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Equalization and
Diversity
School of Information Science
and Engineering, SDU
Outline
l Introduction
l Fundamentals of Equalization
l Survey of Equalization Techniques
l Linear Equalizers
l Nonlinear Equalization
l Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
l Fundamentals of diversity
l Survey of Diversity Techniques
l Frequency/Time/Space/Polarization Diversity
l Selection/MRC/EGC Combining
l RAKE Receiver
l Interleaving
7.1 Introduction
l The properties of mobile radio channels:
l Multipath fading -> time dispersion, ISI
l Doppler spread -> dynamical fluctuation
These effects have a strong negative impact on the bit error rate of any
modulation.
l Mobile communication systems require signal processing
techniques that improve the link performance in hostile
mobile radio environments.
l Three popular techniques:
l Equalization: compensates for ISI
l Diversity: compensates for channel fading
l Channel coding: detects or corrects errors
These techniques can be deployed independently or jointly.
Transmitted signal: s (t )
Channel model: h(t ) = k (t k )
k
1
3
2 4
(1) Equalization
Notes
l The three techniques of equalization, diversity, and channel
coding are used to improve radio link performance (i.e. to
minimize the instantaneous bit error rate)
l but the approach, cost, complexity, and effectiveness of each
technique varies widely in practical wireless communication
systems.
7.2 Fundamentals of Equalization
l Equalization
l a technique used to combat ISI;
l can be any signal processing operation that minimizes ISI;
l usually track the varying channel adaptively.
Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
l Training (first stage)
l A known fixed-length training sequence is sent by the
transmitter so that the receiver's equalizer may average to a
proper setting.
l The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer at
the receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficients in the
worst possible channel conditions
The training sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary signal
or a fixed, prescribed bit pattern.
Immediately following the training sequence, the user data is
sent.
l The time span over which an equalizer converges is a
function of
1. the equalizer algorithm
2. the equalizer structure
3. the time rate of change of the multipath radio channel.
Equalizers require periodic retraining in order to maintain
effective ISI cancellation.
Operating modes of an adaptive equalizer
Radio
x(t ) Modulator Transmitter
Channel
RF Front End
Detector
nb (t ) + Matched Filter
IF Stage
f (t )
y (t )
Adaptive Decision
heq (t ) Equalizer Maker
d (t )
d (t )
e(t )
Relevant equations
y (t ) = x(t ) f (t ) + nb (t )
d (t ) = x(t ) f (t ) heq (t ) + nb (t ) heq (t )
heq (t ) = ck (t nTs )
k
heq (t ) f (t ) = (t ) H eq ( f ) =
1
F( f )
an equalizer is an inverse filter of the channel.
In frequency selective channel, enhances the frequency
components with small amplitudes, attenuates the strong
frequencies
therefore provide a flat, composite, received frequency response
and linear phase response.
7.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
yk yk-1 yk-2
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
w0 w1 w2 wN
dk
Adaptive algorithm that updates the weights
ek
Prior knowledge: d k
7.3 A Generic Adaptive Equalizer
l N+1 taps
l N+1 weights:
Equalizer
Linear Nonlinear
Types
ML Symbol
DFE MLSE
Detector
Transversal
Structures Transversal Lattice Transversal Lattice
Channel Est.
Input
Output
Threshold Detector
This type of equalizer is the simplest.
7.6 Linear Equalizers
l current and past values of the received signal are linearly
weighted by the filter coefficient and summed to produce the
output,
If the delays and the tap gains are analog, the continuous output
of the equalizer is sampled at the symbol rate and the samples are
applied to the decision device.
Implementation is usually carried out in the digital domain where
the samples of the received signal are stored in a shift register.
l faster convergence
Output
Feedforward Filter
Feedback Filter
7.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization
(DFE)
The output of DFE
Matched
Filter
Delay
Channel
Estimator
7.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence
Estimation (MLSE) equalizer
l The MLSE can be viewed as a problem in estimating the state
of a discrete time finite state machine
The channel has ML states, where M is the size of the symbol
alphabet of the modulation.
Disadvantage:
may excessively amplify noise at frequencies where the
folded channel spectrum has high attenuation.
Suitability:
Wireline communications
1 1
H eq ( f ) = , f <
H ch ( f ) 2T
7.8.2 Least Mean Square (LMS)
Algorithm
Criterion:
About FTF
l Among the RLS algorithms, fast transversal filter (FTF)
algorithm requires the least computation
l a rescue variable can be used to avoid instability.
However, rescue techniques tend to be a bit tricky for widely
varying mobile radio channels.
FTF is not widely used.
Comparison of Various Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization
[Pro9l]
7.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers(FSE)
l In the presence of channel distortion, the matched filter prior to
the equalizer must be matched to the channel and the corrupted
signal.
Usually get the suboptimal result because the channel response is
unknown.
This results in a significant degradation in performance.
Path 2
Path 3
7.10 Fundamentals of Diversity
Techniques
l Diversity is a powerful communication receiver technique that
provides wireless link improvement at relatively low cost.
l Requires no training
Mobile
7.10 Fundamentals of Diversity
Techniques
l Strategies used in diversity techniques
l Selection diversity
l Hybrid schemes
l Practical considerations
l effectiveness, complexity, cost, and etc.
7.10.1 Derivation of Selection
Diversity improvement
l Consider M independent Rayleigh fading channels available
areceiver.
Each channel is called a diversity branch.
7.10.1 Derivation of Selection
Diversity improvement
l Further assume that each branch has the same average SNR
given by
Where we assume = 1 .
2
where x = / .
The above equation can be evaluated to yield the average
SNR improvement offered by selection diversity.
M
1
=
k =1 k
7.10.1 Derivation of Selection
Diversity improvement
l Selection diversity offers an average improvement in the link
margin without requiring additional transmitter power or
sophisticated receiver circuitry.
The diversity improvement can be directly related to the average
bit error rate for various modulations.
l Assuming that each branch has the same average noise power
N, the total noise power NT applied to the detector is simply the
weighted sum of the noise in each branch. Thus
(7-66)
l Conclusion:
The SNR out of the diversity combiner is simply the sum of
the SNRs in each branch.
7.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio
Combining Improvement
2) The pdf of M
(7-68)
3) The CDF of M
l M
According to the abovementioned pdf, The probability that
is less than some SNR threshold is
7.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio
Combining Improvement
M
4) The average SNR out of the diversity combiner,
The control algorithms for setting the gains and phases for
maximal ratio combining receivers are similar to those required in
equalizers and RAKE receivers.
Maximal ratio combining can be applied to virtually any diversity
application, although often at much greater cost and complexity than
other diversity techniques.
7.10.3 Practical Space Diversity
Considerations
l Space diversity (also known as antenna diversity), is one of the
most popular forms of diversity used in wireless systems.
l 1. Selection diversity
l 2. Feedback diversity
l 3. Maximal ratio combining
l 4. Equal gain diversity
7.10.3 Practical Space Diversity
Considerations
(1) Selection Diversity
l Equal gain combining diversity sets all weights to unity but the
signals from each branch are co-phased.
l The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a
number of unacceptable inputs is still retained,
l The performance is only marginally inferior to maximal ratio
combining and superior to selection diversity.
7.10. 4 PolarIzation Diversity
At the base station, space diversity is considerably less practical .
An M branch (M-finger) RAKE receiver implementation. Each correlator detects a time shifted
version of the original CDMA transmission, and each finger of the RAKE correlates to a portion
of the signal which is delayed by at least one chip in time from the other fingers.
7.12 Interleaving
l Interleaving is used to obtain time diversity in a digital
communications system without adding any overhead.
useful technique in all second and third generation digital cellular
systems.
Note: