1 Chapter 1 : Introduction

1.1 Introduction

Microlight is a type of aircraft which is also known as ultralight aircraft in some

region. Microlight aviation can be defined as the flying of light weight, 1 or 2 seater
aircraft. The name of this category of aircraft is primarily influenced by the weight of
the overall aircraft itself. The microlight aviation was inspired by hang gliding
movement where many people managed to find a way to create an affordable powered
aircraft which is subjected to minimum regulations. Although weight is the primary
reason after the name of these aircrafts, microlight aircrafts carry different
specifications for weight , usage type and speed limits according to different
countries.

For instance, microlight aircrafts are used for recreational and sport purposes in
Australia whereby the maximum take-off weight is limited between 600 kg and 614
kg (1). Other than that, the microlight aircrafts used in Canada are known as advanced
ultralight aeroplanes which has a maximum take off weight up to 559kg. Other
countries that use microlight aircrafts are New Zealand, Philippines, India, United
States, United Kingdom, Europe, Italy and many more.

Figure 1.1 : Example of microlight aircraft

There are several types of microlight aircrafts which are currently used in
many countries. According to British Microlight Aircraft Association, microlight
aircrafts can be categorised into three major types which are fixed wing (also known
as 3-axis), flexwing and the powered parachutes. A fixed wing microlight aircraft can
be said as a conventional light aircraft based on its looks and control systems. These
type of microlight aircrafts tend to be bulky and more expensive compared to the flex
wing variant. One of the advantage of fixed wing microlight aircrafts is they are are
not weather restricted and has a closed cockpit option. On the other hand, the
flexwing microlight aircrafts which are also known as weightshift or trike consist of a
hang-glider like wing together with a trike to contain engine, seats and landing gear.
The trike unit functions like a pendulum which gives the aircrafts its unique stability.
Powered parachute variants are similar to flex wing with a canopy like wing attached
to the body of aircraft.

1.1.1 Mission and definition

As we know, microlights are classified according to their type of usage as well.

Due to its light weight, limited seating capacity, engine capacity, and structural
strength, the usage scope of microlights are very limited. Many countries have limited
the use of microlight for recreational and sports activities which suits the capability of
the aircraft itself. In our project, we will use the microlight aircraft for recreational
purposes. The mission was selected based on the geografy of our country. Since
Malaysia is one of the best tourist spot due to its richness of nature and scenery, it will
be more appropriate to add another mode of transport to help the development of
tourism industry as well as to provide new experience to the tourists.
1.1.2 Regulations

As discussed earlier, microlight aircrafts have their own definitions according

to different countries. Similar to conventional aircrafts, microlight aircrafts have their
own regulatory agencies that defines the microlight based on their maximum take-off
weight, speed limit and type of usage. The Recreational Aviation Australia (RA-Aus)
and the Hang Gliding Federation of Australia (HGFA) are responsible for regulations
and pilot licencing for microlight aircrafts in Australia whereas FAR Part 103
establishes regulations for microlights operated in United States. For this scope of
Study, UK specification will be used as reference to complete the project.

The regulatory agency for microlights operated in United Kingdom is known

as British Microlight Aircraft Association (BMAA). The criterias defined by BMAA
will be followed throughout the project to build our microlight aircraft. Those criterias
are as below:

The maximum take-off weight for single seat landplane is 300kg whereas an
amateur built single seat landplane will have 390kg as its MTOW
450kg of MTOW is permitted for two seat landplane whereas 330kg of
MTOW is permitted for single seat amphibian or floatplane.
The two seat amphibian or floatplane will have 495kg as its MTOW
The single seat landplane equipped with parachute system is allowed to have
315kg as its MTOW whereas the two seater variants must have 472.5kg as its
MTOW

Besides the weight limitations, the microlights must also have a stalling speed not
more that 35 knots .
1.2 Airfoil selection

1.2.1 Parametric study

Parametric study is a systematic method to provide a logical estimation of a

parameter or an object that we are starting to develop from scratch. It involves
collection of data about the required information from various resources to aid our
estimations. The collected data will help one to provide a logical and acceptable
estimation which suits the engineering analysis.

Besides choosing the airfoil shape, the parametric study was continued by
collecting the data from airfoiltool (source by internet) of suitable microlight aircraft
airfoil. The data of 10 airfoils were chosen to be used as reference to estimate the
suitable airfoil for our microlight as shown in figure 3.1. The data collected were
coefficient of lift and angle of attack at Reynold number : 5x106.

Figure 1.2: Graph Cl vs angle of attack for 10 types of airfoil

 From figure 1.2 we decide to choose NACA 2412 as our airfoil based on the Cl
(during cruising speed). Cruising speed of microlight can be obtained from the
parametric study in report 1. Calculation below showed the value of Cl during crusing
speed.

Where,

Vcrusing speed = 31.8 m/s

Wgross = 402.6 kg
1.225 kg/m3 (Sea level)
S = 14.1 m2

W gross
CL
1
V 2stall S
2

31.8
1
1.225
2
402.6 9.81

0.452

From the calcution above, the value of Cl is 0.267 when the aircraft at crusing
speed. In the graph shown in figure 1.2 the most suitable airfoil is NACA 2412.
 Figure 1.3: Airspeed related to angle of attack
By combining this fact with what we already know, we can establish the
relationship between angle of attack and indicated airspeed. In figure 3.2 we see that a
particular V-number, such as VNE, corresponds to a particular coefficient of lift, which
in turn corresponds to a certain angle of attack. The same goes for most of the other
V-numbers, such as VY. The argument works in reverse, too: any particular angle of
attack corresponds to a particular airspeed (assuming we know how much lift is being
produced).

Cruise is level flight after an aircraft climbs to a set altitude and before it
begins to descend. It is usually the majority of a flight. Cruising may include heading

(direction of flight) changes at a constant airspeed and altitude. So the NACA 2412 is
the most suitable for our microlight, which is low speed aircraft.

Figure 1.3: Graph of Lift Coefficient against angle of attack for NACA 2412

The values obtained from the graph was then used to proceed with the
calculation of weight estimation with will be explained in the following chapter. The
following graphs were used in our parametric study during the process of estimation
of specification. For early assumption, the estimated gross weight of our microlight
aircraft was fixed as 430 kg which was changed to lower value after the use
of graph to estimate the gross weight.

NACA 2412 Airfoil

Max thickness 12% at 30% chord.
Mac chamber 2% at 40% chord
 1.3 T
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drawing of Flygon Mark 1

1.3.1 Isometric
 1.3.2 O
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View
 1.3.3 F
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View

1.3.4 Side view

 2 Chapter 2 : V-n diagram

2.1 V-n diagram

In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance

envelope of an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and
load factor or altitude. The term is somewhat looselt applied, and can also refer to
other measurement such as maneuverability. When a lane push is pushed, for instance
by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown outside the envelope something
considered rather dangerous.

Flight envelope is one of a number of related terms that are all used in a similar
fashion. It is perhaps the most common term because it is the oldest, first being used
in the early days of test flying. It is closely related to more modern terms known as
extra power and a doghouse plot, which are different ways of describing a flight
envelope. In addition, the term has been widened in scope outside the field of
engineering, to refer to the strict limits in which an event will take place or more
generally to the predictable behavior of a given phenomenon or situation, and hence,
its "flight envelope.

V-n diagram A diagram showing load factor versus velocity

 Figure 2.1: The V-n diagram for typical jet trainer aircraft.

1
VS C L
L 2
n
W W
and hence,
1 C
nmax VS L, max Eq 2.1
2 WS

At higher speeds, nmax is limited by the structural deisgn of the airpilane. These
considerations are best understood by examining Figure 2.1, which is a diagram
showing load factor versus velocity for a given airplane the V-n diagram. Here,
curve AB is given by equation 2.1. Consider an airplane flying at velocity V1 is
shown in figure 2.1. Assume that the airplane is at an angle of attack such that
C LC L ,max

This flight condition is represented by point 1 in Figure 2.1. Now assume that
the angle of attack is increased to that for obtaining C L, max , keeping the velocity
constsnt at V1.

The lift increases to its maximum value for the given V 1 , and hence the

load factor nLW reaches its maximum value nmax for the given V 1 . This
value of nmax is given by equation 2.1. if the angle of attck is incrased further, the
wing stalls and the load factor drops.

Therefore, at point 3 in figure 2.1 is unobtainable in flight. Point 3 is in the

stall region of the V-n diagram. Consequently, point 2 represent the highest possible
load factor that can be obtained at the given velocity V 1 . Now, as V1 is
increased say to a value of V 4 , then the maximum possible load factor nmax
also increases as given by point 4 in figure 2.1 and as calculated from equation 2.1.
However nmax cannot be allowed to increase indefinitely. Beyond a certain value of
load factor, defined structural damage may occur to the aircraft. The velocity
corresponding to point B is designated as V* . At velocities higher than V*, say, V 5 ,
the airplane must be fly at values of CL less than C L, max so that the positive
limit load factor is not exceeded. If flight at C L, max is obtained at velocity V5 ,
corresponding to point 5 in Figure 2.1, then structural damage will occur.

The right hand side of the V-n diagram, line CD, is a high speed limit. At
velocities greater then this, the dynamic pressure become so large that structural
damage occur to the airplane.

Finally, the bottom part of the V-n diagram, given by curve AE and ED in
figure 2.1, corresponds to negative absolute angles of attack, that is, negative load
factors.

Curve AE defines the stall limit. (At absolute angles of attack less than zero,
the lift is negative and acts in the downward direction. If the wing is pitched bottom
surface of the wing and the downward-acting lift will decrease in magnitude that is
the wing stalls). Line ED gives the negative limit load factor, beyond which structural
damage will occur.
2.2 Settling angle

The setting angle or wing incidence angle on fixed wing aircraft is the angle
between the chord line of the wing and the longitudinal axis of the fuselage. The angle
of incidence is a fixed setting built in place as the airplane is constructed. There is no
normal method to vary the angle of incidence while in flight.

The wing incidence angle should not be confused with the term angle of attack.
Angle of attack, in regards to aviation, is the angle between the wings chord line and
the relative wind on the aircraft. Angle of attack is under the complete control of the
pilot. Exceeding the angle of attack results in a wings aerodynamic stall and the loss
of control until sufficient airspeed is gained to recover the aircraft.

Figure 2.2: Wing incidence angle

Setting the angle of incidence is important when designing an aircraft. For a

variety of reasons model aircraft usually fly best with 1-2 degrees of positive
incidence. This incidence should be drawn into the aircraft plans so the builder installs
the wing at the proper setting. There has been a tendency in recent years to create
model aircraft designs with zero wing incidences. This approach works with certain
types of aircraft such as lightweight 3D acrobatic models.
 Parameters Value
Wing Section 21
Wingspan, b 8.936 m
Wing Area, S 14.19 m2
Aspect Ratio, AR 5.62
Chord Length, c 1.588 m
Cruising Velocity, v 31.5 ms
Weight, W 402.6 kg
Taper Ratio 0
CL max 2D 4.092
Table 2.1: Required data to calculate settling angle

From the previous chapter, we decide to choose NACA 2412 as our airfoil based
on the Cl (during cruising speed). Settling angle can be determined based on the
coefficient lift during cruising speed. Below showed the value of Cl during
crushing speed as shown below by using equation 2.2

Where,

Vcrusing speed = 31.8 m/s

Wgross = 402.6 kg
1.225 kg/m3 (Sea level)
S = 14.1 m2

W gross
CL
1 2 Eq 2.2
V stall S
2

31.8
1
1.225
2
402.6 9.81

0.458
 Furthemore, by using graph NACA 2412 from the parametric study in chapter
1 we can plotted the setling angle at C L, crusing speed which is 0.458 as shown in
Figure 2.2. The setting angle of our aircraft during crusing speed is 2.0218 which
is obtained by using Matlab (refer Appendix A).

Figure 2.3: Graph Cl vs angle of attack NACA 2412

2.3 Calculation for every point in V-n diagram

Figure 2.4: The V-n diagram for Flygon Mark 1

Poin Load Airspeed Coefficent Lift to Coefficent Angle of

t factor, ,v lift, CL structure axis lift at attack,
n perpendicular structural
to chord line, axis, CLSA
L
A 3.8 35.21 1.3929 14930 1.3637 11.75
B 3.8 44.1 0.8879 14930 0.8833 5.8534
C -1.52 22.05 -1.1007 5725.4 1.0498 -17.5
D -1.52 44.1 -0.3552 5975.5 0.3535 -5.5132
Table 2.2: Parameter for every point in V-n diagram for Flygon Mark 1 aircraft.

Sample calculation
 Point A

Airspeed, v = 35.21 m/s

load factor, n = 3.8

Actual Lift at Point A, LA = n x Wo

= (3.8) x [(402.6)(9.81)]
= 15008.12 N
Where, Wo = Gross weight
LA
Lift Coefficient at Point A, CLA = 1
V 2A S
2
35.21
1
= 1.225
2
15008.12

= 1.3

From Figure 2.3, we can obtain the angle of attack, which is 11.75 when
the lift coefficient, CL at point A is 1.39. Therefore, the lift for structural axis at point
A, LSA is :

LSA = LA cos

= (15008.12) cos (11.75)

= 14693.63 N
After obtaining the lift for structural axis at point A, the lift coefficient for structural
axis at point A is calculated as :

LSA
Structural Axis Lift Coefficient at point A, CLSA = 1 2
V A S
2
35.21
1
= 1.225
2
14693.63

= 1.36

Hence, from the calculation above we can obained the graph of lift
distribution, shear distribution, eliptical lift distribution and moment distribution for
every point (refer appendix B).

2.4 Torsion moment

Point Load factor, n Coefficent of moment, Cm Moment, M

A 3.8 -0.0275 -470.5478
B 3.8 -0.0502 -1346.6
C -1.52 -0.0338 -292.7326
D -1.52 -0.0573 -496.2598
 3 Chapter 3 : Discussion

3.1 Discussion for V-n diagram at point A

Figure 2.5: Graph of Cl vs

Local lift coefficient against y plotted in figure 2.5. We can observe that the
local lift coefficient reduces as the y increase. This is because y is the distance from
the body or the fuselage of the plane. The smaller y indicates the root while the larger
y indicates the tip. The coefficient is highest at the wing root and 0 at the wing tip.
 Figure 2.6: Graph of cCl vs y

The figure 2.6 shows the wing load distribution coefficient against y, we can
see that it has recorded the same trend as the graph of local lift coefficient against y.
This is due to the wing load is actually the lift force exerted on the wing which is
influence by the lift coefficient.

As the wing chord is constant in our aircrafts case, the graph will record the
same trend as the previous graph only the values to be different. From the graph, we
can say that as y increases, the wing load distribution decreases until it reaches 0 at
the tip of the wing.
 Figure 2.7: Lift force againts y

Graph above shows the local lift force against y. We can observe that the graph shares
the same trend with graph number 1 and number 2. This is due to the formula for lift
force is given by:

c C L n ng W o g
Ln
c CL y

From the equation above, we know that lift force is a function of wing load
distribution coefficient. While other factors are constant, lift force is then proportional
to wing load distribution coefficient. Therefore, they share the same trend in their
graphs respectively.
 Figure 2.8: Graph of Elliptic Lift Coefficient, Wing Load Distribution Coefficient
and Lift Coefficient of Plan View of Half Wing against y

The figure above is a combination of 3 different lift coefficients against y. The

red line graph represents the elliptic lift coefficient that is the ideal scenario of the
wing lift distribution.

The green colour line graph represents the wing load distribution coefficient,
which is the same in figure 2.8.

The blue colour line graph indicates the lift coefficient of plan view of half
wing. In this case, the lift force is equally distributed along the wing.
 Figure 2.8: Graph of Shear Force against y

From the graph above, we observed that the shear force decreases when y
increases. This is because, for any span station, the shear force is simply the sum of
the vertical loads outboard of that station.

Shear affects wings in the vertical direction, and is simply the strength needed
to support the load on the wings.

Therefore, as the lift force at the wing tip is zero, the shear force at the tip is
lowest or zero. In other word, the shear force is the highest at the root. Shear strength
is maximum at the root, where the entire lift generated by the wing supports the plane,
and is zero at the tip.
 Figure 2.9: Graph of Moment against y

From the graph above, we observed that the moment decreases when y
increases. The data was shown in table 4.4. Bending moment at any station equals the
sum of product of load at each outboard station and its distance from the station.

The bending-moment causes horizontal forces putting the lower spar

in tension and the upper spar in compression. Bending-moment has maximum effect
on the top and bottom of the spar and zero affect in the middle. Similar to shear
strength, bending moment is maximum at the root, where the entire lift generated by
the wing supports the plane, and is zero at the tip.
3.2 Discussions for graph of lift distribution, shear distribution, eliptical lift
distribution and moment distribution for the whole point in one graph.
 4 Chapter 4: Conclusion

First and foremost, airfoil is selected from 10 different types of airfoils with the
data collected from the internet at a constant Reynolds Number. By applying the lift
formula, we obtain the lift coefficient of our airfoil. The lift coefficients of 10 selected
airfoils are plotted in a single graph against angle of attack. The lift coefficient of our
aircraft is then used to determine the most suitable airfoil for our microlight light
aircraft. The airfoil selected for our aircraft is the NACA 2412.

Shrenks approximation is then used to estimate the wing loading of the aircraft.
Results obtained from Shrenks approximation showed that the coefficient of lift,
wing loading distribution, lift force, shear force and bending moment are all
maximum at the wing root and minimum at the wing tip.
If the full wing is displayed, it will have shown the lift distribution as the figure
below:

Since our microlight aircraft has no fuselage, the maximum lift force will
occur at the root of the two wings. Tapper ratio is zero for our case, therefore there is
no lift force, shear force or bending moment at the wing tip.

Next, several important aerdynamics parameters are determined by using

Datcom. Parameters obtained are the plotted into several graphs against angle of
attack. Basically, all the graphs show trend that are similar to the graph plotted from
theory.
 In conclusion, based on the results from wing loading and Datcom, we are
confident that our microlight aircraft has a suitable airfoil wing in NACA 2412. On
paper, the wing should be able to generate enough lift to operate our microlight
aircraft.