTARIAN 1642 AD - 1648 AD Cold. Ag 1. WW,

Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP or Pk (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 4-18
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 6-24
Pikes - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. *1 per 2 Sh
Drakes, barricades and leather guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. *l-3
Upgrade leather guns to gallopers - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-1
Demi-culverins and sakers - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-1
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Warships - Shp () @ 5 AP [Sh(F),Wb(O),Art(S)]. 0-4
Sailors - Sh (F) @ 6 AP or Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp
Only until 1644 AD:
Upgrade 1 general and/or horse to cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 0-2
Only in 1643 AD:
Upgrade horse to Ironsides - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-4
Ill-armed foot - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. **0-2
Only in 1644 AD:
Upgrade general to Pi (O) @ 30 AP. ***\-2
Upgrade horse to Eastern Association - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-2/3
Upgrade any artillery to siege guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Scots allies - List: Scots Covenanter.
This covers the armies of Parliament from the outbreak of war until the demobilisation of the Western and
Northern Associations. Cuirassiers were used only by the lifeguard and Balfour's troop in Essex's army and by
Sir Arthur Heselrig's "lobsters". It was said by the King after Sir Arthur had survived a number of shots and
blows due to his complete armour that "Had he been victualled as well as fortified, he might have endured a siege
of 7 years". The lobsters' defeat at Roundway Down in 1643 is more often commented on today than their several
successes. Other Parliamentarian cavalry relied on distant fire until the Eastern Association took up the tightly
controlled trotting charge reserving pistols until contact that was pioneered by Cromwell with his "Ironsides".
Cromwell remained a relatively minor figure until he commanded a cavalry wing at Marston Moor in 1644. The
senior Parliamentary general was the Earl of Essex "Old Robin", popular with his men, but a very ordinary
tactician. The general most respected by opponents was Sir William Waller, who had an almost uncanny eye for a
good position. Parliamentary dragoons all had firelocks. The foot had a ratio of 1 pike to 2 muskets except in Lord
Ferdinando Fairfax' northern forces or when shot were commanded-off to support cavalry. However, this does
not mean that each regiment of foot necessarily fought as a block of pikes flanked by 2 wings of shot. Quite
often, the pikes remained in reserve with a smaller proportion of shot, while most of the shot formed a firing line
in front. This was especially common in enclosed farm land and Parliamentary musketeers had a high reputation
as "hedge fighters". The minima marked * apply only if more than 10 elements of musketeers are used. Some of
Fairfax' foot in 1643 lacked even muskets, hence the item marked **, which cannot be used with cuirassiers or
more than 2 pike elements. The minimum marked *** applies only if any Pi (O) are used. The raising of the New
Model Army in 1645 did not immediately affect the smaller field armies or local forces. Like Royalist foot,
Parliamentary foot were issued with coats in a regimental colour, but differential fading and looting could provide
temporary variety for a veteran regiment. However, Parliament's pikemen were much more likely to have helmets
and body armour, if less likely to have been issued matching, or indeed any, breeches, stockings or hats. A
knitted monmouth cap was the usual headwear. Officers and horse did not wear uniforms. Horse usually had
sufficient helmets, corslets and pistols and sometimes even carbines. The English fleet had opted for Parliament and
occasionally assisted land forces. Scots allied troops can be in English commands and vice versa.

23. ENGLISH NEW MODEL ARMY 1645 AD - 1660 AD

If West Indies: Tropical. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, Rd, BUA. Max N500
If not: Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pk () @ 24 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi () @ 10 AP. 10-22
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 4-24
Pikes - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. *1 per 2 Sh (O)
Drakes - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Demi-culverins and sakers - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Upgrade any artillery to siege guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-1
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-2
Warships - Shp () @ 5 AP [Sh(F),Wb(O),Art(S)]. 0-4
Sailors - Sh (F) @ 6 AP or Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp
Only from 1648 AD:
Downgrade warships to frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Sh(F),Wb(O),Art(S)]. 1/4-3/4
Only 1648 AD to 1652 AD: ,
Irish Protestant or English county militia - 1/3 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, 2/3 Sh (I) @ 5 AP. ;4/1 0-12
Only from 1652 AD:
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Only in West Indies 1654 AD to 1655 AD:
Reduce horse to - 1
Increase firelocks to - 1 per 3 Sh (O)
Downgrade all pikes to half-pikes - Pk (F) @ 24 AP if general, 4 AP if not. 1-5 per 4 Sh
Snipers with fowling pieces - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-1
This covers the main army of Parliament from the creation of the "New Model Army" until the demobilisation of the
Northern Association and then the armies of Parliament and Commonwealth until the restoration of the monarchy
in 1660. It therefore covers the last part of the English Civil War, the Worcester campaign, the Cromwellian
invasions of Scotland and Ireland, the 1st Dutch War of 1652-1654 and the Hispaniola campaign of 1654-1655. The
New Model was formed by amalgamating the armies of the Earl of Essex, of Waller and of Manchester's Eastern
Association under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax, a young general with no political axe to grind who was
not only a good organiser and tactician, but a superbly energetic commander in battle. All other previous
generals were supposed to retire, but no adequate substitute could be found for Cromwell as overall commander
of the cavalry and he succeeded Fairfax as C-in-C when the latter retired into private life in 1650. The
backbone of the New Model cavalry was provided by the Ironsides of the Eastern Association and the remainder
were quickly brought up to the same exacting standard. The infantry were far more ordinary and included many ex-
Royalists. Inferior troops included the local Protestant forces in Ireland and the county militia. The minimum
marked * applies only if more than 8 elements of musketeers are used. New Model foot and dragoons were
issued red coats except for the small original number of firelocks, whose coats were tawny. Breeches were to be
"grey or some other good colour". Headwear was a knitted monmouth cap. The pikemen were not issued with
armour and it is unlikely that it was retained from previous service with Waller or Manchester. Most officers
are unlikely to have worn uniform. Cavalry were not issued with uniform, which would have been largely
covered by their long-sleeved buff leather coats. They retained helmet and corslet, probably blackened. Carbines
were not on general issue. Associations of rural "clubmen" aided neither side in battle, so are disregarded. An
attempt in 1654 to seize Hispaniola from the Spanish failed, but Jamaica was captured instead.

24. IRISH CONFEDERATE 1641 AD - 1652 AD

Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Ally-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. ;' -?%Ap) 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-6
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 8-40
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per Sh (O)
Skirmishers with muskets or fowling pieces - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Antrim redshanks - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-14
Demi-culverins - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Only Ulster armies before 1646 AD:
Replace pikemen by kerns with darts or skean - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. All
Only Ulster armies:
Convert general or horse to lancers - Ln (I) @ 30 AP if general, 10 AP if not. 3-6
Only Munster army in 1647 AD:
Sub-general - Wb () @ 24 AP. 0-1
Only Ormonde's army from 1648 AD:
Upgrade C-in-C to English Royalist - Pi (F) @ 31 AP. *1
English Royalist horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 0-4
English Royalist musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. *4-8
English Royalist pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 0-2 per 4 English Sh (O)
English Royalist firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Pk.Sh]. 0-2
This covers Irish Catholic armies from the revolt of 1641 until the final surrenders to Cromwell. Ireland was contented
under Strafford as Lord Deputy, but after his execution, the large efficient army he had recruited was disbanded, its arms
stored in Dublin castle and the penal laws against Catholics rigorously enforced. The rebellion commenced with an
attempt to seize the castle which was betrayed and prevented by local forces. This left the Ulster rebels in particular
lacking weapons until 2,000 each of muskets and pikes and 400 pairs of pistols were brought by the Papal nuncio
in 1646. The Confederation of Kilkenny combined an extreme "Old Irish" (Gaelic) faction, mainly based in Ulster
under the command of the prudent and crafty Owen Roe O'Neill, with the Old English (so called because, although
Catholic, they had only been in Ireland 500 years) under the command of the brave and popular Thomas Preston.
Although both veterans of the Spanish army, these disliked and distrusted each other very nearly as much as they did
the enemy. Opposition was initially provided by the Royalist garrison of the Pale and by Scots settlers in Ulster,
with whom guerrilla war was waged with cold-blooded cruelty on both sides. It increased when a Scots Covenanter army
landed in 1642 to protect their co-religionists. At the end of the English Civil War in 1647, the Royalist commander
Ormonde surrendered the Pale to Parliament, saying he "preferred English rebels to Irish ones". This was a blunder, since
the King had come to an agreement behind his back with the Confederates, whom he was sent back to lead in 1648 as
Lord Lieutenant. He was joined by other ex-Royalist English, some of whom broke their paroles in so doing. For
instance, the defenders "massacred" at the storming of Drogheda were mostly English. Minima marked * apply only if
any English Royalists are used. Like Scots cavalry, Irish cavalry were handicapped by small weak horses. They were
originally unarmoured pistoleers and refused to charge Scots lancers unless they could be provided with corslets. Owen
Roe O'Neill instead re-armed at least some of his horse as lancers. Since he declined to accept Ormonde's authority,
lancers cannot be used with English Royalists. The few Irish dragoons had firelocks. Irish pikes were of full length,
which gave them a decisive advantage over Scots pikemen. Redshanks were bare-legged Catholic Scots from Antrim
and the Western Isles armed with sword and targe. They were commanded at Knocknanuss in 1647 by Montrose's
former subordinate Alasdair MacColla. Guns were drawn by oxen for lack of big horses. Irish frigates are mentioned
at Rosslare and at Wexford, where more were being built at its capture.

25. REGENCY AND FRONDE FRENCH 1649 AD - 1660 AD Cold. Ag 3.

WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-general - (F) @ 31 AP, (O) @ 30 AP or (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Chevaux legers - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 6-13
Downgrade caracoling chevaux legers to - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Carabins - LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-4
New foot - 1/6 to 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 6-24
Siege and field guns - up to 1/4 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest () @ 20 AP. 0-4
Only Fronde until 1652 AD:
Lorrainer horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 4-8
German foot - up to 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, rest Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-12
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Spanish allies - List: Low Countries Spanish (Book 1).
Only Royal Army:
Maison du Roi - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-6
Gendarmerie de France - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 1-4
Gardes - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-24
Vieux corps - 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 6-30
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only Royal Army in 1658 AD:
English New Model foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-18
English warships - Shp (O) @ 5 AP [Sh(F),Wb(O)]. 0-3
English frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Sh(F),Wb(O>]. 0-1
English sailors - Sh (F) @ 6 AP or Wb () @ 4 AP. 1 per Shp
This covers French annies from the end of the 30 Years War until Louis XIV became undisputed autocratic ruler
after the death of Cardinal Mazarin. It includes both the royal and rebel armies during the rebellion of the Fronde
and then the royal armies that afterwards fought the rebellion's Spanish ex-allies. C-in-Cs are classed as Pistols (F)
because both Turenne, the most prominent commander on the Royalist side, and Condd, the leader of the
Fronde, believed in charging at the gallop sword in hand. However, Marechal de Puysegur thought that the
caracole had lingered in some regiments until around 1670. The Maison du Roi at this time included 3 companies
each of gendarmes and chevaux legers and seem to have favoured firearms. The revived Gendarmerie de France
originated as volunteer gentry, but became a permanent part of later armies. They were tactically indistinguishable
from the chevaux legers. Carabins were still skirmishers. Gardes are the Gardes-Francaises and the Gardes-
Suisses. The vieux corps are the old infantry regiments of Picardie, Champagne, Piemont, Navarre and Normandie.
"New" regiments are those added during the 30 Years War or raised by the rebels. Many of them had no pikes or
had replaced some of their pikes with firelock fusils. Gardes pikemen had retained their corslets, but other pikemen
had discarded them. The favourite French infantry tactic was an impetuous attack combining pikemen with
musketeers advancing sword in hand. All English must be in the same command.
 ARMIES OF THE MOGHUL CONQUEST OF INDIA 26. MOGHUL
1494 AD - 1700 AD
Until 1526 AD: Dry. Ag 2. Rv, H(S), H(G), O, RGo, M, D, Rd, BUA. Max N500
After 1526 AD: Tropical. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max Cx3
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-2
Timurid cavalry - up to 1/2 Si (S) @ 10 AP, rest Si () @ 8 AP. 10-32
Afghan or Baluchi archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-6
Afghan spearmen or other hillmen - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-6
Bunduqchis - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-12
Araba or rahkala firearm wagons - WWg () @ 10 AP. 0-7
Pavises for bunduqchis or ropes connecting araba - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per Sh (I)
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-4
Wagon laager, thorn zariba and/or ditch to protect camp - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Only until 1507 AD:
Turkoman horse archers - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-8
Persian and/or Tajik militia - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-12
Only after 1556 AD:
Mount C-in-C on elephant or as Rajput prince - El (S) @ 44 AP or Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Mount other generals on elephant as - El (S) @ 44 AP. Any
Elephants - El (S) @ 24 AP or El (I) @ 16 AP. 2-4
Replace Timurid cavalry with mansabdar cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP. All
Zamindar cavalry - up to 1/2 Ln (I) @ 10 AP, rest LH () @ 5 AP. 0-24
Replace zamindar Ln (I) with Rajputs - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 0-1/2
Artillery of the stirrup - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Jezailachis - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Hindu dhali swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 A P. 0-1 per Sh
H i n d u a r c h e r s - B w ( I ) @ 3 A P. 1 - 3 p e r S h
Hindu levy spearmen and armed camp-followers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 1-10
Ahgun organ guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Rocketeers - Art (X) @ 10 AP. 1-4
Grenadiers and firework-throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Zamburak camel guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-6
Raft builders - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bw,Sh]. 0-3

Only in 1665 AD:

Maratha allies - List: Maratha.
This list covers the armies of the heirs of Timur-i-lenk from the accession of Babur. Transoxiana was finally lost
in 1506, but by then Babur had a new base in Afghanistan for his invasion of India. He took Delhi in 1526, but
it was lost by his successor Humayun in 1540 and recovered only in 1555. Akbar succeeded Humayun in 1556
and increased participation by Indians. He set up a breeding programme for elephants and trained them to
accept riders with firearms. Some wore extensive metal armour. They became the usual mount of the C-in-C
who rode in a seat with high armoured sides and a scarlet canopy, making himself, as a Persian put it, "a target for
everybody". Regular mansabdar cavalry were supplemented by irregulars of mixed quality led by chieftains such as
Hindu zamindars. Mansabdar cavalry typically carried lance and bow, wore metal armour and rode barded
horses. Hindu zamindar cavalry lacked bows, relied on lance or javelin and used textile or no armour for man
and horse. Moghul artillery outshot Hindu rockets and was aided by firingis "foreign guns", probably hand
firearms. Of these, bunduqchis were armed with matchlocks like European calivers. A longer sniping weapon
also in use was later called a jezail. The ruler's personal horse-drawn "Artillery of the stirrup" must be in the C-in-
C's command. Other mobile artillery and war carts were hauled by oxen. War carts could advance interspersed with
bunduqchis carrying pavises. Baggage was carried on camels and ox-carts.

27. MUSLIM INDIAN 1494 AD - 1687 AD

Tropical. Ag 2. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, D, Rd, BUA. Max CxlO
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-2
Guard, royal mamluks and jagir cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 7-24
Horse archers - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Elephants and escorts - El () @ 20 AP. 2-4
Upgrade elephants carrying arquebusiers to - El (S) @ 24 AP. 0-1
Hindu dhali swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Hindu paik javelinmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-4
Hindu archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-20
Jezailachis - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Rocketeers - Art (X) @ 10 AP. 0-4
Grenadiers and firework throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-3
Camp followers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 1-10
Only Sher Shah from 1531 AD to 1545 AD:
Picked archers and bunduqchis - up to 1/2 Bw (O) @ 5 AP, rest Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Earthen ramparts to defend camp - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
River fleet - Bts (O) @ 2 AP [Bw(I)]. 0-6
Only after 1646 AD:
Bunduqchis - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Maratha allies - List: Maratha.
This list covers the Sultanate of Delhi until 1526, the army of Sher Shah 1531-45, the Bahmani Sultanate until 1527 and
the latter's successor Deccan sultanates until 1687. Unlike Hindu armies, Muslim armies had cavalry as their main arm.
Elephants carrying their fighting crew in howdahs advanced in the centre of the army in front of the Sultan to disrupt
enemy cavalry. They were accompanied by escort infantry to prevent enemy foot interfering. A minority of the
elephants of the Bahmani Sultanate were armoured and carried 4 matchlockmen. Most infantry were Hindu archers.
Although most of the cavalry were of Afghan descent, unassimilated Afghans were no longer recruited. Sher Shah had
a particular distrust of them. Sher Shah was the first to organise massed bodies of firearm infantry, inspired by those he
had seen in Moghul service.

28. HINDU INDIAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Rajputs: Tropical. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, D, BUA.
Others: Tropical. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max Cx8
C-in-C on elephant - El (I) @ 36 AP. 1
Sub-general - El (I) @ 36 AP. 0-2
Ally-general - El (I) @ 26 AP. 0-2
Elephants - El (I) @ 16 AP. 4-7
Upgrade elephants to - El (O) @ 30 AP if ally-, 40 AP if other general, 20 AP if not. All/0
Guard cavalry - Ln (I) @ 10 AP. 1-3
Scout cavalry - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Other cavalry - LH () @ 5 AP. 2-12
Upgrade non-guard cavalry to Muslim mercenaries - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-4
Dhali swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 2-9
Archers - up to 1/3 Bw (O) @ 5 AP, rest Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 12-30
Paik javelinmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-8
Grenadiers and firework throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 1-4
Rocketeers - Art (X) @ 10 AP. 3-6
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Levy spearmen or armed camp followers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 2-12

30
Only if Vijayanagar after 1510 AD or other states after 1540 AD:
Arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Only if Rajputs:
Reclassify C-in-C as - Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 0-1
Replace sub-general with Rajput ally-general - Ln (F) @ 21 AP or El (I) @ 26 AP. All
Replace elephants other than generals' with Rajput lancers - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. All
Replace all cavalry except scouts with Rajput lancers - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. All
This covers large independent Hindu states not subject to the Sultanate of Delhi or the Moghuls, in the south
especially Orissa until 1568 and Vijayanagar, and in the north, the Rajputs. Good horses were difficult to obtain
in southern India, but elephants plentiful, so armies relied mostly on these, foot archery and skirmishing.
Vijayanagar's elephants are described both as having a howdah crew of 3 and as having 4 men fighting to each
side. Only scouting Hindu cavalry used bows and even the best Hindu cavalry had mostly quilted armour for man
and horse. Many are depicted completely unarmoured. Indian rockets had explosive heads and were either
launched by hand as if throwing a spear, or in the case of the largest, fired along the ground. The Rajputs were
conquered by the Moghuls after a titanic battle at Khanua in 1527, but then given privileged status, all their princes
being classed as mansabdars and some commanding Moghul armies. They remained generally loyal until
Aurangzeb's centralising policies provoked rebellions from 1679 onward. Their greatest strength lay in lancer
cavalry who charged fiercely calling on Kali (the goddess of death) and wearing yellow (the colour of death and
of royalty). They wore extensive metal armour. Clan rivalry was endemic, hence the classification of ally-generals.

29. MARATHA 1646 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, RGo, D, BUA. Max Cx6
C-in-C - El (I) @ 36 AP or Si (F) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si (F) @ 28 AP, Si (I) @ 25 AP or LH () @ 25 AP. 1-2
Paga - Si (F) @ 8 AP. 3-23
Silhadars - all Si (I) @ 5 AP or all LH () @ 5 AP. 3 more than paga
Ekas and pindaris - LH () @ 5 AP. 4-8
Mavle guards - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Skirmishing matchlockmen - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Skirmishing slingers and archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. *2-6
Spearmen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP or Hd (O) @ 1 AP. *6-16
Pathans - Wb (O) @ 4 AP or Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Rocketeers - Art (X) @ 10 AP. *2-6
Shutarnal camel guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 1-4
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
This covers the Maratha (or Mahratta) confederacy of the Deccan from Shivaji's revolt. He could initially wage only
guerilla war, but success brought rewards and by the 1660's he was a sought-after ally. Formal taxes partly
replaced dependence on chauth (tribute/blackmail) from 1665 and he had himself crowned in 1674. The
Marathas were famous for their swift cavalry. Paga were paid and armed by the state, bold, but faster than
Moghul mansabdars. Silhadars were paid and officered, but self-equipped, and ekas were volunteers. Both were
armed with swords, plus a wild mix of lances, bows or matchlocks. They were described as being rag-a-muffins on
ill-favoured scrawny horses, wearing turban, shorts or loin cloth, mantle and sometimes a shirt. Officers were
marginally neater. Their sole protection was a smoothly lacquered conical shield able to turn a pistol ball.
Pindaris were brigands under hereditary leaders who pillaged cruelly far beyond the borders and moved fast to
avoid infuriated pursuers who impaled, flayed or burned the few they caught. They attended battles for the
looting. Camel guns were mobile, but not very dangerous. A few enormous bombards were kept in fortresses and
others accompanied the army drawn by elephants. Shivaji did not use war elephants, instead saying of his foot
"These are my elephants". The best were Mavle from his home hills, some hasham militia called up for the
campaigning season. Maratha matchlocks "carried much further and infinitely truer" than European firelocks.
Minima marked * apply only if any foot or train except camel guns are used.

INDEX
For details of other WRG wargames rules, army lists and reference books, send your stamped addressed envelope
or International Reply Coupons to: W.R.G, The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks, London Road, Devizes, Wilts SN10 2
ER, UK. Phone credit card orders for air or surface mail delivery to 01380 724558. Phone list suggestions or
comments to Phil Barker on 0121-472-6207.
Special thanks are due to Richard Brzezinski, Ian Gray and Duncan Head for indispensable help.
Astrakhan. Khanate of, Page 10
Baden. 17
Bahmani Sultanate. 30
Bavarian. 16
Bishops' War English. 21
Bishops' War Scots Royalist. 21
Bohemian. 17
Brandenburg. 17
Brunswick. 17
Buryat. 15
Catholic League. 16
Chukchi. 15
Circassian. 14
Cossack. 13
Covenanter. Scots, 22
Christian IV Danish. 18
Confederate. Irish, 27
Chukchi. 15
Crimean Tartar. 10
Danish. Early, 6
Danish. Christian IV, 18
Deccan Sultanates. 30
Delhi. Sultanate of, 30
Don Cossack. 13
Early Danish. 6
Early Gustavian Swedish. 12
Early Vasa Swedish. 7
English, Bishops' War. 21
English Civil War Parliamentarian. 25
English Civil War Royalist. 24
English New Model Army. 26
Free Cossack. 13
French Thirty Years War. 20
French. Regency and Fronde. 28
Fronde. 28
Georgian. 14
German Catholic. 16
German Protestant. 17
Golden Horde. 10
Hesse-Kassel. 17
Hindu Indian. 30
Jagiellonian Polish and Lithuanian. 9
Kazan. Khanate of, 10
Khanate of Astrakhan 10
Khanate of the Crimea. 10
Khanate of Kazan. 10
Khanate of Sibir. 10
Khanty. 15
Khmelnitsky's Ukrainian rebellion. 13
Komi. 15
Korak. 15
Imperialist. Page 16
Indian. Hindu, 30
Indian. Muslim, 30
Irish Confederate. 27
Lithuanian. Jagiellonian Polish and, 9
Mansi. 15
Mahratta. 31
Maratha. 31
Moghul. 29
Montrose Royalist. Scots, 23
Muslim Indian. 30
New Model Army. 26
Nogai Tartar. 10
Orissa. 30
Ostyak. 15
Palatinate. 17
Parliamentarian. English Civil War, 25
Polish and Lithuanian. Jagiellonian, 9
Polish-Lithuanian Rzeczpospolita. 11
Rajput. 30
Royalist. Bishops' War Scots, 21
Royalist. English Civil War, 24
Royalist. Montrose Scots, 23
Russian Traditional. 8
Rzeczpospolita. Polish-Lithuanian, 11
Samoyed. 15
Saxon. 17
Saxe-Weimar. 17
Scandinavian Union. 5
Scots Royalist. Bishops'Wars, 21
Scots Covenanter. 22
Scots. Montrose Royalist, 23
Sibir. Khanate of, 10
Siberian Tribes 15
Siberian Cossack. 13
Sultanate of Delhi. 30
Swedish. Early Gustavan, 12
Swedish. Early Vasa, 7
Swedish Thirty Years War. 19
Tartar. 10
Terek Cossack. 13
Tungus 15
Ukrainian Cossack. 13
Union. Protestant, 17
Union. Scandinavian, 5
Vijayanagar. 30
Vogul. 15
Yakut. 15
Yukagir. 15
Zaporozhian Cossack. 13

Zyrian. 15
 D.B.R. ARMY LISTS
For use with the De Bellis Renationis Wargames Rules

BOOK3
ARMIES OF THE
EASTWARD COLONIAL EXPANSION
AND OF
THE EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT

Compiled by PHIL BARKER

WARGAMES RESEARCH GROUP

JANUARY 1997

D.B.R. ARMY LISTS

For use with the De Bellis Renationis Wargames Rules

BOOK3
ARMIES OF THE EASTWARD COLONIAL EXPANSION
AND OF THE EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT

Compiled by PHIL BARKER

All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the
copyright holder.

(c) Wargames Research Group November 1996.

The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks, London Road, Devizes, Wiltshire SN10 2ER
Printed in England

WARGAMES RESEARCH GROUP JANUARY 1997

 D.B.R ARMY LISTS BOOK3
These lists are intended for use with our "De Bellis Renationis" wargames rules for Renaissance Warfare, more
familiarly known as DBR. While mainly intended for competition games, they also provide a general guide to armies'
troop classification, proportions and numbers for scenario games and wargames campaigns, especially when used in
conjunction with more detailed sources such as the W.R.G army handbooks.
They follow the general form of the DBM lists, except that, instead of the armies being arranged in chronological
order, each is grouped together with its main historical opponents. It is often a criticism of competition gaming that it
necessarily encourages unhistorical matches. Our army grouping should enable competition organisers to arrange that
at least the first round of a "Swiss Chess" competition matches most armies with a contemporary from the same group,
while still permitting enough meetings with unusual opponents to provide variety.
The lists are primarily intended to produce 300 AP to 500 AP armies which closely simulate their real life prototypes,
while still allowing sufficient flexibility to cover historical variations during the period and minor differences of
opinion or personal preference. They are less permissive than some previous renaissance lists which did not restrict
choice by year within a longer period.
A list usually includes about 200 AP of compulsory troops. Unless otherwise specified, the total value of troops listed
as able to be used together is normally around 600 AP, excluding naval elements, artificial defences and allied
contingents; more where historical armies were unusually varied. This will usually allow the army's largest historical
battle to be refought in condensed scale. If you wish to refight such battles in normal scale as a multi-player game, for
instance as a public demonstration at a convention, you must multiply the listed minima and maxima by 4 for cavalry
and foot and by 2 for all other troops other than pontooneers, then expect it to take much longer to complete. Where a
historical army was small, its list specifies that only normal scale should be used in historical refights and quotes the
maximum army size provided for.
300-400 AP is a typical army size for games with 1 player on each side. Larger games really require at least 2
players on each side, ideally 1 player per command. Each army must include a commander-in-chief (C-in-C) and usually at
least 1 other general, who may be a loyal subordinate or independently enough minded or so fractious as to be classed
as an ally. It must also include 2 baggage elements per command, all deployed with the same command.
There is also provision for much smaller games using a single command and only one general. For these, halve the
cost of the general and divide all minima and maxima by 3, rounding up to the nearest whole element. A 100 AP
condensed scale army is very similar to a DBA army and can be used for the same kind of quick games on a small
board.
ALLIED CONTINGENTS
These are specified by reference to their own list. Each such contingent must include 1 general and 2 baggage
elements, loss of which affects only the contingent and not the army joined. An allied contingent's general can be
his list's C-in-C or any of its other generals, but is always costed and behaves as an ally-general. Unless stated
otherwise in a particular list, he commands only his own contingent and this can include only compulsory troop types.
It must have at least a 1/4 of the normal minima for each such type and not exceed 1/3 of the maxima, or 1 element,
whichever is greater. Unless a list specifies otherwise, only 1 allied contingent of each nationality can be used. Allied
contingents must be of the same year as the army they join.
NAVAL
Naval elements each replace a land element of the types that follow it in square brackets and disembark as that
element. The AP quoted is for the naval element, the land element being paid for separately. AP spent on naval
elements are wasted if they have no access to the table. Their landing troops can then still be deployed, being
assumed to have disembarked before the battle. The elements allowed represent a small squadron co-operating with the
army, not the main fleet.
CLIMATE, AGGRESSION, TERRAIN AND ARMY SIZE
The 2nd line of each list specifies the army's home climate, its aggression factor, codes for the types of terrain
feature it can choose from if the defender, and a note of any unusual army size.

The terrain permitted to a defending army is based either on that of its nation's heartland or its capital or on that of a
foreign base of operations. Terrain codes are:
Waterway suitable for ships, such as the sea, lakes or great rivers. WW
Ordinary rivers. Rv
Hill with some or all slopes steep. H(S)
Hill or lesser rise with only gentle slopes. H(G)
Woods. Wd
Orchards or olive or palm groves.
Vineyards. V
Small fields enclosed by hedges, walls or irrigation ditches. E
Rough going, such as moderately boggy or rocky ground or brush. RGo
Inland marsh not on a river. M
Non-coastal sand dunes. D
Roads or frequently used tracks. Rd
Built-up areas, such as villages or towns. BUA
Ice, if waterways and rivers can freeze solid enough to bear troops. I
If some types listed for an army are underlined, this means that they are compulsory. Even if not listed, a single patch
of coastal dunes or marsh can always be used if in contact with a waterway, or a single patch of marsh if in contact
with a river.

Any notation of unusual army size starts with "Max". This can be followed by:
N, meaning that the listed maxima will reproduce the largest historical army in normal scale, followed by the AP of
the largest wargames army for which it is considered suitable.
multiplied by a number, which means that at condensed scale listed maxima must be multiplied by that number to
reproduce the largest reported historical army and that those maxima before multiplication will provide a 500 AP
wargames army with some margin for choice.
No notation means that at condensed scale the maxima will reproduce the largest historical army and that the maxima
will provide a 500 AP wargames army with some margin for choice.
FORTIFICATIONS
An army allowed a BUA can provide it with artificial defences. Otherwise, these can only be used if specified by
the army's list. Note that the costs of defences for a BUA and the extra costs of any gateways, although not
mentioned in lists, must still be paid. Defences specified as for camps must rest both ends on a table edge and
contain all the army's baggage. Any AP spent on BUA defences are wasted if the terrain includes no BUA or if you
are the invader. Troops which are specified by lists as to defend camps or BUA must remain within these.

TROOP TYPE ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations are used for troop types in these lists:
Ln = Lancers. Dr = Dragoons. Art =Artillery. Shp = Ships.
Pi = Pistols. Pk = Pikes. Pon =Pontooneers. Gal = Galleys.
Si = Sipahis. Sh = Shot. WWg =War Wagons. Bts = Boats.
LH = Light Horse. Bd = Blades. El =Elephants.
Cm = Camelry. Bw = Bows. Bge =Baggage.
Sk = Skirmishers.
Wb = Warband.
Hd = Hordes.
PO =Portable obstacle.
FO =Fixed obstacle.
F =Fortification.
ARMIES INCLUDED

ARMIES OF THE EASTERN COLONIAL EXPANSION

I Portuguese Colonial. 1494 AD to 1700 AD Page 5
II Sebastianic Portuguese. 1578 AD 6
III Maghrebi. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 7
IV Tuareg. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 8
V West Sudanese. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 8
VI Tupi or Tapuya. 1494 AD to 1692 AD 9
VII West African Forest Peoples. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 9
VIII East African Pagan. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 10
IX Arab. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 11
X Zanj. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 12
XI Somali. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 13
XII Abyssinian. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 14
XIII Wadj. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 15
XIV Aiwa. 1494 AD to 1504 AD 15
XV Funj Empire. 1504 AD to 1700 AD 16
XVI Shaiqiya. 1660 AD to 1700 AD 16
XVII Indonesian or Malay. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 17
XVIII Vietnamese. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 18
XIX Siamese, Burmese, Laotian or Cambodian/Khmer. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 19
XX Dutch Colonial. 1602 AD to 1700 AD 20
XXI Sinhalese. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 21
XXII Polynesian or Melanesian. 1494 AD to 1700 AD 21

ARMIES OF THE EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT

XXIII Restoration British. 1661 AD to 1688 AD 22
XXIV Dutch United Provinces. 1649 AD to 1688 AD 23
XXV Scots Western Covenanter Rebel. 1679 AD 24
XXVI English Monmouth Rebel. 1685 AD 24
XXVII Scots Jacobite. 1689 AD to 1690 AD 25
XXVIII Scots Constitutional. 1689 AD to 1690 AD 25
XXIX Irish Jacobite. 1688 AD to 1691 AD 26
XXX Williamite Anglo-Dutch. 1688 AD to 1700 AD 27
XXXI Louis XIV French. 1661 AD to 1700 AD 28
XXXII Later Spanish. 1660 AD to 1700 AD 29
XXXIII Braganza Portuguese. 1640 AD to 1700 AD 29
XXXIV Savoyard. 1648 AD to 1700 AD 30
XXXV Later Venetian Colonial. 1645 AD to 1700 AD 30
XXXVI Later Ottoman Turk. 1645 AD to 1700 AD 31
XXXVIILater Imperialist. 1649 AD to 1700 AD 32
XXXVIIIHungarian Rebel. 1670 AD to 1685 AD 33
XXXIX Later Bavarian. 1649 AD to 1700 AD 34
XL Later Saxon. 1649 AD to 1700 AD 34
XLI Brandenburg-Prussia. 1646 AD to 1700 AD 35
XLII Later Minor German States. 1649 AD to 1700 AD 35
XLIII Later Danish. 1649 AD to 1700 AD 36
XLIV Caroline Swedish. 1649 AD to 1700 AD 37
XLV Russian Conscript. 1648 AD to 1700 AD 38
Later Polish. 1632 AD to 1700 AD 39
 ARMIES OF THE EASTWARD COLONIAL EXPANSION

1. PORTUGUESE COLONIAL 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 3 until 1600, then 1. WW, Rv, Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Ln (F) @ 31 AP or Bd (O) @ 27 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Bd (O) @ 27 AP or Bd (F) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Portuguese civilisados foot - up to 1/2 Bw (O) @ 5 AP, rest Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 10-48
African slave or Arab infantry - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 6-12
Skirmishers - up to 1/2 Sk (O) @ 3 AP, rest (I) @ 2 AP. 0-5
Cannon - up to 1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Nao - Shp (S) @ 6 AP |Bd, Bw, Sh, Sk). 0-2
Caravels - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Bd, Bw, Sh, Sk), or hulks - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any]. 0-3
Fregatas, galleota, terradas or fusta - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Bd, Bw, Sh, Sk]. 0-2

Only in Brazil:
Tupi allies - List: Tupi or Tapuya.

Only in Morocco until 1660 AD:

Garrison ginetes - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-4

Only in East Africa:

East African allies - Lists: Either Zanj or East African Pagan (Zimba, Segeju, Monomotapa).
Only in India and Ceylon after 1510 AD:
Indian lascarins with arquebuses - Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Indian allies - List: Hindu Indian (Book 2).

Only in Macau or Indonesia after 1520 AD:

Local Chinese - up to 1/4 crossbow or firearm Sk (O) @ 3 AP, rest Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-12

Only in Indonesia from 1520 AD to 1605 AD:

Moluccan allies - List: Indonesian or Malay.

Only after 1520 AD:

Replace civilisados Bw (O) crossbowmen with arquebusiers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 1/2-all
Only after 1550 AD:
Replace all civilisados foot with arquebusiers - Sh (F) @ 26 AP if general, 6 AP if not. All
Replace skirmishers with musketeers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. Any
African slave powder-pot throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Only after 1620 AD:
Replace civilisados with degredados - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. All
Replace nao with smaller but heavier-gunned warships - Shp (O) @ 5 AP [Sh, Bd|. All
This army provides a link between the others of this section. While Columbus was acquiring a few unprofitable
islands for Spain, the Portuguese were seeking another route to the fabulous east down the west coast of Africa,
establishing fortified trading stations and colonies as they went. In 1500, they discovered the optimum route to India
using the prevailing winds via Morocco, Brazil, the Cape of Good Hope and East Africa, and then pushed on to
reach the Moluccas in 1512, China in 1513 and Japan in 1543. After beating a combined Gujerati/Mamluk fleet at
Malabar, they established settlements at Ormuz in Persia, Goa in India and Malacca in the East Indies, giving them
a near monopoly of the rich eastern trade. The alternative route across the Pacific via Cape Horn found for Spain by
Magellan in 1520 soon proved economically inferior. Although Philip II of Spain became ruler of Portugal in 1580,
the two colonial empires remained separate. Portuguese colonial soldiers were badly paid, un-uniformed, slothful, ill-
disciplined, rapacious, but very tough. Their usual tactic was a single volley followed by a wild charge and (usually)
the opponents routing. However, a contemporary remarked that "just as they exceed all other nations
by the speed of their advances, so they surpass them in the celerity of their retreats". Initially armed with
crossbows or a mixture of swords, halberds, boarding axes and bladed half-pikes, they were later armed almost
exclusively with the arquebus, plus a few muskets. African slave troops with sword and buckler were invaluable,
and the African heroine wielding a halberd at Macau in 1662 deserves a mention. Skirmishers include bandeirantes
"adventurers", mamelucos "half-breeds" and natives. Initially armed with crossbows or native bows, they gradually
replaced all the former and some of the latter with arquebuses. Until 1620, even the biggest nao had only relatively
light guns, though many soldiers. By 1620, soldiers were mainly convict degredados and their reputation so poor that
Indians, Spanish and Dutch called the Portuguese "chickens".

2. SEBASTIANIC PORTUGUESE 1578 AD

Warm. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, O, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max 1/2N500
C-in-C (Dom Sebastian) - Ln (S) @ 35 AP or Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-general (Duke d'Aviero) - Ln (S) @ 35 AP, Ln (F) @ 31 AP or LH (O) @ 25 AP. 1
Moorish ally-general (Mulai Mohammed) - Si (O) @ 18 AP. *1
Noble cavalry - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 2-4
Tangiers garrison ginetes - LH () @ 5 AP. 2-4
Moorish allied cavalry - Si (O) @ 8 AP or LH () @ 5 AP. 1-6
Portuguese aventuros - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. f
4-8
Tangier garrison arquebusiers - Sh (F) @ 4 . ( 4;,; 2-4
Portuguese conscripts - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 16-32
Upgrade conscripts stiffened by gentry volunteers to - Pk (F) @ 4 . or 1/4
Portuguese arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2-4
Spanish tercio foot: 1/2 pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 1/2 arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 6-12
German mercenary pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 8-16
German arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 3 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 German Pk
Papal Italian mercenaries - Pk (I) or Sk (O) @ 3 AP, or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 3-6
Artillery - 1/3-1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art () @ 20 AP. 2-4
War wagons - WWg () @ 10 AP. 2-4
Nao-Shp(S)@6 AP|Pk(I)|. 0-2
Caravels - Shp (F) @ 4 AP |Pk (I)f. 0-3
This is the army of the young Dom Sebastian of Portugal that perished at El-Ksar el-Kebir in the "Battle of the Three
Kings". Sebastian's death left his uncle Philip II of Spain as heir to the Kingdom, which he seized 18 months later
against minimal resistance. Sebastian's first plan was to take his army to Goa to carve out an Indian empire, but he
had settled for an expedition to Morocco to dethrone Abd el-Malek, a usurper fostering Turkish corsairs, and just
possibly restore Mulai Mohammed. The army was based on Tangiers. Sebastian's chivalric bent makes it likely that
his entourage included men-at-arms. Aventuros were hot-blooded gentry armed with pikes who formed the centre of
the front line with the Germans on their right and the Spaniards and Italians on their left. Each were winged by
shot, the aventuros by veteran arquebusiers of the Tangiers garrison. In the battle, the aventuros charged faster than
the Germans and Spanish to break the opposing front line, but were driven back by the second. The other
Portuguese foot were mostly conscripts armed exclusively with pikes. 2 regiments formed the flanks of a hollow
square with the baggage inside and were protected by columns of wagons filled with arquebusiers on each flank. The
rear face was formed by 2 more regiments stiffened with volunteers, with a battalion of arquebusiers between. The
noble cavalry was deployed to the left of the square and the Tangier garrison horse was to its right, supported by the
few followers of Mulai Mohammed who wore red caps to distinguish them. The artillery had 1 gun at the rear of the
square and the rest in front of it. Sebastian expected his ally to attract considerably more support than he did, so we
have allowed a large variation in the maximum number of Moorish elements to simulate this. A Moorish general
must command all and only Moors. The item marked * only applies if more than 1 element of Moors are used. Mulai
drowned fleeing prematurely across a river, Sebastian found death charging into the enemy and the victor died before
the end of the battle, poisoned by the commander of his Turkish troops. An army list based on a single battle is
necessarily rigid and the historical army was an awkward size. Staying close to the minima will allow a historical
refight in condensed scale, but maxima must be doubled for normal scale.
3. MAGHREBI 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Tripoli: Dry. Ag 0. WW, H(G), O, M, RGo, BUA.
Others: Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si (O) @ 28 AP or Wb (S) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Sipahis (with lances but no bows) - Si () @ 8 AP. 6-34
Tribal cavalry - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-80
Spearmen - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 20-40
Skirmishers with crossbows and arquebuses - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-6
Naffatun - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Corsair galleys and galliots - Gal (F) @ 3 AP |Bd (F)|. 0-3
Corsairs - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 1 per Gal
Coastal bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Only before 1570 AD:
Replace tribal spearmen with archers - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-12
Only from 1530 AD:
Upgrade skirmishers with long accurate firearms - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. All
Sakers and/or culverins - Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Only if Morocco from 1570 AD to 1602 AD:
Mounted arquebusiers - LH (1) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per 4 Si
Replace spearmen with Morisco and other arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 8-25
Only if Morocco in 1578 AD:
Reclassify C-in-C in litter with escort of peiks, solaks and halberdiers - WWg (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Reclassify sub-general as - LH () @ 25 AP. 0-1
Only if Tripoli:
Bedouin scouts - Cm (F) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Bedouin warriors - Cm () @ 6 AP. 0-9
Only if Algeria until 1552 AD:
Italian and other renegades - Bw (O) crossbowmen @ 5 AP or Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-14
Only if Algeria from 1519 AD to 1540 AD and 1543 AD to 1551 AD or Morocco in 1610 AD: Spanish allies - List: Either
Spanish Imperial (Book 1) or Low Countries Spanish (Book 1).
Only from 1533 AD Algeria, 1551 AD Tripoli or 1574 AD Tunisia, or in 1545 AD if Morocco:
Janissaries - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 3-8
Only Tunisia:
Upgrade C-in-C with mamluk bodyguard to - Si (S) @ 10 AP. ' 5 A f, , \

This covers the armies of the "Barbary States" of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli. At this time the Moroccan
ports were occupied by Portuguese, Spanish and, from 1661 to 1684, English enclaves. The most typical tactic was a
fierce initial cavalry charge exploited by agile infantry who easily leapt obstacles. The Moroccans were especially
adept at concealing ambushes in the most unlikely places. Janissary garrisons were sent out by the Ottomans as they
took control over Algeria, Tripoli and Tunisia. Moroccan armies used massed arquebusiers, some Andalusian exiles but
also Christian renegades and Turks, to defeat Dom Sebastian's Portuguese army in 1578 and wreck the Songhai
Empire in 1591. The many tribal cavalry present in 1578 had little effect, possibly due to lack of space. Later
armies made less use of firearms. The negro "Abid" foot relied on by Morocco after 1673 were similar to previous
spearmen and skirmishing gunmen. Incendiary hand grenades were effective against the English garrison of Tangiers in
1678. Corsairs were armed with swords, bucklers, bows and a few crossbows and later some firearms, including pistols,
and half-pikes. Coastal bombards must be in the fortifications of a BUA on a waterway.
4. TUAREG 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Dry. Ag 4. RGo, D, O.
C-in-C - Cm (S) @ 29 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Cm (S) @ 29 AP. 0-2
Ihaggaren and Imrad camel warriors - Cm (S) @ 9 AP. 15-47
Camel scouts - Cm (F) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Imrad or mixed foot - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-40
Replace foot with Iklan skirmishers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 0-20
These dreaded inhabitants of the deep Sahara desert differed from their Arab counterparts in wearing veils and
having upper garments dyed with indigo in various shades. A Frenchman later wrote "To see a Tuareg war charge is to
feel complete and utter fear creep through one's body. Great serried squadrons of tall blue-veiled men mounted on
fast white camels crashing forward like a vast roller". Armies of 12,000 camelmen interfered in the Western Sudan.
The Ihaggaren aristocrats armed with short all-iron "allarh" lance, long straight "takouba" sword and long white oryx-
hide "lamt" shield raided, Imrad vassals with lance and/or javelin herded goats and camels or traded, and Iklan negro
serfs with javelins cultivated and smithed. All could have arm-daggers.

5. WEST SUDANESE 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Dry. Ag 0. Rv, H(G), either Wd or D, RGo, BUA.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP or Bd (F) @ 25 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si (O) @ 28 AP, LH (O) @ 25 AP or Bd (F) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Yan lifida - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-4
Yan kwarbai - Up to 1/2 Si (I) @ 5 AP, rest LH () @ 5 AP. 1-32
Zagi - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-20
Yam baka - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 48-80
Yam lifida baka - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-4
Yam assigiri - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-12
Yam fate-fate - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Plashed wood or scrub edge - FO @ 2 AP. 0-4
Palisade or thorn boma/zariba to protect baggage - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
0-2 Tuareg allied contingents - List: Tuareg.
Any except Songhai:
Yam bindiga - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-2
Only if Kanem or Bornu:
Replace yam baka with yam mashi - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 3/4-all
Only if Bornu 1570 AD to 1602 AD:
Tripolitanian "Turkish" mercenary arquebusiers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP or Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-8
The Western Sudan is the lightly wooded rolling grassland south of the Sahara desert. Its nations include Songhai until
its destruction by Morocco in 1591, Bornu, Kanem and the Hausa states. Yan lifida, including barde bodyguard,
were disciplined charging cavalry in mail and sometimes plate corslet and/or thick brightly-patterned quilts for man
and horse. They were armed with Tuareg lance, sword and shield. Yan kwarbai varied between mostly unarmoured
men on good horses widi long Tuareg or smaller round shields using short lances and/or javelins, and Shuwa in loin
cloths riding bareback on scrubby ponies with javelins or throwing irons, few shields and sometimes spear. Zagi foot
supported them and resupplied javelins. Yam baka used weak bows firing unflighted poisoned arrows. Yam lifida
baka added quilts, shield and spear. Yam mashi used javelins and shield. Yam fate-fate had long sword and shield.
Yam assigiri held off cavalry with long iron spears. Yam bindiga had firearms with a disproportionate effect due to
noise and smoke. Black-powder muskets were later preferred to modern rifles as more bang for the buck! Rebels could
lack cavalry. Generals must be cavalry if more than 1 cavalry element is used
6. TUPI OR TAPUYA 1494 AD - 1692 AD
Tropical. Ag 2. WW, Rv, Wd, RGo. Max N500
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Wb () @ 24 AP. 1-3
Warriors - up to 1/2 Bw (S) @ 7 AP, rest Wb () @ 4 AP. 48-120
Scouts - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-3
Canoes - Bts (O) @ 2 AP [Wb, Bw, Sk]. 0-2
Portuguese allies - List: Portuguese Colonial.
Only from 1575 AD if Tupi or 1645 AD if Tapuytf:
Skirmishers with javelin or bow - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-20
Re-arm skirmishers with firearms - Sk () @ 3 AP. 1/5-all
Cannon - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
The Tupi tribes whom the Portuguese found in possession of coastal Brazil were themselves relatively recent
arrivals, having emigrated from inland. Europeans describe them as fighting in armies of several thousand, and as
ferocious cannibals. They fought with long powerful bows and hardwood clubs, with which, after an initial barrage of
arrows, they charged "like bulls". It was said that they knew no other tactics until a late 16th century English visitor
taught them to lay ambushes. Their canoes each carried up to 50 men. The Tupi resisted the Portuguese until the
decisive defeat of their largest tribe, the Potiguar, in 1601. They fought for the Portuguese in 1634-54, while the
similar Tapuya fought against them with the Dutch. The Tupi had acquired firearms from the French by 1575. These
are colourful armies with bright feathers and face paint.

7. WEST AFRICAN FOREST PEOPLES 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 0. WW, Rv, Wd, M, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Wb (I) @ 23 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Wb (I) @ 23 AP. 1-2
Warriors - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 50-155
Scouting or skirmishing archers - Sk (I) @ 2 A P. 0-6
Canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP |Wb, Sk|. 0-6
Stockades - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Portuguese allies - List: Portuguese Colonial.
Only after 1658 AD:
Re-arm warriors with dane guns - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-1/3
European renegades and their servants - Sh (S) @ 7 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
This includes the Kingdoms of Ashanti, Yoruba, Benin, Ngola, Kongo, Dahomey from 1600, and also the cannibal
Jaga who emerged from the interior to attack Kongo in 1568-73, only to be defeated by the Portuguese. Wars among
these peoples were fought mainly to obtain slaves for trading with Europeans or in Dahomey for human sacrifice.
The favourite tactic was an ambush from thick cover and 19th century observers thought the West Africans an
excellent example of the truism that warlike instincts vary inversely as the density of the terrain. An exception lay
in the determined defence of stockades until outflanked. The usual weapons were a large but light shield, javelins
and a short sword. Hunting bows were used by scouts and skirmishers, who in war were allowed to use poisoned
arrows. From 1658, very large numbers of cheap flintlocks "dane guns" were imported, several being exchanged
by Dutch traders for a single slave. They were employed in war only for ineffectual skirmishing, with great
quantities of powder being expended to produce a very few casualties. The Kingdom of Kongo had been Christian
since 1490. Neither this nor its 29 European mercenaries saved it from being destroyed by the Portuguese after
the battle of Ambuila in 1665. A contemporary picture shows massed ranks of spearmen flying cross-emblazoned flags
and preceded by a few archers. The famous Dahomey amazons were in existence before 1734 and were then gun-armed
except for scouting bow girls.
8. EAST AFRICAN PAGAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD.
Monomotapa: Tropical. Ag 3. Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, BUA. Max Cx3
Zimba or Segeju: Tropical. Ag 4. Rv, H(G), RGo, BUA. Max Cx3
Dinka or Shilluk: Dry. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), RGo, M, D, BUA. Max Cx3
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Wb () @ 24 AP. 1-2
Warriors - Wb () @ 4 AP. 30-150
Youths with bows or javelins guarding herds or scouting - Sk (1) @ 2 AP. 0-6
Reclassify warriors as elders defending villages - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-4
Dry-stone wall or boma extension to protect cattle - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Only Monomotapa:
Upgrade generals to nobles - Wb (S) @ 25 AP. All
Replace warriors with vassal troops - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. , 0-1/3
Re-classify sub-general as Portuguese adventurer with slaves - Sh (F) @ 16 AP. (2-b 0-2
Only Zimba before 1590 AD:
Reclassify warriors as archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-1/3
Portuguese allies - List: Portuguese Colonial.
Only Dinka or Shilluk:
Downgrade generals and warriors to - Wb (1) @ 23 AP if general, 3 AP if not. All
Only Shilluk:
Dug-out canoes - Bts (I) @ 1 AP [Wb, Sk]. 0-5
This includes the Shona city-building Monomotapa kingdom of Zimbabwe, the Zimba and Segeju whose migration
threatened the Zanj cities, and the pagan nilotic peoples of the East Sudan such as the Shilluk and Dinka who resisted
the Funj Empire's expansion. Monomotapa is a Portuguese corruption of Mwene Mutapa "Great Pillager", which implies
an initially aggressive stance. They had now abandoned their earlier capital (now the ruins of Great Zimbabwe), but
their new cities were equally impressive stone complexes. Their nobles are described as wearing skins with tails trailing
on the ground as a sign of rank and wearing swords in gold-decorated wooden scabbards on their left. Other men had
spears or bows with good iron arrowheads. They were said to be "warlike men, as well as great traders".
Monomotapa controlled a number of vassal states, some of which fell into the hands of Portuguese adventurers who
recruited armies from them of 10-25,000 men. An adventurer sub-general can only command vassals or youths. A
Monomotapan allied contingent must be commanded by an adventurer and replace all warriors with vassals. The Zimba
were expanding from the rolling grasslands of the interior into the coastal plain and terrorising its inhabitants by
their ferocity and cannibalism. They are described as armed with bows, poisoned arrows and fire-hardened wooden
spears and carrying small wooden shields. In 1589, they were allied with by the Portuguese who used them to
capture Mombasa, after which they are said to have eaten the whole population except for a few dozen who jumped
into the sea to be shot by Portuguese arquebusiers or killed by sharks. They were shortly after taken in rear while
attacking Malindi by the Segeju, another warlike tribe (possibly Bantu) that was moving down the coast, and
destroyed. The nilotic Dinka and Shilluk each had stabbing spear, large hide shield and club, but their main weapons
were javelins which they drew up in formation to throw, the rear ranks hurling throwing sticks overhead as a high-
trajectory distraction. We assume that Monomotapan vassals were similar. The only modern East African people to use
the bow as their standard weapon are the Kamba, who themselves ascribe this to being recent immigrants from a forest
hunting environment. The Zimba may have been hunter/gardeners rather than pastoralists and needed human flesh for
lack of other portable food. We suggest including most Monomotapan and Zimba archer figures as rear ranks of the
warband. Modern pastoral peoples regard hunting with almost the same disdain as they do agriculture. For example,
the Masai limited archery to uncircumcised youths and to the elderly if defending their village. The option to reclassify
village defenders as bowmen is limited to elements initially deployed in a village. Unwalled villages should be
fortified with a fence or thorn boma. Village defences can have an extension to protect the cattle herd (baggage).

10
9. ARAB 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Coastal: Dry. Ag 3 if Omani, 0 if not. WW, H(S), H(G), , , RGo, BUA. Wd if Oman. Desert: Dry. Ag 2.
H(S), H(G), , E, RGo, D.
Bedouin cavalry - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-12
Bedouin on fast camels - Cm (F) @ 6 AP. 3-25
Bedouin on ordinary camels - Cm () @ 6 AP. 0-40
Bedouin foot with sword and spear or bow, or from 1517 matchlock - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-30
Bedouin skirmishers with bow - Sk (I) @ 2 AP, or crossbow - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-5
Bedouin skirmishers with sling or javelin - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-15

Only if army is entirely desert Bedouin:

Bedouin C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP, LH (O) @ 25 AP, or Cm (F) or (O) @ 26 AP. 1
Bedouin sub-general - As C-in-C. 0-2
Camel element including maiden in bridal dress in camel mirkab - Cm (S) @ 9 AP. *0-1
Herd of riderless black camels driven before army - Cm (S) @ 9 AP. *0-1
Purple banner of Ha'il and hereditary bearer - Cm (S) @ 9 AP or Si (S) @ 10 AP. *0-1
Reclassify cavalry as - Si (S) @ 10 AP. **0-l/2
Only if coastal state:
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP, Si (I) @ 25 AP, Bw (O) @ 25 AP, or Bd (O) @ 27 AP. 1
Sekhan archer bodyguard - Bw () @ 25 AP. 0-1
Sub-general - Si (S) @ 30 AP or Si (I) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Bedouin ally-general - Si (S) @ 20 AP, LH (O) @ 15 AP, or Cm (F) or () @ 16 AP. 0-1
Household, town or askari cavalry - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 2-10
Askari negro slave foot with sword and sometimes spear - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-6
Town militia, rioters or women, mainly with improvised weapons - Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 0-12
Mountain tribesmen with javelins or spear - Wb (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-24
Dhows - Shp (I) @ 3 AP |Bd, Bw, Sk, Bge]. 0-6
Only if Oman:
Upgrade mailed household cavalry with frontal lamellar barding to - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-2
Baluchi guardsmen - Bd () @ 7 AP. 1-4
Omani crossbowmen - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-8
Omani tribal infantry with sword and sometimes shield - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 24-48

Only if Yemen:
Bedouin foot led by unarmed shahidh poet exhorting and satirising - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-1

Only if Yemen before 1517 AD:

Mamluk allies - List: Mamluk (Book 1).
Only if coastal from 1517 AD:
Replace Omani crossbowmen with Omani guardsmen with matchlock - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
2-man matchlocks in fortified BUA - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Bombards in fortified BUA - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-3
Re-arm Bedouin skirmishers with matchlock - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Bedouin sharpshooters riding camel and dismounting to fire - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-1 per 3 LH

Only if Yemen from 1538 AD to 1539 AD and in 1547 AD:

Portuguese mercenaries and/or allies - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 2-6

Only if Oman from 1551 AD to 1554 AD:

Ottoman allies - List: Ottoman Turk (Book 1).
Only if Oman in 1581 AD:
Corsair galleys - Gal (F) @ 3 AP [Bd (F)]. 0-2
Corsairs - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 1 per Gal

11
Only if Omani after 1650 AD:
Large European-style warships - Up to 1/2 Shp (S) @ 6 AP, rest (0) @ 4 AP [Bd|. / 0-1
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Bd]. 0-4
Rowing vessels - Bts (S) @ 3 AP |Bd|. 0-2
This covers both organised coastal states of the Arabian peninsula such as Oman, the Hejaz, Asir, Hadhramaut or Yemen
and the nomadic camel-herding and raiding Bedouin of the central Arabian desert, Libya, Syria, Iraq and Nubia. The
towns provided cavalry and a militia graded as (S) because fanatically opposed to both Christian interlopers and to
looting Bedouin who were the other main threat. Some could also count on related tribesmen or, as in Yemen, javelin-
armed mountaineers. All these were joined by Bedouin, who could be sedentary or goat-pastoralists. Fast camel riders
represent an elite mounted on racing camels. Other camelry have cheaper camels used mainly for transport and will
look right if depicted with 1 or 2 figures of each base on foot. Firearms spread among the Bedouin of coastal states, but
not those of the deep desert. Horsemen either charged or skirmished with lances, the camels they had ridden on the
march now being ridden by the matchlock-men who had led the horses on foot. Other sharpshooters rode 2 on a
camel, 1 dismounting to shoot. Most of the cavalry were unarmoured men on unbarded horses, but a substantial
number rode horses in quilted bards and many riders of these were themselves mailed. Hejaz cavalry substituted short
javelins for the lance. If more than 20 Bedouin elements are used, they must all be commanded by Bedouin generals
commanding no other troops. The proportions of cavalry, camelry and foot varied widely. Only 1 element marked *
can be used. Ghostly black camels were said to bear souls to paradise, making their presence disconcerting! A maidens
accompanied by a group of fanatic "bridegrooms" was a common device to raise morale. The option marked ** can
only be used if any other Si (S) are present. Omani foot favoured the long straight "kattara" sword and it was not their
headlong rush that broke the enemy - it just got them into position to hew the enemy apart! "Dhow" is used as a
generic term for lateen-rigged sailing vessels such as the bourn, baghla, sambuk, zaruk or badan. Oman captured a
Portuguese 80 gun ship in 1650 and shortly after bought 2 other European-style 50 gun ships "which sailed like
slugges" and 18 faster 12-32 gun ships. Boarding tactics were most favoured. Oman now matched the Portuguese at
sea, so could safely intervene to support the Zanj cities. An Omani or Turkish allied contingent can include naval
elements. Armies including naval elements need not include otherwise compulsory Bedouin.

10. ZANJ 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 1. WW, Rv, WW, H(G), Wd, M, RGo, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Bd (O) @ 27 AP. 1
Sub-general - Bd (O) @ 27 AP or Bd (F) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 24-56
Javelinmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-8
Archers - Bw (O) @ 5 AP. 1 -2 per 4 Bd
Coastal natives - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 0-36
Dhows - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bd, Bw, Sk, Wb, BgeJ. 0-4
0-2 neighbouring Zanj city allied contingents - List: Zanj.
Portuguese allies - List: Portuguese Colonial.
Only 1585 AD to 1589 AD:
Corsair galleys and galliots - Gal (F) @ 3 AP |Bd (F), Art|. 1-4
Corsairs - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 3-4 per 4 Gal
Dismounted ship artillery - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1 per 4 Gal
Upgrade corsair element as ally-general - Bd (F) @ 15 AP. 0-1
Only after 1585 AD:
Matchlock-men - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Light artillery - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Only after 1650 AD:
Omani allies - List: Arab.

12
The Zanj "empire" was a loose confederation of towns which controlled the coastline of East Africa when the
Portuguese arrived in 1498. These were Omani foundations, but had become largely africanised in race and
language. Expansion inland was blocked by the aggressive Zimba. We postulate that town forces differed little from
those of Oman except for the unsuitability of the environment for horses. The arabicised, but now Swahili-
speaking, upper class would be supported by a less-arabicised native lower class and unassimilated native country
people. The squadron of Mir AH Bey, a corsair claiming to be an Ottoman admiral, greatly aided the Zanj against
the Portuguese in 1586 and departed replete with loot after blowing holes in the walls of Portuguese settlements.
Unfortunately for himself, Mir Ali Bey made the mistake of returning in 1589 to be captured at the taking of Mombasa
and shipped to Portugal in chains. Only 1 foreign allied contingent can be used. All corsairs must be in the same
command.

11. SOMALI 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Dry. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), RGo, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-general - Si () @ 30 AP. 0-2
Lancers - Si () @ 10 AP. 4-20
Turkish cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-1
Arab swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Arab or Persian archers - Bw () @ 5 AP. 0-8
Hadendoa spearmen - Wb (S) @ 5 A P. 0-20
Danakil, Issa and similar spearmen - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 16-50
Midgan and similar archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 16-40
Javelinmen or slingers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-6
Dhows - Shp (1) @ 3 AP|Bd, Bw|. 0-4
Only Ada! under Ahmad Gran 1528 AD to 1543 AD:
Turkish arquebusiers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-12
Bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
This covers Islamic coastal states of the Horn of Africa (roughly equivalent to modern Somalia), such as Adal,
Fatajar, Ifat, Darwara and Bali. The crucial difference from the Zanj cities was that the dryer climate here was
more suitable for horses. The Sultanate of Adal was an important opponent of Abyssinia in the first half of the 16th
century, especially under the Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, nicknamed "Ahmad Gran" (Ahmad the Left-
Handed) 1528-1543. Turkish aid gave it the upper hand until the arrival of the Portuguese, mainly in the the form of
arquebusiers from Zebid in Arabia. Although regular troops, as is implied by their description as "Turks", these
do not seem to have fought in close formation and are described as giving way before Portuguese charges, then
harassing their withdrawal. A small number of Turkish armoured cavalry were also used on occasion, as at Wofla in
1542. Somali cavalry were fewer but better than Abyssinian, defeating 10 times their number at Chembra Koure in
1529. They willingly charged with lances into Portuguese foot garnished with pikes, breaking into them and coming
close to success. An Abyssinian account describes the Somali cavalry as "clad in cuirasses of steel", which we take as
mail or Ottoman-style mail-linked plates, and the infantry as "footmen with buckler, sword and spear; others who
drew the bow and shot like the children of Ephraim, others who cast stones from slings. None of these warriors had
the least fear of battle, and there were among them those, who at the moment of combat, dashed forward with
ardour, like a hunting dog that sees its prey." Nearly all Somali foot carried a broad-headed thrusting spear. The
Hadendoa (the "fuzzy-wuzzy" of 19th century colonial wars) from Eritrea supplemented this with a long straight
"kascara" sword and shield, the Danakil and Issa from around Djibouti with light javelins, shield and the "belwa" short
sword, and the Midgan of the Ogaden with a long bow shooting unusually short poisoned arrows and possibly a
shield. All Somali shields were dinner-plate size, conical and of hide. Those of the Danakil differed from those of
other Somalis only in being almost black in colour instead of being bleached to near-white. The Turkish-supplied
artillery was crewed by Indians. Ahmad Gran was reported to have been accompanied everywhere by 3 banners, 2
white with a red crescent and 1 red with a white crescent.

13
12. ABYSSINIAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Dry. Ag 0. Rv, H(S), H(G), RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N500

C-in-C - LH (O) @ 25 AP. 1

Sub-generals - LH () @ 25 AP. 0-2
Cavalry - LH () @ 5 AP. 4-48
Swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 6-8
Spearmen - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 30-60
Archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP or Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 4-20
Skirmishing javelinmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 6-12
Palisade, drystone wall or thorn boma - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12

Only until 1529 AD:

Mount C-in-C on elephant - El (i) @ 36 AP. 0-1
Camel scouts - Cm (F) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Wadj subject allies - List: Wadj.

Only from 1533 AD:

Cannon crewed by renegade Arabs or later by Portuguese - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only from 1541 AD to 1543 AD:
Portuguese ally-general - Pk (F) @ 14 AP or Ln (F) @ 21 AP. 1
Portuguese with half-pikes - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Portuguese arquebusiers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 1-3
Portuguese African slaves - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 1-2

Only after 1543 AD:

Replace spearmen with matchlock-men - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-1/3
Only from 1636 AD:
Upgrade C-in-C and cavalry to "black horse" - Si (S) @ 30 AP if C-in-C, 10 AP if not. 1-4
Upgrade matchlock-men with muskets and rests to - Sh () @ 6 AP. All

This covers the armies of the Abyssinian Empire (modern Ethiopia). This was a Christian enclave constantly at war with
its pagan and Islamic states neighbours and was hard pressed from 1529 until the 1541 Portuguese expedition
introduced firearms and artillery. Abyssinian cavalry were mostly provided by the Shawa and Galla of the south,
typically armed with a short spear and 2 or more javelins but often no shield, riding scrubby ponies with simple
saddles substituting toe loops for proper stirrups. Shields were prized by those who did have them and those of men
who had distinguished themselves in battle were embellished with silver or with a lion's mane. Some nobles substituted
mail for a shield, but this does not alter classification. Abyssinian foot also had stabbing spear and javelins, but added a
large round hide shield. Swordsmen usually had a long straight sword, sometimes wielded with both hands after
discarding their shields, but some instead used the enormous sickle-shaped "shotel", intended to hook over opponents'
shields. Abyssinian swordsmen were prized abroad as guardsmen until access was cut-off by Portuguese domination of
the sea. The Portuguese contingent of 1541-43 consisted of 400 Portuguese, mostly aggressive arquebusiers but with
some half-pikes, and 130 fighting slaves. It was accompanied by a drum and fife band and several banners including
that of their king, easily enough for 1 per arquebusier element. It acquired enough horses to give the general a mixed
element of Portuguese lancers and Abyssinians. All troops prefixed by "Portuguese" and any Portuguese-manned artillery
must be commanded by a Portuguese ally-general who cannot control other troops. The survivors remained and took
local wives, who by 1750 had given rise to a hereditary regiment of 3,000 unruly half-breed matchlock-men firing
muskets from rests. The "black horse" were negro slave troops of the emperor's household whose large horses and arms
were imported from Sinnar. They wore black-plumed copper helmets with a short mail vizor and hip-length mail shirts,
and pushed their legs through horizontal slots in their horses' quilted barding. They had high saddles with Arab
stirrups and were armed with a 14 foot lance and an axe. They were said to be capable of charging through all the
cavalry of Abyssinia, not however an especially onerous task.

14
13. WADJ 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Dry. Ag 0. Rv, H(S), H(G), RGo, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si (O) @ 28 AP or LH () @ 25 AP. 1-2
Heavy cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 4-6
Upgrade Si (O) generals and cavalry to - Si (S) @ 30 AP if general, 10 AP if not. All/0
Light horse - LH () @ 5 AP. 24-90
Foot - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 0-100
Reclassify foot as skirmishers with javelins - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-1/5
The Wadj or Hadya were originally tributaries of the Abyssinian Empire, but apparently became independent after its
temporary break-up from 1529. An Abyssinian attempt to re-establish control in 1569 was probably defeated. Most
wargaming attention has previously focussed on the heavy cavalry as a stiffener for Abyssinian armies lacking that
arm, but these were a tiny part of the army. They were armed with lances, mailed and rode horses which were
caparisoned in antelope hide. Whether this had a protective value or was only decorative is unclear, so both are
allowed. Most of the cavalry were bare-back pony riders armed with stabbing spear, javelins and possibly throwing
irons, a multi-bladed cross between an axe and a boomerang. The foot's main weapon was the javelin, probably
accompanied by the usual small round shield of the area and stabbing spear. Any skirmishers would most likely be
shieldless youthful javelinmen.

14. ALWA 1494 AD - 1504 AD

Dry. Ag 0. Rv, H(G), RGo, M, D, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP, Si (O) @ 28 AP or Cm (S) @ 29 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si (S) @ 30 AP, Si (O) @ 28 AP or Cm (S) @ 29 AP. 1-2
Court cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP or Si () @ 8 AP. 1-5
Mounted warriors - 1/3 to 2/3 Cm (S) @ 9 AP, rest LH () @ 5 AP. 12-24
Scouting camelmen - Cm (F) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Archers - Bw () @ 5 AP. 12-24
Sword or spearmen - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. 0-48
Javelinmen - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-6
Thorn boma to protect baggage - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Aiwa was the last to survive of the 3 Christian Nubian kingdoms of the East Sudan, falling in 1504 to the Funj's
Abdallabi Arab precursors. The court and nobility were highly civilised and rich from trade in gold, slaves and linen
cloth, but the bulk of the population were poor peasants, many living in straw huts, although some villages had houses
of brick. Mounted troops used both horses and camels. Cavalry were probably provided by the court nobility and are
depicted both unarmoured and armoured and wearing gold-embroidered robes. The fiercely charging camelry were
described as spearmen swathed in black felt cloaks. The foot archers were renowned, but the commonest infantry
arms of the area in later times were a shortish straight sword, a stabbing spear and javelins, an armament consistent with
earlier Fatimid accounts and depictions.

15
15. FUNJ EMPIRE 1504 AD - 1700 AD
Dry. Ag 3. Rv, H(G), RGo, M, D, BUA.
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si (S) @ 30 AP. 1-3
Court and vassal cavalry - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 10-32
Nomadic horse - LH () @ 5 AP. 8-16
Slave foot - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-32
Shilluk or Dinka mercenaries - Wh (I) @ 3 AP. 0-16
Abdallabi Bedouin allies - List: Arab.
Only after 1650 AD:
Cannon - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Mercenary matchlock-men - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-1
The origin of the Funj Empire is obscure, but apparently the Bedouin Arab immigrants from the north that had
conquered Aiwa combined with Shilluk cattle-nomads from the south to form a black Islamic state. After this
acquired a fixed capital at Sinnar sometime around 1650, it became better known as the Empire of Sinnar. The
Abdallabi Arab northern component retained semi-independence under a hereditary viceroy, but it is unclear how much
if any of its former Bedouin character it retained. Funj armies were not commanded by the Sultan, but by his "amin"
(vizier), the Sultan's bodyguard and executioner, a slave general or a provincial ruler. Much use was made of large
copper kettle drums for stiffening morale and signalling. The army's main strength lay in the armoured cavalry
maintained by the Sultan and his vassal magnates. Nearly all wore mail and spiked iron or copper helmets, most rode
horses in complete quilted cotton bards plus a metal chanfron and frontlet and all carried a long broad-headed lance,
javelins, long sword and a round shield of elephant or giraffe hide. They had saddles with high fronts and cantles, but
rode barefoot, substituting toe loops for stirrups. Royal units could be commanded by the Sultan's sons or by slave
officers. Vassals could command their contingents in person, nominate a relative to do so or borrow a slave officer
from the Sultan. Lighter cavalry were provided by nomads under their own tribal "qa'id", the whole being supervised
by a royal officer called the "muquddam al-qawawid". The most dangerous enemies of the Funj were Abyssinia and the
Turkish garrison of Egypt, but they also made large conquests among the nilotic peoples of the eastern Sudan, who
then provided large numbers of slave infantry armed with javelins and light shields. These were segregated by tribal
origin in separate compounds and were apparently quite content with their new career. The tougher Shilluk and
Dinka peoples that avoided conquest provided mercenaries instead. Northern magnates lived in rectangular earth or
stone forts with several 3 or 4 story towers, those of the south in villages surrounded by thorn hedges.

16. SHAIQIYA 1660 AD - 1700 AD

Dry. Ag 4. Rv, H(G), RGo, M, D, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Si (O) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si () @ 28 AP. 1-2
Cavalry - Si () @ 8 AP. 6-24
Foot - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 30-80
Skirmishers - Sk (1) @ 2 AP. 0-12
Previously peaceful agricultural subjects of the Abdallabi part of the Funj Empire, the Shaiqiya broke away between
1660 and 1690 to form the aggressive independent states of Amri, Merowe, Kajebi and Hannek. These spent the next
130+ years fighting each other and terrorising their neighbours. The cavalry rode unbarded Dongola stallions in
Abyssinian-style saddles with toe loops. They wore mail, carried shields and were armed with a sword and 4 or 5
throwing spears in the left hand. They were described as "singularly fearless in attack", "riding up to the very
faces of the enemy with levity and gaiety of heart, as to a festival" and as always prefixing a fatal spear thrust
with the greeting "Salaam aleikoum" (Peace be with you)! Other accounts add that they are hard drinkers, fond of
dice and untruthful. The foot were also armed with spears.

16
17. INDONESIAN OR MALAY 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Tropical. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, BUA. Moluccas only H(S), Wd.
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Wb () @ 24 AP. 1-2
Warriors - Wb () @ 4 AP. 24-90
Archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 0-24
Skirmishers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 6-16
Upgrade skirmishers to blowpipe men - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 2-6
Light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-4
Any except Moluccan:
Noble cavalry - LH () @ 5 AP. 2-8
Only Moluccan from 1512 AD:
Arquebusiers - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-4
Portuguese allies - List: Colonial Portuguese. Javanese allies - List:
Indonesian or Malay.
Only Malays, Sumatrans or Javanese:
Upgrade warriors to - Wb (S) @ 5 AP. All
Replace archers with skirmishing matchlock-men - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-8
Jong or prau mayang - Shp (I) @ 3 AP |Wb, Bw, Sk, Bge| 0-4
Only Malays or Sumatrans:
Mount generals on elephants - El (I) @ 36 AP. 2-3
Elephants - El (I) @ 16 AP. 0-4
Replace Art (I) by heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. Any
Only Javanese:
Mount generals as - El (I) @ 36 AP or LH () @ 5 AP. All
Only Javanese from 1678 AD:
Replace warriors with charging matchlock-men - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-24
Dutch allies - List: Dutch Colonial.
Only Sumatran:
Great ships- Shp (S) @ 6 AP |Wb|. 0-1
Any except Malays or Sumatrans:
Prahu - Bts (S) @ 3AP |Wb, Sk|. 0-6
Scouting outriggers - Bts (F) @ 2 A P. 0-2
This list covers the Malay sultanate of Malacca until its end in 1511, the declining Javanese empire of Majapahit
until 1513, its powerful successor Mataram, the Sumatran empire of Acheh, the Moluccas (the "Spice Islands") and the
other states of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines from 1494 until 1700. A 16th or 17th century account of a
battle in 1357 between Majapahit and the west Javanese state of Sunda describes princes in howdahs on elephants,
each with a standard of a distinctive colour and matching parasol, and armed with bows, spears and oblong shields;
noble cavalry, including "the highest dignitary of Sunda", with spears, swords and shields; and infantry with shields,
swords, throwing-spears and blowpipes (plus cannon and arquebuses, anachronistic for 1357). One contingent's
noble cavalry are uniformed, in gold-embroidered yellow jackets and yellow loin cloths. Dangerous cavalry mock-
combats with the throwing of blunt javelins are still practised even today in Java and a high level of skill is
displayed. The infantry attacked very fiercely, "as though they were conscious of no peril", "like men who did not
expect to escape with their lives"; combined with the Malay and Javanese reputation for running amok, this must
justify classification as Wb (S). Foot archers are not mentioned as taking part in the 1357 battle, perhaps because they
had been replaced by arquebusiers when the account was written. A 16th century Portugese account describes
Javanese using "huge" bows as well as

17
spears, the wavy-bladed kris, scimitars, blowpipes and wooden shields large enough to protect the whole body.
Javanese accounts of the same battles stress only the generals on their elephants and the amok charges of infantry with
spears and krisses. The blowpipe and its poisoned darts was in limited use by nearly all the nations of the area, often in
the hands of woods-dwelling aborigines. It was greatly feared and was especially dangerous to animals. A few
firearms were used from the start of the period, but by 1685 the Javanese had 10,000 men with matchlocks. Finally,
the noise of very large gongs and drums was relied on to encourage the troops and overawe the enemy. The
Malays of Malacca are described as wearing cotton sarongs, some of the rich adding short silk coats, and long black
turbans and as fighting "in bands" with bows and poisoned arrows, spears and krisses. Only the king and those to
whom he gave special permission could wear yellow. The inhabitants of the Moluccas (not to be confused) were
described as "swift, agile, efficient and cruel in war", as headhunters and as using prahu with up to 180 paddlers on
each side. Some Christian-convert islands were given arquebuses and artillery by the Portuguese and the Moslem
sultan of Gilolo captured some of these from the former between 1533 and 1550 and used them against the Portuguese
and their allies. The Moluccas were so mountainous and wooded as to make horses useless, so there were none on
the islands. Javanese and Portuguese allies cannot be used together.

18. VIETNAMESE 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), , Wd, E, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - El (O) @ 40 AP. 1
Sub-generals - El () @ 40 AP or Si () @ 28 AP. 1-2
Elephants - El () @ 20 AP. 1-4
Cavalry - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 2-6
Regular crossbowmen and halberdiers - 1/3-2/3 Bw (O) @ 5 AP, rest Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 12-24
Militia - up to 1/2 Bw (I) @ 3 AP, rest Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 12-48
Militia skirmishers - 1/3-1/2 Sk (O) @ 3 AP, rest Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 6-24
Chinese-style handgunners or arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-6
Chinese-style rocket launchers or light guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-3
Chinese-style bombards - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Dug-out boats - Bts (O) @ 2 AP |Bd, Bw, Wb, Sk|. 0-4
Khmer allies - List: Siamese, Burmese, Laotian or Cambodian/Khmer.
Somewhat remarkably, the Vietnamese were not attacked even once by China during this period, but instead fought
each other and sometimes the Khmer. The Later Le kings were deposed in 1527 by the Mac clan, who were
opposed by the Nguyen and Trinh clans in the name of Le puppets. In 1592, the Mac were ejected from the capital.
The Trinh then ruled the north of the country and the Nguyen ruled the south, intervening in a Khmer civil war as an
excuse to occupy the Mekong delta. From 1627 to 1672 the Trinh fought the Nguyen without either side coming
out on top and eventually divided the country in half with walls running from the coast to the Laotian frontier.
Elephants in Cochin China (the Nguyen territories) were described as having a 2-tier fighting platform carrying a
fighting crew of 14. Vietnam had long been under heavy Chinese influence and we assume that the regular foot
were still armed in Chinese style with crossbows and halberds. An 18th century Chinese picture of Vietnamese coastal
peasants being rounded up shows them mostly unarmed, but a few with swords. We assume that some militia would
instead have spears or halberds and that the bow and crossbow were still favourite weapons. Skirmishing peasant
crossbowmen sniping from cover were still being encountered in 19th and 20th century wars. Chinese-style firearms
were used from before the start of the period. Large dug-out canoes continued in use for river raiding. A Portuguese
colony at Faifo near Danang made little impact.

18
19. SIAMESE, BURMESE, LAOTIAN OR CAMBODIAN/KHMER 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Tropical. Ag 1. WW (except Laos), Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cx5

C-in-C - El (I) @ 36 AP. 1

Sub-generals - El (I) @ 36 AP, or Si (I) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Elephants - El (I) @ 16 AP. 0-6
Cavalry - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 2-4
Swords/spearmen - 0-1/3 Bd (F) @ 5 AP, rest Wb (1) @ 3 AP; or all Wb () @ 4 AP. 24-60
Archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP or Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 8-24
Upgrade archers to crossbowmen - Bw (O) @ 5 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-8
Arquebusiers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP or Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-8
Artillery - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Grenade throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Porters or levies from captured towns - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-6
Stockade for camp - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
River boats - Bts (O) @ 2 AP [Wb, Bw, Sh, Sk|. 0-8
Junks - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Wb, Bw, Sk|. 0-4

Only if Burmese:
Upgrade elephants with large crews or escorts to - El () @ 20 AP. All
Only from 1515 AD:
Upgrade elephants with crew using firearms as - El (S) @ 24 AP. Any
Upgrade foreign-built or manned artillery to - Art (S) @ 25 AP or Art () @ 20 AP. Any
Portuguese allies - List: Portuguese Colonial.

Only Siamese from 1605 AD to 1632 AD:

Upgrade swordsmen to Japanese guards - up to 1/2 Sh (O) @ 6 AP, rest Bd () @ 7 AP. 0-8
Only Siamese after 1632 AD:
Moghul, Tartar and Rajput foreign horse guard - Si (S) @ 10 AP. 0-1
Elephants mounting 1 pdr guns - El (S) @ 24 AP. 0-2
The armies of these nations had grown alike through their contacts in war. Burmese, Siamese and Laotian rulers still
duelled on elephants and one colourful episode of the wars was when the Siamese Queen Suriyot'ai and her
daughter fell while armed and mounted on elephants in an attempt to extricate the King from danger. Traditionally,
the driver sat on the elephant's neck, the warrior fought from a platform howdah with a curved-blade spear and/or
javelins and his parasol-bearer clung to the rump, but in Siam, Cambodia and possibly Laos, the mass import of
Japanese swords led to the warrior instead sitting on the neck where he could reach the enemy, the parasol-bearer
moving to the howdah and the driver sitting on the rump, directing the elephant with a very long goad. Burmese
elephants had previously been reported to have crews of 8, 10, 12 or 16, but this may have reflected 4 in the
howdah and 1-4 on foot guarding each leg. They were reported in 1568 to have a howdah crew of 4 men with
firearms. A general is reported still fighting in the old style in 1592. Parasols were the insignia of rank, the King's
being white and officers' red. Cavalry were few and inefficient. Foot swordsmen with short sword and shield did not
always form together with the spearmen with leather shields. A lesser number of men had 2-handed Japanese swords or
the ph'kak. King Ekat'otsarot of Siam (1605-1620) enlisted Japanese guardsmen who revolted in 1611 and were a
potent factor in civil wars until their massacre in 1632. Native foot guards seem to have been spearmen. A Siamese
manual of 1518 mentions both cannon and infantry firearms, presumably introduced in the 15th century, probably
from Ming China, and epic poetry describes its use by their enemies as well. The manual also illustrates a variety of
elaborate deployments in depth. Cavalry and elephants are usually deployed on the flanks, but not usually in the
front line and never in the same line. Feints, feigned flights and ambushes from woods are also mentioned. In one case
the baggage-porters are used to give the impression of more men. In addition to porters, illustrations of baggage
earlier depict ox-carts, pack elephants loaded with sacks, game carried on poles, pigs led on a string and women
with harps or carrying infants. The boats each river village had to provide are described as dug-outs from a single
large teak tree with 50-60 paddlers and 30 shot.

19
20. DUTCH COLONIAL 1602 AD - 1700 AD
Tropical. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N400
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP, Pk (O) @ 24 AP or Sh (O) @ 26 AP. 1
Sub-generals - As above. 0-2
Shot - up to 1/2 arquebusiers Sh (I) @ 4 AP, rest musketeers Sh () @ 6 AP. 3-24
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 0-2 per 4 Sh (O)
Field guns - Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
Siege artillery dismounted from warships, or fortress artillery - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [0-1/2 Sh, Pk or Art (S), rest Wb|. 2-4
Merchant ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Sh, Wb, Art (I), Bge|. 2-6
Yachts or sloops - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Wb]. 0-1
Longboats - Bts () @ 2 AP [Sh, Wb|. 0-3
Sailors - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp or Bts
Fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Only from 1622 AD:
Grenade-throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 12 Sh (O)
Upgrade arquebusiers to musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. All

Only WIC in Brazil from 1634 AD to 1654 AD: Tapuya allies - List:
Tupi or Tapuya.

Only VOC in Java or Sumatra:

Kumpani Islam native auxiliaries - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-16

Only VOC in Amboina, the Celebes, or the Moluccas:

Hired head-hunters - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-2

Only VOC in the Celebes or Moluccas:

Native allies - List: Indonesian or Malay.

Only VOC in Ceylon from 1638 AD:

Sinhalese allies - List: Sinhalese.

Only VOC in West Africa in 1648 AD:

Kongo allies - List: West African Forest Peoples.

Only VOC in Java from 1678 AD to 1681 AD:

Javanese allies - List: Indonesian or Malay.
This covers the local armies of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) from its founding in 1602 and its
western hemisphere equivalent, the West-Indische Compagnie (WIC) from 1621. Established as a private company to trade
with the Spice Islands, the VOC interpreted legitimate competition to include destroying other nations' trading posts in
Africa, South America and the east, bullying local rulers with armed force into granting exclusive trading rights and then
finally establishing colonies. In the process, they seized many Portuguese possessions. Soldiers and arms were provided
by the Dutch state, but paid for by the VOC and WIC. The under-paid and ragged Portuguese were impressed by the dress
and well-fed bodies of Dutch colonial soldiers found after battles. The Javanese were mostly impressed by their
arrogance and a Captain Tack was so hated by his allies that they faked a civil war to kill him and still
commemorate him with a Punch & Judy style shadow-puppet villain. The extent to which pikes were used is unclear,
but they were certainly used in Java in 1685, as were grenades. There are many references to musketeers and to landing
parties of musketeers and sailors. Most sailors were Dutch, but Scandinavians, Germans, English and Scots are also
mentioned. Even more soldiers were foreigners, mainly German, but also Swiss, English, Scots, Irish, Danes, French,
Flemings and even Japanese. Wastage was high. Dutch warships were relatively small and fast with 1 1/2 gun decks
like contemporary English frigates. The large warships used at home from 1664 did not serve on distant stations.
Warships were supplemented by lightly-armed merchantmen and by a few yachts and sloops of 4-6 guns.

20
21. SINHALESE 1494 AD - 1700 AD
Tropical. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C on elephant - El (O) @ 40 AP. 1
Sub-generals - El () @ 40 AP. 0-2
Elephants - El () @ 20 AP. 4-6
Swordsmen - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 12-48
Archers - Bw (I) @ 3 AP. 4-18
Upgrade archers with pavises as - Bw () @ 5 AP. Any
Armed camp followers - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 2-8
Only 1515 AD to 1560 AD: / ,
I Arquebusiers - Sk (O) @ 4 AP. { - / 0-6
I Only after 1560 AD:
I Replace archers with musketeers - Sh (O) @ 6 AP, or Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 4-18
Only 1638 AD to 1658 AD:
Dutch allies - List: Dutch Colonial.
This covers the armies of the Buddhist and Tamil kingdoms of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka). The Portuguese
established a trading presence on the coast in 1518 and persisted in unsuccessful attempts to conquer the
whole island from 1570 on. Between 1638 and 1663 the Dutch took all their coastal settlements, at first
with Sinhalese co-operation, but by 1700 had not managed to impose their authority on the inland
kingdom of Kandy. Sinhalese armies were generally similar to those of the Hindu states of the Indian
mainland, except that there were no horses in Ceylon. However, Sinhalese elephants, although smaller than
Burmese, were said to be so fierce that other elephants were afraid of them. Visitors reported that the Sinhalese
used little armour, thinking it cowardly. Most shields were small. They could be round, heart-shaped or
rectangular. A 15th century sculpture shows shoulder-high standing shields, possibly pavises for archers. The
most common weapon was a short, heavy, slightly curved "kastane" sword. A visitor during 1583-91
contrasted the Sinhalese' skilled use of firearms "which be muskets" with the less than competent caliver-men of
Indian armies. Armies of up to 100,000 are reported.

22. POLYNESIAN OR MELANESIAN 1494 AD - 1700 AD

Tropical. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, RGo, M, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Bd (F) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Sub-general - Bd (F) @ 25 AP. 1-2
Warriors - Wb (I) @ 3 AP. 48-150
XLVI Maori scouts, skirmishing Polynesian slingers or Melanesian archers - Sk (I) @ 2 AP. 0-12
XLVII War canoes - Bts (S) @ 3 AP if Maori, Bts () @ 2 AP if not |Any|. 0-6
Palisade or stone barricade - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
 Maori only:
Upgrade warriors to - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. All
This covers those peoples of the Pacific that fielded substantial armies. Polynesians include the peoples of
Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, Easter Island and Hawaii, and the Maori of New Zealand. Melanesians include the
peoples of Fiji, the Solomons and the New Hebrides. Generalisation is tricky but chieftains and their
picked followers typically fought with heavy wooden swords or clubs. Otherwise, Melanesians often
favoured long spears and sometimes a small shield. Most Polynesians prefered javelins and clubs. Coconut
fibre armour was used. A favourite weapon of the Maori was a long wooden sword, the tiaha, with a
sophisticated fencing technique. Others used short greenstone mere or wooden patu. They made huge
canoes called waka taua from the giant kauri pine. In Hawaii, chiefs wore feather-covered crested helmets
and red and yellow feather cloaks, and sent their priests out in front to open each battle by shouting insults.

21
ARMIES OF THE EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT
23. RESTORATION BRITISH 1661 AD - 1688 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pk (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pk () @ 24 AP. 1-2
Embark general on ship as - Sh (S) @ 27 AP. 0-1
Life Guards and Blues - Pi () @ 10 AP. *4-8
Horse - Pi () @ 10 AP. 1-12
Guards pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. *6-8
Other pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 6-24
Musketeers - Sh (O) @ 6 AP. 2 per Pk (O)
Artillery of the train - Art () @ 20 AP. 1-4
3-decker line-of-battle ship - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [general if Sh]. 0-1 per 4 Shp (O)
2-decker line-of-battle ships - Shp () @ 5 AP [Sh or Wb|. 0-4
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Sh, Wb], or storeships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bge|. 0-4
Landing parties - up to 1/4 marines Sh (S) @ 7 AP, rest sailors Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp
Fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Only from 1672 AD:
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 1-6
Only from 1678 AD:
Horse grenadiers - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. *l-2
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 1 per 4 Pk
Only from 1684 AD:
Re-arm dragoons with firelocks as - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. All
Re-arm guards musketeers with firelocks as - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 2 per guards Pk
Fusileers - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-6
Only after 1685 AD:
3 pdr battalion guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Raw Irish pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 0-6
Raw Irish musketeers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 2 per Pk (I)
When Charles II was restored to the thrones of England and Scotland, the large Commonwealth army was disbanded,
so that the standing army consisted only of the guards regiments. These increasingly had to be supplemented by lesser
units raised in emergency or to garrison overseas possessions such as Tangiers. When James II acceded, he used all
possible opportunities, such as the Monmouth Rebellion, to increase such units and make them permanent. Towards
the end of his reign, James dismissed most of the Protestant officers and soldiers stationed in Ireland and replaced
them with Irish recruits who could not be quickly assimilated, convincing many of his intention to re-catholicise
England and Scotland by force. When William of Orange landed in the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688, the desertion of
many senior officers paralysed James into fleeing the country, although it is quite probable that much of the army
would have fought for him out of loyalty rather than inclination. Guards regiments did not serve overseas.
Accordingly, minima marked * apply only if any troops so marked are used. Horse wore corslets and were armed
with a pair of pistols and a sword. Horse guards added a carbine and these had spread to at least most of the other
horse by 1685. Horse grenadiers were attached to guards cavalry to act as supporting dragoons. They are not reported as
using grenades in action. The new grenadier companies given to all foot regiments from 1678 were still primarily
grenade-throwers rather than the general purpose assault troops they later became. From 1667 onward, foot mixed a
lower proportion of firelocks with their matchlocks, but this does not affect classification until the guards were
entirely re-equipped with firelocks in 1684. 1/3 remained pikemen. Whether these still had helmet and corslet is
disputed, but Trelawney's regiment had them in 1680, and it has been suggested that they were still standard issue
until 1697. A regiment of fusileers was raised in 1685 to guard the artillery. The artillery train at Sedgemoor in 1685
was rendered immobile by the desertion of

22
its draught teams and only the loan of the Bishop of Bath & Wells' carriage horses enabled some guns to be brought
into action. Most of the guns were 8 pdr, with a few 12, 6 and 4 pdr guns. James II later introduced light 3 pdr
guns to accompany and be manned by foot regiments. In 1688, he brought over Irish troops to fight against William
of Orange. Mostly naval wars were fought against the Dutch in 1664-67 and 1672-74. Warships now fought in line of
battle (single element wide column). Frigates at this time were not the light warships with a single gun deck of
Napoleonic times, but typically a large but narrow vessel with 1 1/2 gun decks. Most of the fleet were older 2-decker
"great ships" whose tubbier build made them a better gun platform. The few 3-deckers were mainly used as flagships.

24. DUTCH UNITED PROVINCES 1649 AD - 1688 AD. Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv,
Wd, M, E, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 4-8
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 1-4
Pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 6-20
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 2 per Pk
Artillery - up to 1/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP |Sh, Wb]. 0-4
Merchant ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP |Sh, Wb, Bge|. 0-6
Yachts or sloops - Bts (S) @ 3 AP |Sh, Wb|. 0-1
Marines and seamen - up to 1/2 Sh (O) @ 6 AP, rest Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp
Fireship - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Only from 1664 AD:
Replace merchant ships with line-of-battle ships - Shp () @ 5 AP |Sh, Wb|. 0-3
Only from 1672 AD:
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 4 Pk
Upgrade foot guard musketeers with flintlocks to - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 2-6
Only 1674 AD to 1678 AD:
Austrian allies - List: Later Imperialist. Brandenburg allies - List:
Brandenburg-Prussia.
Only in England in 1688 AD:
English officer and gentleman volunteers - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 0-1
English horse (Duke of Albany's) - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-2
English dragoons (Royals) - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-1
This covers Dutch armies from the Peace of the Hague until William of Orange became King of England. During
William's 21 year minority, the Dutch were governed by an anti-monarchist oligarchy, led by Jan de Witt, whose
mercantilist policies led to the English wars of 1652-54, 1664-67 and 1672-74. These were mostly fought at sea, but
some landings were made or planned, notably the English descent on Terschelling and Vlieland in 1666 and the
famous Dutch raid on the Medway in 1667. A much more serious threat was the French invasion of 1672-78, which the
Dutch after a disastrous start managed to partly turn round thanks to inundations and the young William's competent
military leadership. Pikemen still retained corslets but the horse had lost them. Guards and artillery wore blue coats,
Scots and Swiss foot and some dragoons wore red, Walloons green and the rest various shades of grey. Headgear was
a broad-brimmed black hat, except for grenadiers and some dragoons who substituted fur caps. The foot, especially
the foot guards, were considered by their contemporaries to be excellent troops, but not so the horse, who had reverted
to distant shooting and were usually ridden over by the French. The fleet initially initially depended on 1 1/2 decker
frigates supplemented by even worse-armed merchant ships, the first true battleships appearing in time for the war of
1664. Dutch ships carried more marines than English ships and these had to be landed in 1674 to support the army.

23
25. SCOTS WESTERN COVENANTER REBEL 1679
Cold. Ag 0. Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, M, RGo, BUA, Rd. Max N200
C-in-C - Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Wb () @ 24 AP. 1-2
Reclassify C-in-C or sub-general as - Pi (1) @ 28 AP. 0-1
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Covenanters "with sword, pike, fusil or pitchfork" - Wb () @ 4 AP. 12-24
Skirmishers with firearms - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-3
Families and less enthusiastic supporters - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-12
The terrorist murder of Archbishop Sharp on May 3rd brought to a head the struggle for control of the Church of
Scotland between Episcopalians and Presbyterians. A small force of horse and dragoons under Claverhouse pursuing
the assassins attempted to disperse a "coventicle" (armed open-air Presbyterian prayer meeting) but was blocked at
Drumclog by 3 bodies of rebel horse and 4 of foot. Provoked into charging by being outshot by the dragoons, the rebel
foot swept the government troops away with heavy casualties. Having failed next day to take Glasgow, the rebels were
crushed on June 22nd at Bothwell Bridge by a much larger force commanded by the Duke of Monmouth.
26. ENGLISH MONMOUTH REBEL 1685 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N350
C-in-C - Pk (O) @ 24 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pk (O) @ 24 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 0-1
Sub-general - Pk () @ 24 AP. 0-1
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-7
Pikemen - Pk () @ 4 AP. 15-30
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 10-15
Scythesmen - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 5-10
Clubmen - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-2
Drakes - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
This covers the West Country rebellion of the Protestant Duke of Monmouth, the bastard son of Charles II, against his
Catholic uncle King James II. The army's home territory is Somerset. Monmouth's ship brought veteran officers, 3
small cannon, 1,500 corslet and helmet cavalry armours of which only a small proportion were unloaded, some
pistols and carbines, a supply of red coats faced with purple for Monmouth's personal "red" regiment, 500 pikes, 500
swords and probably 1,000 muskets. Other weapons had to be obtained locally. More pikes and muskets and red
coats faced with yellow were captured from the militia or brought in by militia deserters. These standard weapons
were supplemented by scythe blades set on short poles and by sporting firearms. The gentry that provided the cavalry
no doubt brought swords, pistols and horses. The foot were typically tradesmen and artisans from the local towns,
predominantly cloth workers, pious nonconformist Protestant family men of mature years. Only 11 % of them were
farmers or farmworkers. Earnestness in the cause and the training immediately commenced under professional officers
made them much more formidable than the pathetic throng of yokels of popular myth. A huge number of peasant
"clubmen" armed only with improvised weapons were reported to have gathered at Axminster, but actually numbered
only 160. The cavalry have also possibly been less than fairly treated. Although they often fled while led by Lord
Grey, some of them led by his subordinate elicited the admiration of the regular cavalry they fought. A troop of 80
encountered early in the campaign all had helmets, corslets and double-barrelled carbines and pistols. While
demolishing legends, it is only fair to point out the the "Bloody Assize" that followed the fatal battle of Sedgemoor
according to Judge Jeffreys "was not half bloody enough for him that sent me". About 300 rebels died in the battle,
700 were slain in the pursuit and 100 were summarily hung by the army before Jeffreys arrived. Of the 1,336 he
tried, 340 were actually executed and 850 transported. Half the rebels present at the battle, all of whom were
certainly guilty of high treason, got away and were covered by a general pardon next year.

24
27. SCOTS JACOBITE 1689 AD - 1690 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H[S), H(G), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N250
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP, Pk (F) @ 24 AP or Wb (O) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-general - Pk (F) @ 24 AP. 0-1
Sub-generals - Wb () @ 24 AP. 0-2
Cavalry - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-1
Irish pikes - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Irish musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 2 per Pk (F)
Highlanders - Wb () @ 4 AP. 15-50
Locheil's snipers - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-1
This covers the rebel army of John Graham of Claverhouse "Bonnie Dundee". Like the later rebel Jacobite armies of
1715 and 1745, it was raised from Catholic Highland clans and detested by the vast majority of Scots. It won a
spectacular victory at Killiecrankie over a lowland Scots Whig government army reinforced with a single English
regiment, but Claverhouse fell at the moment of victory. Deprived of his leadership, it failed after a bitter battle to
capture Dunkeld and was defeated and dispersed at Cromdale next year. The cavalry consisted of a single troop of
remnants of Claverhouse's old regular regiment, supplemented by gentleman volunteers. At Killiekrankie, it split into
two parts after its initial charge, one of which Dundee was leading when he was shot. Only 1 element of Pk (F) can
be used. Only the front rank of the Highlanders should be depicted with sword and targe and/or firelock. Others
should be armed with Lochaber axes, spears, a very few bows, many only with long dirks. Purcell's small Irish
regiment was criticised for "charging like stampeding cattle" beside the Highlanders instead of shooting, which
must justify classing them as (F). At Killiecrankie, Locheil sent a small body to shoot from cottages, though they were
soon driven out by government musketeers.

28. SCOTS CONSTITUTIONAL 1689 AD - 1690 AD

Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N250
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-general - Sh (S) @ 27 AP. 0-1
Militia horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-2
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 4-16
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (O)
Fusileers/grenadiers - Sh (S) @ 7 AP or Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh (O)
Raw musketeers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Raw pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (I)
Highland independent company - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-1
Leather guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-1
In 1689, the Scottish Parliament passed a Claim of Right asserting that, by transforming a limited constitutional monarchy
into an arbitrary Catholic despotism, James II had violated the Scots constitution and "forfaultit the Croun". The small
Scots regular army was insufficient to put down the revolt of James' Highland supporters and much of it including the
cavalry unreliable, so the Scots brigade was recalled from Dutch service and new regiments raised. The militia horse
were armed with sword and pistols. They did not get red coats until after Killiecrankie, so probably wore civilian
dress. All other troops wore red coats and, except for the grenadiers, black hats. Hastings' English regiment had yellow
facings and all the Scots white except for McKay's and the artillery, who were both faced red. McKay's, Ramsay's and
Balfour's regiments were veterans of the Dutch service. Leven's were newly raised but well trained, but Kenmore's
were extremely raw and had to be formed 6 deep instead of 3 like the other regiments. The 4 veteran regiments each
had a grenadier company, and it is likely that these provided the detachment of 200 men with firelocks drawn from
these regiments to act as advance and flank guard. The artillery at Killiecrankie consisted of 3 ineffective under-
charged leather guns carried on pack ponies. The loyalty of the Highland company (which normally functioned as a
patrolling police force) was extremely suspect, so that it was sent to hide in a wood out of the way.

25
29. IRISH JACOBITE 1689 AD - 1691 AD

Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.

C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi () @ 30 AP. 1-2
Horse guards - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-1
Horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 2-8
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 1-7
Foot guard and veteran musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 4-8
Foot guard and veteran pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (O)
Raw musketeers - Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 20-60
Raw pikemen - Pk (I) @ 3 AP. 1-2 per 2 Sh (I)
Fusileers - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-4
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-3
Sharpshooters "with long guns" - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-3
6 pdr field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 1-2
Militia with half-pikes, scythes and a few firearms - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-20
Only in 1690 AD:
18 pdr and 24 pdr siege guns and mortars - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
French ally-general - Pi (O) @ 20 AP. *1
French musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. *8-16
French pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Sh (F)
French grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh (F)
Only in 1691 AD:
Regrade sub-general (Sarsfield) as - Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Ditches - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Soldiers disbanded into rapparee guerillas - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-6
After James II had lost the British throne in the bloodless "Glorious Revolution" of 1688, he fled to France, then
moved to Ireland intending to use it as a base for recovering Britain. He was enthusiastically supported by the Catholic
majority, whose different aims were Irish independence and Catholic supremacy. James had already sent the Earl of
Tyrconnel in 1685 to reorganise the army in Ireland by purging it of Protestants. It refused disbandment by the new
government and was now vastly expanded, the existing troops of horse guards and horse grenadiers, 3 regiments of
horse, 1 of dragoons, 1 2-battalion regiment of foot guards and 4 1-battalion regiments of red-coated foot being joined
by 5 new regiments of horse, 7 of dragoons and 39 of foot. Louis XIV had sent 20,000 uniforms (probably French
grey/white) and 8,000 firearms by the start of 1689. 18,000 more matchlocks and 8,000 flintlocks were requested, but
it is uncertain whether enough were received for the normal ratio of 2 muskets to 1 pike. Many foot are reported as
clothed in local homespun and armed with half-pikes or pole-scythes. Any flintlocks mainly equipped the dragoons,
with only a few going to fusileers supporting the sparse artillery or acting as special service troops. Few if any
bayonets were issued. 6 battalions of French foot under the command of the Comte de Lauzun followed in 1690 in
exchange for 5 Irish regiments sent to France, but returned home in September of that year after the lost battle of the
Boyne. The majority of Irish foot remained unskilled until the end of the war. Only the foot guards shine in battle
accounts. Whether the other old regiments kept their discipline or had been excessively diluted by the need to find
instructors for new regiments is unclear. The ordinary foot were best fighting from the cover of enclosures or
ditches with their pikes drawn up behind in support. In contrast, the horse's wild charges with sword and pistol
were greatly feared and the dragoons were also good. The horse guards were solid troops whose corslets made them
tough opponents. James was brave and hard-working, but stupid and stubborn. He commanded personally at the Boyne,
but lost heart after the battle and retired to France blaming the Irish. Command then devolved to Tyrconnel and Berwick,
then to 2 newcomers. The most respected by opponents was Patrick Sarsfield, described by James as "a brave fellow,
but very scantily supplied with brains", and who did not co-operate well with his seniors. The better was the Marquis
de St.Ruth, sent over by Louis with a staff but no troops to act as C-in-C on James' behalf. He was close to winning
the final battle at Aughrim in 1691 when his death by a long range cannon ball fatally disrupted the army's command.

26
30. WILLIAMITE ANGLO-DUTCH 1688 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP. , . 1
Sub-generals - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Sh (S) @ 7 AP. - 1-2
British horse - Pi () @ 10 AP. 3-6
British dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 1-2
British foot guards - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (S) @ 1 AP. 0-8
British foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, rest Sh () @ 6 AP. 8-24
British fusileers - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Huguenot horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 0-3
Huguenot or Swedish foot - 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-9
Dutch horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-4
Dutch dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Dutch foot guards - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 3-6
Dutch foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, rest Sh () @ 6 AP. 6-12
Danish horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 0-3
Danish, Brandenburg or other German foot - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-16
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh
3 pdr accompanying guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
6-12pdrfieldguns- Art () @ 20 AP. 0-4
18-24 pdr siege guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
3-deckers - Shp (S) @ 6 AP [Sh (S), Wb|. 0-1 per 3 Shp (O)
2-deckers - Shp (O) @ 5 AP [Sh (S), Wb|. 0-4
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Sh (S), Wb|, or storeships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Bge|. 0-4
Landing parties - up to 1/3 marines Sh (S) @ 7 AP, rest seamen Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp
Fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Only in Ireland from 1689 AD to 1691 AD:
Enneskillen horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 0-2
Enneskillen dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-1
Londonderry foot - 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Only from 1692 AD:
Reduce all pikemen other than Swedish from 1/3 to 1/4. All
Only from 1696 AD:
Upgrade shot other than Huguenot and Swedish to - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. All
In 1688, the English finally lost patience with the attempts of their Catholic King James 11 to subvert Parliamentary
rule and the Anglican religion, and invited his Protestant Dutch son-in-law William of Orange to take the throne jointly
with his wife Mary. William was keen to use British resources, much greater than those of his native Holland, to thwart
the European expansionism of Louis XIV of France. He formed the "Grand Alliance" of England, the Dutch, Spain, Savoy,
Brandenburg-Prussia, Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria and Sweden. Before England's full strength could be employed against
Louis, it was first necessary to clear James IPs forces from Ireland. William commanded personally at the Boyne in 1689
and later on the continent at Steenkirk in 1692 and Neerwinden in 1693. The various national contingents under his
command were integrated rather than fighting separately. Dutch foot had a high reputation, especially the guards, but
their cavalry were considered a little dubious and too fond of distant pistol fire. Danish cavalry were excellent troops
noted for their aggression, but their pike-less foot proved vulnerable to Jacobite cavalry. The Huguenot regiments
were of French Protestants forced out by religious persecution 1686-87. Many had been well-trained in French service
and they hated Louis XIV. They brought French methods with them and were regarded as an elite. They were kept
on a separate establishment until 1699, then absorbed by the British army. Irish Protestant troops were tough and
aggressive, but resistant to discipline and initially lacked uniforms. The foot of most contributing nations started
with 1/3 pikemen and 2/3 musketeers, mostly with matchlocks except in guard units. The British reduction to 1/4
pikemen became official in 1694, but was already used in regiments sent to the continent. Expanded flintlock
production from 1695 quickly made matchlocks obsolete.

27
31. LOUIS XIV FRENCH 1661 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 4. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cx2
C-in-C - Pi () @ 30 APorPi(F)@31 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Maison du Roi - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-4
Gendarmerie de France and chevaux legers - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 5-12
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 2-6
Gardes foot musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-8
Common foot musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 8-24
Siege and field guns - up to 1/4 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest () @ 20 AP. 0-4
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Only before 1692 AD:
Gardes pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (O)
Common foot pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP or Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (F)
Only before 1670 AD:
Replace common foot pikemen with fusiliers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-1 per 2 Pk
Downgrade caracoling chevaux legers to Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 0-6
Only after 1670 AD:
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh
Fusiliers du Roi - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-1 per 2 Art
Chasseurs - Sk () @ 3 AP. 0-1
Only 1672 AD to 1674 AD:
English allies - List: Restoration British.
Only from 1690 AD:
Regrade gendarmerie and chevaux legers as - Pi () @ 10 AP. All
Carabiniers - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1 per 6 Pi (O)
Only from 1692 AD:
Hussars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Gardes pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Sh (O)
Common foot pikemen - all Pk (F) @ 4 AP or all Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 4 Sh (F)
This covers French armies from Louis XIV's assumption of autocratic rule until 1700. The Maison du Roi
comprised 4 strong companies of Gardes du Corps, 1 of Gendarmes (in corslets), 1 of Chevaux Legers, 2 of Les
Mousquetaires and, from 1676, 1 of Grenadiers a Cheval, and seem to have favoured firearms. The 12 companies of
Gendarmerie de France and the chevaux legers were unarmoured and mostly charged in a shallow formation at the
gallop with sword in hand in the style of Turenne and Conde, but Marechal de Puysegur writing in 1748 thought
that the caracole had lingered in some regiments until around 1670. After 1690, all reverted by royal command to firing
before charging home. The skirmishing "carabin" light horse seem to have disapeared in the cavalry reductions of
1659 and adding 2 "carabiniers" with rifled carbines to each cavalry company in 1679 proved an inadequate
substitute. From 1690, each cavalry regiment was ordered to have a full company of carabiniers and in 1692 these
were amalgamated into a single large 100 company regiment of Royal Carabiniers which fired from the halt.
Dragoons were increasingly favoured. The field units of the Gardes a Pied now comprised only the Gardes-Francaises
and the Gardes-Suisses. Gardes pikemen kept their corslets to the end of our period. Others had discarded them by the
end of the 30 Years War, but some regiments appear to have had them re-issued. Firelocks were disapproved of and
used only on a small scale until 1692, when half each regiment's shot were authorised them. An unofficial practise
of replacing pikes with firelocks was repeatedly forbidden in the years before 1670. The Fusiliers du Roi formed in
1671 to guard and man the artillery were entirely equipped with firelocks. The typical French infantry tactic was an
impetuous attack combining pikemen with musketeers advancing sword in hand. Allies can include naval elements and
need not then include otherwise compulsory types.

28
32. LATER SPANISH 1660 AD - 1700 AD
Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), O, V, E, RGo, M, Rd, BUA.

C-in-C - Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1

Sub-general - Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 0-1
Cuirassiers - Pi () @ 10 AP. 4-9
Dragoons - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 1-5
Spanish foot - 1/4 Pk () @ 4 AP, 3/4 Sh () @ 6 AP. 16-64
Artillery - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-3
Linear entrenchments to protect artillery - F @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Art
Only after 1665 AD:
Downgrade generals to - Pi () @ 30 AP. Any
Downgrade Spanish foot to - 1/4 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, 3/4 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 3/4-all

Only from 1689 AD:

Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 6 Sh (O) or 12 Sh (I)
Catalan miquelettes - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-20

Only from 1694 AD:

English and Dutch allies - List: Williamite Anglo-Dutch.
Spain's only aggressive war in this period was a failed attempt to reconquer Portugal 1661-1665. The rest of the
century saw frequent defensive wars against France, mostly in the Low Countries. Many Spanish generals were totally
ignorant of tactics and owed their promotion to favouritism. Pride and jealousy hindered co-operation, hence the single
sub-general. Cuirassiers retained the corslet, which they wore over a buff coat or yellow coat with red cuffs.
Generals and their escorts at first wore 3/4 armour. Dragoons also wore yellow before changing to green in 1700.
Foot wore white coats except for Irish and Swiss regiments, who wore red. Pikemen still wore corslets. The army
was greatly neglected after the accession of the mentally-unstable Carlos II "the Bewitched" in 1665, the less
fashionable foot suffering especially. There are several 17th century references to poor quality Spanish troops and in
1718 they were described as "an unpaid, unclothed, unofficered and undisciplined parcel of wretches". Miquelettes
were irregulars with long accurate firelocks, more useful in home defence than regular foot. Allied contingents
including naval elements need not include otherwise compulsory un-embarked land troops. The Spanish navy did not
recover from its crushing defeat in 1639 by the Dutch until after 1700.

33. BRAGANZA PORTUGUESE 1640 AD - 1700 AD

Warm. Ag 0. WW, Rv, HS), H(G), Wd, O, V, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max N500

C-in-C - Pi (S) @ 32 AP. 1

Sub-generals - Pi (S) @ 32 AP or Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 3-18
Dragoons - Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 1 per 8 foot
Militia foot - 1/4 to 1/2 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, rest Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 24-48
Artillery - up to 1/2 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art () @ 20 AP. 1-4
Only from 1662 AD to 1668 AD:
Upgrade foot to regimented or mercenary - 1/4 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 3/4 Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-1/2
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 6 Sh (O)
English allies - List: Restoration British. 0-24
This covers the Portuguese army from the Duke of Braganza's 1640 revolt against Spanish rule. It presumably
started with a similar organisation and equipment to the Spanish army in which its officers had been trained. It was
reformed 1660-1668 by the Duke of Schomberg, now considered the founder of the modern army, only to be then
neglected. The cavalry were "ill-disciplined and impetuous". Each foot regiment included a dragoon company. The
artillery were the best arm.

29
34. SAVOYARD 1648 AD - 1700 AD

Warm. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA.

C-in-C-Pi(F)@31 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 0-2
Savoyard or Huguenot horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 4-8
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 1-3
Savoyard, mercenary or Huguenot foot - 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 18-60
Spanish foot or Savoyard militia - 1/4-1/3 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, rest Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 0-18
Artillery - Up to 1/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (1) @ 5 AP. 0-3

Only from 1689 AD:

Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh (F)
Swinesfeathers or chevaux de Frise - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per Sh
Unregimented Vaudois sharpshooters - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 3-20
Austrian allies - List: Later Imperial.
Bavarian allies - List: Later Bavarian. 0-24
Spanish allies - List: Later Spanish. 0-36
Astride the Alps between France and Italy, the Duchy of Savoy survived by diplomacy and good soldiers. It had been a
loyal expendable ally of the French until regency and civil war left it weakened and cynical. It could now still help
France, disengage gracefully or switch sides. This policy risked rapid frontier adjustment either way, but ended in Savoy
becoming the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. In the 1690s, Horse and artillery wore blue coats, dragoons yellow, blue
and green and foot white. The "musket rests" reported then were probably swinesfeathers with hooks.

35. LATER VENETIAN COLONIAL 1645 AD - 1700 AD

Warm. Ag 1 before 1684 AD, then 3. WW, Rv, H[S1, Wd, O, V, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Pi (S) @ 32 AP, or on foot in 3/4 armour as - Bd (S) @ 29 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (S) @ 32 AP, Bd (S) @ 29 AP or LH (S) @ 27 AP. 0-2
Horse - Up to 1/2 Pi (I) @ 8 AP, rest LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-6
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP or Dr (I) @ 6 AP. 0-6
Venetian marines - 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-1 per Gal
Venetian, mercenary, Italian or Croatian regular foot - 1/3 Pk (O), 2/3 Sh (O). ' 18-48
Sclavonians - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-15
Morlacchi or Maniote mountaineers - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-15
Artillery - up to 1/2 Art (I) @ 5 AP, rest Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Venetian galeasses - Gal (S) @ 5 AP [Bd, Pk, Sh] 1-3
Venetian and other Italian galleys - Gal (F) @ 3 AP [Pk, Sh, Art]. 4-12
Large merchant ships - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any]. 0-8
Small petaches, pinks, tartanes and feluccas - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any foot]. 0-4
Maltese galleys - Gal () @ 4 AP |Bd, Sh]. 0-6
Maltese marines - up to 1/4 knights Bd (S) @ 9 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 1 per Gal (O)
Only after 1667 AD:
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 12 Sh
Upgrade large merchant ships to warships of 44-60 guns - Shp () @ 5 AP [Any foot], 0-1
Fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1

Only in 1668 AD and 1689 AD:

French allies - List: Louis XIV French.
Only 1684 AD to 1688 AD:
Saxon foot - Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-6
Saxon swinesfeathers - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per Saxon Sh (O)
Brunswick/Wurtemburg/Hanover/Hesse foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. 0-18

30
This covers Venetian colonial armies and offensive naval expeditions from the renewed Ottoman attack of 1645 that
ended in 1669 with the loss of Crete after an epic 22 year siege of its last fortress. The Turkish disaster at Vienna in
1683 encouraged Venice to counter-attack, clearing the Turks from the Peloponnese by 1690. The many field battles all
resulted from attempts to relieve fortresses besieged by Venetian amphibious forces, hence the increased naval presence
in the list. The Stradiot light horse were still just as aggressive, but now mostly armed with pistols, sabre and
carbine instead of the former light lance. A Venetian marine guard of honour is described as armed with half-pike or
musket and with helmet and sword, though no mention is made of body armour. Morlacchi were Dalmatian
mountaineers "uneducated men who do not understand the logic of keeping promises to a defeated enemy", but useful
for pursuit. The Maniotes were Greek mountaineers from the Peloponnese "a sort of people who call themselves
Christians, but live chiefly on spoil and robbery", led 1688-89 by one Liberachi. A few light field pieces are referred
to on one occasion, but the most commonly mentioned artillery are 50 pdr, presumably main bow guns landed from
galleys. Maltese marines led by the Knights in red tabards were considered especially good assault troops. French
allies need not include otherwise compulsory cavalry or dragoons. The army's base is assumed to be either the
colonial possessions on the eastern side of the Adriatic, or until 1669, Crete.

36. LATER OTTOMAN TURK 1645 AD - 1700 AD

Warm. Ag 4 until 1683, then 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, O, E, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cx4
C-in-C - Si (S) @ 30 AP or Si (F) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Si (S) @ 30 AP or Si (F) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Qapukulu sipahis - Si (F) @ 8 AP. 1-5
Feudal sipahis - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 19-36
Upgrade feudal sipahis to Roumeliot - Si (F) @ 8 AP. 0-18
Delis, Kurds or Bedouin Arabs - LH () @ 5 AP. 0-4
Janissaries - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 2-12
Slav or Anatolian sharpshooters - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 3-12
Mount sharpshooters on horses as segmen - Dr (S) @ 8 AP, (O) @ 7 AP or (I) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Azabs, gonullas or levendat - up to 1/2 Bw (I) @ 3 AP, rest Hd (S) @ 2 AP. 0-10
Artillery - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-3
Zamburak camel guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-2
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Galleys - Gal (O) @ 3 AP [Bw, Hd(S)]. , 0-4
Corsair galleys and galliots - Gal (F) @ 2 AP [Bd]. ' 0-2
Corsairs - Bd (F) @ 5 AP. 1 per Gal (F)
Crimean Tartar allies - List: Tartar (Book 2).
Only from 1690 AD:
Great ships and frigates - up to 1/2 Shp (S) @ 6 AP, rest Shp (F) @ 4 AP |Bw, Hd (S)|. 0-4
This is a revised sub-set of Army No. 12 in Book 1, included here so that wargamers seeking the natural opponent in
this era of the Venetians and Imperialists will not be forced to buy an extra book. Qapukulu ("court slaves") were
regular household cavalry regiments now with little armour and fighting with scimitar and pistols. The Roumeliot
feudal sipahis of the European provinces were similarly armed, but the Asian feudal sipahis that had to be
increasingly relied on after the disaster at Vienna in 1683 were mostly armed only with a scimitar, sometimes
supplemented by obsolete weapons such as bows, light lances or matchlocks. Some ornate textile horse armour was
captured at Vienna in 1683, implying that bodyguards may still have been equipped in the old style. Delis
("madmen") were light cavalry 'raised from among converted Serbs, Bosnians and Croats for use as scouts and often
paid by provincial rulers out of their revenues. Janissaries (Yeni-ceri - "new troops") were elite regulars armed with
long firearms, but always willing to charge with the scimitar. Sharpshooters were provided by Slav or Anatolian
tufekcis, sarica, arnauts, klephts, or if mounted, segmens. Azabs ("bachelors") were now raised by conscription and
used like gonullas as garrisons. Levendat were marines, the largest ships carrying up to 500. A few huge bombards
were still used in fortifications, but most artillery was now reasonably-sized, if still only minimally mobile, heavy
brass siege pieces.

31
37. LATER IMPERIALIST 1649 AD to 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, E, M, RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cx3
C-in-C - Pi (S) @ 32 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (S) @ 32 AP or Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 0-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 8-15
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 2-5
Crabats/Croats/Croatian hussars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 1-6
Hungarian heavy hussars - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. *0-1
Hungarian light hussars - LH (F) @ 4 AP. *3-5
Lubomirski's Poles in Imperial pay - LH (I) @ 4 AP. *4-6
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 12-48
Hungarian haiduks or Sclavonians - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-4
Grenzer frontier militia - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-8
Levy with halberds or morgensterns - Bd (I) @ 4 AP. 0-4
Matchlock wall pieces in fortified BUA - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Artillery - Up to 2/3 Art (S) @ 25 AP, rest Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-3
Brunswick and/or other minor German allies - List: Later Minor German States. 0-12

Only in 1664 AD:

French allies - Louis XIV French.

Only from 1664 AD:

Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 1 per 8 Sh

Only before 1681 AD:

Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (O)
Only from 1681 AD:
Fusileers - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-1 per 8 Sh (O)
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 3 Sh (O)

Only until 1683 AD:

Upgrade horse to cuirassiers - Pi (S) @ 12 AP. 0-2
Only in 1683 AD:
Sharpshooters in fortified BUA - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Polish allies - List: Later Polish.

Only in 1683 AD and from 1685 AD:

Saxon allies - List: Later Saxon. 0-10

Only from 1683 AD to 1688 AD and in 1691 AD:

Bavarian allies - List: Later Bavarian. 0-15
Only 1684 AD to 1686 AD and 1690 AD to 1692 AD:
Swedish horse - Pi () @ 10 AP. 0-3
Swedish foot - 1/3 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-10
Only from 1684 AD to 1698 AD:
Pontooneers - Pont () @ 5 A P. 0-1
Danube flotilla - up to 1/2 Gal (F) @ 3 AP, rest Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Any foot]. 0-4
Country people "got up into a body in hopes of booty and plunder" - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-4
Brandenburg allies - List: Brandenburg-Prussia. 0-15
Only after 1688 AD:
Upgrade hussars as regulars to - LH (S) @ 7 AP. All
Swinesfeathers or chevaux de Frise - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per Sh (S)

32
This covers the armies of the Holy Roman Empire after the 30 Years War. Ottoman Turks and/or Hungarian rebels were
now the main opponents. The crushing defeat of a Turkish invasion at St.Gotthard south of Vienna in 1664 led to a
peace treaty due for renewal in 1681. The Turks chose instead to launch another massive invasion in 1683. Vienna
was subjected to an epic siege before being relieved by a combined (in order of numbers) Imperial, Polish, Bavarian
and Saxon force commanded by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski. An Imperial allied contingent for that army must be
accompanied by Bavarian and Saxon allies of the contingent size ranges listed here. All Imperialist horse were
reported in 1684 to wear corslets, but 2 of the 12 regiments reported in early 1683 were described as cuirassiers,
implying that they had 3/4 armour. In 1689, all 11 regiments of horse are called cuirassiers, suggesting this was no
longer so. Lobster-tail helmets were worn until after 1700. Some Hungarian loyalists continued to serve during revolts.
1,000 of 8,000 Hungarian hussars are described with long lances, which, with surviving armour, suggests that some
were as heavy as those of Poland. Other levy hussars were horse archers. Items marked * apply only if any
Hungarians are used. Crabats or "Croats" were light horse with sword, pistols and carbine. Regular hussars imitated
them and the types merged. Flintlock muskets, often with a reversionary matchlock mechanism, began to be used in
numbers around 1680, but in 1688 were still only 10%. Pikes were reduced at the same time, but not abandoned until
plug bayonets were issued in 1704. The "boar-spears" said to have replaced pikes were swinesfeathers doubling as
musket rests or combined into chevaux de Frise, reported in 1689 as "very valuable". Members of a Dutch
merchants' shooting club provided sharpshooting at the siege of Vienna. Grenzer were militia of the Militargrenze
frontier defences created in 1557. 3/4 plate armour for cuirassiers, mail and plate armour for heavy hussars, flintlock
and combination lock muskets, matchlock wall pieces (but not muskets), plug bayonets, swinesfeathers with musket
hooks, peasant levy halberds and morgensterns, and assembled chevaux de Frise can all be seen in the Armoury at Graz.

38. HUNGARIAN REBEL 1670 AD - 1685 AD

Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(G), RGo, Rd, BUA. Max Cxi .5
C-in-C - Ln (F) @ 31 AP, or LH (F) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-general - Ln (F) @ 31 AP, or LH (F) @ 24 AP. 1-2
Armoured hussars - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 0-3
Light hussars - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 32-48
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 1-4
Haiduks - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-36
Artillery - Art (I) @ 5 AP or Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-3
Only in 1677 AD:
Polish allies - List: Later Polish.
Only from 1682 AD:
Turkish allies - List: Later Ottoman Turk
When it became apparent after the Imperialist victory over the Ottoman Turks at St.Gotthard in 1664 that the Empire
would not dispute Turkish possession of Transylvania, the Hungarian nobles lost a prime motive for loyalty. A revolt
in 1670 was easily put down, but resultant repression, the taxes to pay an occupying army and religious interference
fed dissatisfaction that created the "kurucok" partisan army. Imperial concessions in 1681 were not believed and in
1682 the rebels called for Turkish aid. After 1685, the few remaining diehards took service with the Turks. The
national troop types were the hussar and the haiduk, an infantryman equally able with musket and sabre. A rebel force
was described in 1677 as dismaying 20 squadrons of Imperial horse with "clouds of arrows and a continued fire
from the foot and dragoons". This makes it apparent that most Hungarian hussars were still primarily horse archers.
Though many now carried a carbine as well as a bow, this seems to have been used to fire a single shot before
reverting to the older weapon. However, a force of Hungarian hussars assisting the Imperialists in 1683 was said to
include 2,000 armed with long lances. Together with presence of 26 complete and 68 partial-sets of hussar mail-and-
plate armours in the Armoury at Graz, this suggests that a small proportion of Hungarian cavalry were very similar to
Polish hussars. Polish allies need not include otherwise compulsory foot, cannot include artillery, but must include
Lithuanian Tartars.

33
39. LATER BAVARIAN 1649 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, V, RGo, Rd, BUA, I. Max N500 until 1682
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 3-7
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-3
Musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 16-48
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 6 Sh (F)
Artillery - Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-4
Only before 1687 AD:
Pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh (F)
Only from 1688 AD:
Hussars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Re-arm dragoons with flintlocks as - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. Any
Guards - 1/2 fusileers Sh (S) @ 7 AP, 1/2 grenadiers Sh (F) @ 6 AP or Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-4
The Bavarian army was largely demobilised after the 30 Years War to speed economic recovery and remained
relatively small until after the 1670s. Uniforms were worn from 1671. Horse wore corslets over light-grey coats, but
reverted to caracoling. Some dragoons wore red coats, others blue. The hussar regiment of 1688 wore blue. Artillery
wore a bluish-grey coat. The foot mostly wore light or dark grey coats before 1673, after which blue became usual and
was standardised in 1684. Unlike those of other German states, Bavarian foot kept up the rapid attack tactic.

40. LATER SAXON 1649 AD to 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, Rd, BUA.
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP, or (1656 AD to 1680 AD) with Croat guard as - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 4-7
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 1-6
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 16-48
Artillery - Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-6
Only before 1683 AD:
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2 Sh
Only from 1683 AD:
Re-arm dragoons with flintlocks as - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. All
Swinesfeathers - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per Sh (O)
Only from 1687 AD:
Re-arm musketeers with flintlock and bayonet as - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. All
Only from 1697 AD:
Polish allies - List: Later Polish.
This covers the armies of Electoral Saxony from the end of the 30 Years War. Unlike Bavaria, Saxony retained a
large standing army to protect its eastern interests. Intrigues by Electors to obtain the Polish throne finally bore
fruit when Augustus "the Strong" obtained the Polish crown in 1697. Horse retained the corslet, but had reverted to
caracoling with pistols instead of charging home. In 1695, dragoons adopted the red coats already worn by the horse.
Foot were wearing uniform by 1683, footguards wearing red coats, other foot and artillery grey. The Elector John
George III ordered pikes to be left in store, their anti-cavalry function instead being performed by swinesfeathers that could
double as musket rests. Pikes were finally discarded in 1687.

34
41. BRANDENBURG-PRUSSIA 1646 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 3 or *1. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, Rgo, M, Rd, BUA, I.
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 4-14
Leibgarde (with firelocks) - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-3
Battalion guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-4
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Only in 1658 AD:
Dutch ships - up to 1/2 Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Any foot], rest Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any]. 0-6
Only before 1689 AD:
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 2-6
Foot (with pikes and matchlocks) - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. 18-42
Wibranzen - 1/3 Pk (1) @ 3 AP, 2/3 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. *12-18
Only from 1674 AD:
Jager - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Only from 1689 AD:
Dragoons (with firelocks) - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 2-8
Foot (with firelocks) - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 12-36
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 2-4
This army almost vanished at the end of the 30 Years War when the Estates refused to continue
paying for it. A compromise in 1653 allowed a permanent nucleus of 5,000, supplemented by a
ruthless conscription introduced during the Polish war of 1655. The cavalry relied on fire and
stood to receive attack. Corslets were discarded in 1689 and did not return until 1736. Except for
the leibgarde, the foot retained pikes and matchlocks until the death of the Great Elector in 1688.
Jager were rifle-armed snipers recruited from gamekeepers. A battery of 12 light guns massed
together was important in the decisive defeat of the Swedes at Fehrbellin in 1675. The Wibranzen
were a traditional East Prussian militia reorganised to hinder Polish and Cossack incursions. The
minimum marked * applies only if any Wibranzen are used.

42. LATER MINOR GERMAN STATES 1649 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 0. WW, Rv, H(S), H(G), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA. Max N500
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 6-12
Dragoons (and Hesse-Kassel mounted jager) - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-3
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. ' 12-36
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0 -lper6S h
Jager - Sk (S) @ 4 AP. 0-3
Artillery - Art (O) @ 20 AP or Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-3
Only before 1699 AD if Hesse-Kassel, 1689 AD if not:
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 1 per 2-3 Sh
Only from 1685 AD:
Re-arm musketeers with flintlocks as - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. Any
This covers lesser German states such as Hesse-Kassel, Wurtemberg, Hanover, Brunswick and the
Palatinate. Cavalry had reverted to the caracole, pikemen returned and distant musketry replaced
the fast attack. Allied contingents from this list can include its non-compulsory troop types.

35
43. LATER DANISH 1649 AD - 1700 AD
Cold. Ag 3. WW, Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, E, Rd, BUA, I. Max N500
Oin-C - Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (F) @ 31 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi (F) @ 11 AP. 4-24
Guard firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-8
Musketeers - Sh () @ 6 AP. 6-20
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 1-2
Galloper guns - Art (F) @ 10 AP. 0-1
Battalion guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 0-2
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Peasants - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-2
Warships - Shp () @ 5 AP [Sh, Wb]. 0-2
Longboats - Bts (O) @ 2 AP [Any]. 0-4
Prams, gunboats or mortar boats - Bts (S) @ 3 AP [Wb|. 0-2
Seamen - Wb () @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp or Bts
Only before 1655 AD:
Pikemen - Pk (O) @ 4 AP. 2 per 4 Sh (O)
Only from 1655 AD to 1671 AD:
Upgrade musketeers to firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 1/2-all
Only 1657 AD to 1659 AD:
Dutch warships - Shp (O) @ 5 AP [Sh, Wb]. 0-3
Dutch fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Dutch foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. * 12-24
Brandenburg foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. *6-12
Imperial foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. *6-12
Polish allies - List: Later Polish. 0-12
Only from 1672 AD to 1689 AD:
Pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 0-2 per 5 Sh
Only from 1672 AD:
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-4
Upgrade musketeers to firelocks - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. All
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Sh (S), Wb|. 0-1
Marines - Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 0-1 per 2 Shp or Bts
Only in 1700 AD:
Saxon allies - List: Later Saxon.
This covers Danish armies after the unlucky interventions in the 30 Years War. In addition to further unsuccessful
wars against Sweden in 1653, 1657-1660, 1675-79 and 1700, the Danes also provided high quality allied contingents
for the Dutch and English. Their cavalry in particular were noted for their aggression and maintained a good
reputation right through the Marlburian wars. The cuirass had been temporarily abandoned, though it was to be
reintroduced in 1701. Firelocks had been issued to the guards by 1625, most of the army by 1655 and all of it
by 1672, by when plug bayonets were in use. The situation as regards pikes is more obscure. In 1657 foreign
colonels raising regiments for Danish service were forbidden to include pikemen. However, we are also informed that
in 1672-78 a ratio of 2 shortened pikes to 5 firelocks was officially sanctioned. The Danish troops that came to
England in 1688 had no pikes and they were formally abolished the next year. Landing parties of Danish seamen are
described as armed with bills and morgensterns and "falling on with much haste and violence". Minima marked *
apply only if any Polish, Brandenburg or Imperial troops are used. A Saxon corps of 2 regiments each of cuirassiers
and foot tried to join the Danes in 1700. Polish allies must not include reiters or foot, nor Saxon allies include
dragoons or Art (O), even if these are normally compulsory.
 36
44. CAROLINE SWEDISH 1649 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 4. WW, H(S), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I.

C-in-C - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pk (F) @ 24 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (O) @ 30 AP or Pk (F) @ 24 AP. 1-2
Horse - Pi () @ 10 AP. 1-16
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 2-6
Pikemen - Pk (F) @ 4 AP. 6-12
Musketeers - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 2 per Pk
3 pdr regimental guns - Art (1) @ 5 AP. 1-3
6 pdr field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
16 pdr heavy guns - Art (S) @ 25 AP. 0-1
Pontooneers - Pon () @ 5 AP. 0-1
Warships - Shp (O) @ 5 AP |Wb, Pk, Sh]. 0-4
Frigates - Shp (F) @ 4 AP [Wb, Pk, Sh]. 0-2
Sailors - Wb (O) @ 4 AP. 0-1 per Shp (O) or (F)
Transports - Shp (I) @ 3 AP [Any]. 0-6
Fireships - Shp (X) @ 4 AP. 0-1
Only after 1654 AD:
Re-arm dragoons with firelocks as - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. Any
Grenadiers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-1 per 6 Sh

Only before 1657 AD:

Brandenburg allies - List: Brandenburg-Prussia.
Only after 16% AD:
Regrade mounted generals and horse as - Pi (F) @ 31 AP, if general, 11 AP if not. All
Re-arm dragoons with firelocks as Dr (S) @ 8 AP. All
Upgrade dismounted generals and pikemen as - Pk (S) @ 25 AP if general, 5 AP if not: All/0
Only in 1700 AD:
Anglo-Dutch allies - List: Williamite Anglo-Dutch. German allies - List:
Later Minor German States.
This covers Swedish armies from the end of the 30 Years War until after the battle of Narva. This includes the
reign of Christina and of Charles X, XI and XII. There were wars in 1654-60 against Poland, 1674-9 against
Brandenburg and Denmark and in 1700 against Denmark, Russia and Saxony-Poland. By 1675, Swedish cavalry
armour retained a heavy breast plate, but no longer had a back plate or helmet. They still used pistols immediately
before contact. This was changed after the accession of Charles XII in 1697, cavalry now being forbidden to wear
armour or to use pistols in the charge, instead charging at the gallop using a long straight slender sword optimised for
thrusting. They now rode knee behind their neighbour's knee starting at the centre of each squadron to form a
shallow wedge. Foot regiments now had 2 battalions (4 in the foot guard regiment), each with 50 4-deep files of
pikemen and 100 of musketeers, with small groups of grenadiers on the wings. Pikes were especially valued by
Charles XII as an assault weapon as well as for defence against cavalry and were retained until 1720. The army had no
grenadiers or firelocks by 1654, but had some of both by 1689. Charles XII replaced all the matchlocks with flintlocks,
but this does not affect classification since the foot used "ga-pa" (go on) tactics, concentrating on forward motion
and disregarding casualties from fire. They were supposed to halt briefly at 50 paces to allow the last 2 ranks to
fire, then press-on into contact, the first 2 ranks firing point-blank. This did not always work. In one battle, a
battalion Charles XII was personally leading halted spontaneously at 30 paces to blow away their Russian opponents
with a single volley, which greatiy annoyed him! Most of the army consisted of territorial regiments whose uniform
coats initially corresponded to the colour of the provincial standard. From 1687 their coats were changed to dark
blue. Anglo-Dutch allies can include naval elements and need not include otherwise compulsory Dutch guards or
unembarked British land troops.

37

45. RUSSIAN CONSCRIPT 1648 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 1. WW, Rv, Wd, M, BUA, I. Max Cx4
C-in-C - Pi (I) @ 28 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Pi (I) @ 28 AP or Si (I) @ 25 AP. 0-2
Noble cavalry - Si (I) @ 5 AP. 5-14
Cossack horse - Don LH (O) @ 5 AP or Ukrainian LH (I) @ 4 AP. 0-12
Kalmuks - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-3
Streltzi - up to 1/4 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, rest Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 8-24
Heavy or medium guns - Up to 1/2 Art (O) @ 20 AP, rest Art (S) @ 25 AP. 1-2
3 pdr or lighter accompanying guns - Art (1) @ 5 AP. 0-5
Cossack foot - up to 1/4 Sk (S) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-8
Mount Cossack foot on horses as - Dr (O) @ 7 AP. 1 per 4 LH (I) or Sh (F)
Cossack chaika - Bts (O) @ 2 AP |Sh (F), Sk (S)]. 0-1 per Sh (F) or Sk (S)
Angry peasants - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-2
Only until 1667 AD:
Reiters - Pi (1) @ 8 AP. 0-5
Hussars - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 0-3
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 0-2
Gulay gorod - PO @ 1 AP. 0-12
Only before 1695 AD:
Foreign foot - 1/4 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, 3/4 Sh (I) @ 4 AP. 12-48
Only from 1695 AD:
Guard or old regiments of foot - 1/5 Pk (1) @ 3 AP, 4/5 Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 5-10
Only 1695 AD to 1699 AD:
Conscript militia - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-30
Only in 1700 AD:
Dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP or Pi (I) @ 8 AP. 1-2
Newly raised regiments of foot - 1/5 Pk (I) @ 3 AP, 4/5 Sh (1) @ 4 AP. 3-5 per Sh (S)
Linear entrenchments - FO @ 2 AP, or swine feathers - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per Sh
Warships - Shp (O)@ 5 AP| ShJ. 0-2
Galleys - Gal (I) @ 2 AP [Sh|. 0-3
This list covers Russian armies from Alexei Mikhailovitch's institution of conscription from the tax rolls to provide
western-style "foreign" regiments until the post-Narva reforms of Peter the Great. Very large numbers of troops were
raised at short notice, but a satisfactory standard of training was rendered impossible by the practise of disbanding all
or all but a cadre when a war ended. As well as "foreign" foot, there were new mounted regiments of reiters with 3/4
armour and pistols and hussars (actually lancers), but these proved even harder to maintain. Accordingly, reliance still
had to be placed on the streltsi, now possibly with a proportion of pikemen, and the noble cavalry. The noble cavalry
were now mostly minor gentry and their retainers. There were a few units entirely of nobles commanded by boyars,
but these often sent substitutes when required for war instead of for peacetime parades. Armour was now rare, but
the bow was still in use together with firearms. From 1685, the "foreign" foot were progressively disbanded until
only the 2 "old" regiments of Lefort and Gordon survived to be joined by the new Preobrazhenskii and Semenovskii
guard regiments. This reduction was premature and in 1695 many of the disbanded men had to be called on again to
fill up the conscript militia for a campaign against the Turks. New regiments of foot armed with firelock, plug
bayonet and a smaller proportion of half-pikes were still very raw in 1700 and only the first 2 of the new dragoon
regiments were ready. The new dragoons sometimes fought mounted, so can be either Dr (S) or Pi (I). There were as
yet no grenadiers. The Cossacks of the Ukraine shifted their allegiance to Russia in 1654. Those fighting mounted were
distant skirmishers more timid than Don Cossacks. The gulay gorod "walking fort" is last mentioned in 1660. Field
entrenchments became a Russian speciality from 1700 on and swine feathers were issued well into the 18th century for
protection against Turkish cavalry.

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46. LATER POLISH 1632 AD - 1700 AD

Cold. Ag 1. Rv, H(G), Wd, RGo, M, Rd, BUA, I. Max Cx2

C-in-C - Drabant Pi (O) @ 30 AP, Pancerni Si (O) @ 28 AP or Hussar Ln (F) @ 31 AP. 1
Sub-generals - Ln (F) @ 31 AP or Si () @ 28 AP. 0-2
Downgrade sub-general to Lithuanian ally-general - Ln (F) @ 21 AP or Si (S) @ 20 AP. *1
Hussars - Ln (F) @ 11 AP. 2-8
Pancerni - Si () @ 8 AP. 2-3 per Ln
Upgrade pancerni to Lithuanian petyhortsy - Si (S) @ 10 AP. *3-7
Reiters - Pi (1) @ 8 AP. 2-6
Lithuanian Tartars - LH (S) @ 7 AP. 0-2
Dragoons - Dr () @ 7 AP. 2-6
German-style foot - 1/3 Pk (O) @ 4 AP, 2/3 Sh () @ 6 AP. 12-24
Haiduks - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-3
Regimental guns - Art (I) @ 5 AP. 1-3
Field guns - Art () @ 20 AP. 0-2
Tabor - FO @ 2 AP. 0-12
Noble levy - Si (I) @ 5 AP. **9-24
Fake hussars - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. 0-4

Only before 1648 AD or from 1658 AD:

Ukrainian Cossack allies - List: Free Cossack (Book 2).
Only after 1652 AD:
Wallachian or Tartar light cavalry - LH (F) @ 4 AP. 1-2 per Ln
Grenade-throwers - Sk (X) @ 8 AP. 0-3
Replace all noble levy with Dymowe, Lanowe or other levies - Hd (O) @ 1 AP. **6-12
Marauding peasants - Hd (F) @ 1 AP. 0-3
Crimean Tartar allies - List: Tartar (Book 2).
Only from 1676 AD:
Guard dragoons - Dr (S) @ 8 AP. 0-2
Janissary or Moldavian guards - Sh (F) @ 6 AP. 0-2
Upgrade pancerni to - Si (S) @ 30 AP if general, 10 AP if not. All
Regrade light cavalry as - 1/2 Wallachian LH (I) @ 4 AP, 1/2 Tartar LH () @ 5 AP. Any
Re-arm German foot in Polish-style - up to 1/8 Pk (F) @ 4 AP, rest Sh (S) @ 7 AP. 1/2-all
Only from 1683 AD:
Chevaux de Frise or wheeled obstacles - PO @ 1 AP. 0-1 per 4 foot
Imperialist, Bavarian and Saxon allies - List: Later Imperialist.

Only from 1689 AD to 1697 AD:

Reclassify hussars as - Pi (F) @ 31 AP if sub-general, 11 AP if not. All
This list includes the army of King Jan III Sobieski's 1683 relief of Vienna. The bodyguard was now the Drabant-
Reiter, but a pancerni unit guarded Sobieski's personal "bunczuk" horse-tail standard kept near him in battle. Junior
generals also had a bunczuk. The grading of Lithuanian generals reflects their furious rivalry. The hussars' lances
were taken away in 1689, but reissued to fight the Crimean Tartars in 1698. The armoured cossacks now called
"pancerni" were issued light lances in 1676, the petyhortsy retaining heavier lances. Light cavalry were now "Tartar" or
"Wallachian". Originally horse archers, the former were acquiring lances and the latter carbines. The noble levy were
still in theory available, but Sobieski despised them and instead tried new peasant levies who proved equally useless.
Noble levy must be in the C-in-C's command. Minima marked * or ** apply only if troops so marked are used.
"German" foot had been given pikes after mishaps against the Swedes. From 1676, a new Polish-style infantry had
only a few half-pikes, relying instead on berdische axes both as a fearsome hand-to-hand weapon and as a musket rest.
The Ukrainian Cossacks were now independent enough to be classed as allies until the revolt of 1648. Those of the
Dnieper's right bank were intermittently available again from 1658. Swap fake hussars for servants with lances on
baggage animals when enemy within 200p or if shot at.

39

Abyssinian. Page 14
Acheh. 17
Adal. 13
Algerian. 7
Aiwa. 15
Arab. 11
Ashanti. 9
Bavarian. Later, 34
Austrian. 32
Benin. 9
Braganza Portuguese. 29
Brandenburg-Prussia. 35
British. Restoration, 22
Brunswick. 35
Burmese. 19
Cambodian. 19
Dahomey. 9
Danish. Later, 36
Dinka. 10
Dutch. Williamite Anglo-, 30
Dutch Colonial. 20
Dutch United Provinces. 24
East African Pagan. 10
French. Louis XIV, 28
Funj. 16
Hanoverian. 35
Hawaiian. 21
Hesse-Kassel. 35
Hungarian Rebel. 33
Imperialist. Later, 32
Indonesian. 17
Irish Jacobite. 26
Jaga. 9
Javanese. 17
Kandy. 21
Khmer. 19
Kongo. 9
Laotian. 19
Maghrebi. 7
Majaapahit. 17
Malacca. 17
Malay. 17
Maori. 21
Mataram. 17
Melanesian. 21
Minor German States. Later, 35
Moluccan. 17
INDEX
Monomotapa.
Moroccan.
Ngola.
Omani.
Ottoman Turk. Later,
Philippine.
Polish. Later,
Polynesian.
Portuguese. Braganza,
Portuguese Colonial.
Portuguese. Sebastianic,
Prussian.
Restoration British.
Russian Conscript.
Savoyard.
Saxon. Later,
Scots Constitutional.
Scots Jacobite.
Scots Western Covenanter.
Sebastianic Portuguese.
Segeju.
Shaiqiya.
Shilluk.
Shri Lankhan.
Siamese.
Sinhalese.
Somali.
Spanish. Later,
Sudanese. West,
Sumatran.
Sunda.
Swedish. Caroline,
Tapuya.
Tripolitanian.
Tuareg.
Tunisian.
Tupi.
Turk. Later Ottoman,
Venetian Colonial. Later,
Vietnamese.
Wadj.
West African Forest Peoples.
West Sudanese.
Williamite Anglo-Dutch.
Wurtemberg.
Yemeni.
Zan j.
Zimba.

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25
24
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10
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19
21
11
29
8
17
17
37
9
7
8
7
9
31
30
18
15

27 35 11 12 10
For details of other WRG wargames rules, army lists and reference books, send your stamped and addressed envelope or
International Reply Coupons to W.R.G, The Keep, Le Marchant Barracks, London Road, Devizes, Wilts SN10 2ER,
UK. Phone credit card orders for air or surface mail delivery to 01380 724558. Phone list suggestions or comments to
Phil Barker on 0121-472-6207.
Thanks are due to many for their help, especially Richard Brzezinski for Poles and Swedes, Ian Gray for initial
pointers on Danes and Africans, Chris Peers for Portuguese, Nigel Tallis for Arab expertise, but foremost to Duncan
Head, who wore me to a frazzle trying to keep up. My thanks also in advance to the unknown experts on obscure
armies, who I trust will rush to correct me!

40