Introduction To Transformers

What is transformer?
Watch a video presentation Introduction to Transformer in this link
Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical

energy from one circuit to another without any direct electrical
connection and with the help of mutual induction between two windings.
It transforms power from one circuit to another without changing its
frequency but may be in different voltage level. This is a very short and
simple definition of transformer, as we will go through this portion of
tutorial related to electrical power transformer, we will understand more
clearly and deeply "what is transformer ?" and basic theory of
transformer.
Working Principle of Transformer

The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction
between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in
an electrical transformer.
Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with
respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor
or coil".
Basic Theory of Transformer
Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical
source. The alternating current through the winding produces a
continually changing flux or alternating flux that surrounds the winding.
If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously
some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is
continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a
change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil. According to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF
induced in the second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there
must be a current flowing through it. This is the simplest form of
electrical power transformer and this is the most basic of working
principle of transformer. For better understanding, we are trying to
Introduction to Transformers 1
repeat the above explanation in a more brief way here. Whenever we
apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating
flux surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first one,
there will be an alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux
is alternating, there will be obviously a rate of change in flux linkage with
respect to time in the second coil. Naturally emf will be induced in it as
per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This is the most basic
concept of the theory of transformer.
The winding which takes electrical power from the source, is generally
known as primary winding of transformer. Here in our above example it
is first winding.
The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual
induction in the transformer, is commonly known as secondary winding of
transformer. Here in our example it is second winding.
The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically possible but not

practically, because in open air very tiny portion of the flux of the first
winding will link with second; so the current that flows through the closed
circuit of later, will be so small in amount that it will be difficult to
measure. The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of
linked flux with the second winding. So, it is desired to be linked to
almost all flux of primary winding to the secondary winding. This is
effectively and efficiently done by placing one low reluctance path
common to both of the winding. This low reluctance path is core of
transformer, through which maximum number of flux produced by the
primary is passed through and linked with the secondary winding. This is
the most basic theory of transformer.
Main Constructional Parts of Transformer
The three main parts of a transformer are,
1. Primary Winding of Transformer- which produces magnetic flux

when it is connected to electrical source.
2. Magnetic Core of Transformer- the magnetic flux produced by the
primary winding, that will pass through this low reluctance path linked
with secondary winding and create a closed magnetic circuit.
3. Secondary Winding of Transformer- the flux, produced by primary
winding, passes through the core, will link with the secondary winding.
This winding also wounds on the same core and gives the desired
output of the transformer.
EMF Equation & Turns Voltage

Transformation Ratio of Transformer
EMF Equation of Transformer
EMF Equation of transformer can be established in a very easy way.
Actually in electrical power transformer, one alternating electrical source
is applied to the primary winding and due to this, magnetizing current
flowing through the primary winding which produces alternating flux in
the core of transformer. This flux links with both primary and secondary
windings. As this flux is alternating in nature, there must be a rate of
change of flux. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction if
any coil or conductor links with any changing flux, there must be an
induced emf in it.
As the current source to primary is sinusoidal, the flux induced by it will
be also sinusoidal. Hence, the function of flux may be considered as a
sine function. Mathematically, derivative of that function will give a
function for rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time. This later
function will be a cosine function since d(sin)/dt = cos. So, if we derive
the expression for rms value of this cosine wave and multiply it with
number of turns of the winding, we will easily get the expression for rms
value of induced emf of that winding. In this way, we can easily derive
the emf equation of transformer.
Let's say, T is number of turns in a winding, m is the maximum flux in

the core in Wb. As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
Where is the instantaneous alternating flux and represented as,
As the maximum value of cos2ft is 1, the maximum value of induced

emf e is,
To obtain the rms value of induced counter emf, divide this maximum
value of e by 2.
This is EMF equation of transformer. If E1 & E2 are primary and secondary

emfs and T1 & T2 are primary and secondary turns then, voltage ratio or
turns ratio of transformer is,
Transformation Ratio of Transformer

This constant is called transformation ratio of transformer , if T2>T1,
K > 1, then the transformer is step up transformer. If T2 < T1, K < 1,
then the transformer is step down transformer.
Voltage Ratio of Transformer
This above stated ratio is also known as voltage ratio of transformer if
it is expressed as ratio of the primary and secondary voltages of
transformer.
Turns Ratio of Transformer
As the voltage in primary and secondary of transformer is directly
proportional to the number of turns in the respective winding, the
transformation ratio of transformer is sometime expressed in ratio of
turns and referred as turn ratio of transformer.
Ideal Transformer
Definition of Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which does not have
any loss in it, means no core losses, copper losses and any other losses
in transformer. Efficiency of this transformer is considered as 100%.
Ideal Transformer Model

Ideal transformer model is developed by considering a transformer
which does not have any loss. That means the windings of the
transformer are purely inductive and the core of transformer is loss free.
There is zero leakage reactance of transformer. As we said, whenever we
place a low reluctance core inside the windings, maximum amount of flux
passes through this core, but still there is some flux which does not pass
through the core but passes through the insulation used in the
transformer. This flux does not take part in the transformation action of
the transformer.
This flux is called leakage flux of transformer. In an ideal transformer,
this leakage flux is also considered nil. That means, 100% flux passes
through the core and links with both the primary and secondary windings
of transformer. Although every winding is desired to be purely inductive
but it has some resistance in it which causes voltage drop and I2R loss in
it. In such ideal transformer model, the windings are also considered
ideal, that means resistance of the winding is zero. Now if an alternating
source voltage V1 is applied in the primary winding of that ideal
transformer, there will be a counter self emf E1 induced in the primary
winding which is purely 180 in phase opposition with supply voltage V1.
For developing counter emf E1 across the primary winding, it draws

current from the source to produce required magnetizing flux. As the
primary winding is purely inductive, that current 90 lags from the supply
voltage. This current is called magnetizing current of transformer I.
This alternating current I produces an alternating magnetizing flux
which is proportional to that current and hence in phase with it. As this
flux is also linked with secondary winding through the core of
transformer, there will be another emf E2 induced in the secondary
winding, this is mutually induced emf. As the secondary is placed on the
same core where the primary winding is placed, the emf induced in the
secondary winding of transformer, E2 is in the phase with primary emf E1
and in phase opposition with source voltage V1. The above chapter was
about a brief discussion about ideal transformer, it has also explained
the basic ideal transformer model.
Theory of Transformer on Load and

No Load Operation
Theory of Transformer
We have discussed about the theory of ideal transformer for better
understanding of actual elementary theory of transformer. Now we will
go through the practical aspects one by one of an electrical power
transformer and try to draw vector diagram of transformer in every
step. As we said that, in an ideal transformer; there are no core losses in
transformer i.e. loss free core of transformer. But in practical
transformer, there are hysteresis and eddy current losses in transformer
core.
Theory of Transformer on No-Load

Theory of Transformer On No-load, and Having No Winding Resistance and No
Leakage Reactance of Transformer
Let us consider one electrical transformer with only core losses, which
means, it has only core losses but no copper loss and no leakage
reactance of transformer. When an alternating source is applied in the
primary, the source will supply the current for magnetizing the core of
transformer.
But this current is not the actual magnetizing current, it is little bit
greater than actual magnetizing current. Actually, total current supplied
from the source has two components, one is magnetizing current which is
merely utilized for magnetizing the core and other component of the
source current is consumed for compensating the core losses in
transformer. Because of this core loss component, the source current in
transformer on no-load condition supplied from the source as source
current is not exactly at 90 lags of supply voltage, but it lags behind an
angle is less than 90. If total current supplied from source is Io, it will
have one component in phase with supply voltage V1 and this component
of the current Iw is core loss component. This component is taken in
phase with source voltage, because it is associated with active or working
losses in transformer. Other component of the source current is denoted
as I. This component produces the alternating magnetic flux in the core,
so it is watt-less; means it is reactive part of the transformer source
current. Hence I will be in quadrature with V1 and in phase with
alternating flux .
Hence, total primary current in transformer on no-load condition can
be represented as
Now you have seen how simple is to explain the theory of transformer
in no-load.
Theory of Transformer on Load
Theory of Transformer On Load But Having No Winding Resistance and Leakage
Reactance
Now we will examine the behavior of above said transformer on load,
that means load is connected to the secondary terminals. Consider,
transformer having core loss but no copper loss and leakage reactance.
Whenever load is connected to the secondary winding, load current will
start to flow through the load as well as secondary winding. This load
current solely depends upon the characteristics of the load and also upon
secondary voltage of the transformer. This current is called secondary
current or load current, here it is denoted as I2. As I2 is flowing through
the secondary, a self mmf in secondary winding will be produced. Here it
is N2I2, where, N2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding of
transformer.
This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces

flux 2. This 2 will oppose the main magnetizing flux and momentarily
weakens the main flux and tries to reduce primary self induced emf E1. If
E1 falls down below the primary source voltage V1, there will be an extra
current flowing from source to primary winding. This extra primary
current I2 produces extra flux in the core which will neutralize the
secondary counter flux 2. Hence the main magnetizing flux of core,
remains unchanged irrespective of load.
So total current, this transformer draws from source can be divided into
two components, first one is utilized for magnetizing the core and
compensating the core loss i.e. Io. It is no-load component of the primary
current. Second one is utilized for compensating the counter flux of the
secondary winding. It is known as load component of the primary
current. Hence total no load primary current I1 of a electrical power
transformer having no winding resistance and leakage reactance can be
represented as follows
Where, 2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary

Current of transformer. Now we will proceed one further step toward
more practical aspect of a transformer.
Theory of Transformer on Load, With Resistive Winding, But No Leakage
Reactance
Now, consider the winding resistance of transformer but no leakage
reactance. So far we have discussed about the transformer which has
ideal windings, means winding with no resistance and leakage reactance,
but now we will consider one transformer which has internal resistance in
the winding but no leakage reactance. As the windings are resistive,
there would be a voltage drop in the windings.
We have proved earlier that, total primary current from the source on
load is I1. The voltage drop in the primary winding with resistance, R1 is
R1I1. Obviously, induced emf across primary winding E1, is not exactly
equal to source voltage V1. E1 is less than V1 by voltage drop I1R1.
Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary
winding, E2 does not totally appear across the load since it also drops by
an amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2 is
secondary current or load current. Similarly, voltage equation of the
secondary side of the transformer will be
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage Reactance

in Transformer Windings
Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of
transformer as well as winding resistance of transformer.
Let leakage reactances of primary and secondary windings of the

transformer are X1 and X2 respectively. Hence total impedance of primary
and secondary winding of transformer with resistance R1 and R2
respectively, can be represented as,
We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on

load, with only resistances in the windings, where voltage drops in the
windings occur only due to resistive voltage drop. But when we consider
leakage reactances of transformer windings, voltage drop occurs in the
winding not only because of resistance, it is because of impedance of
transformer windings. Hence, actual voltage equation of a transformer
can easily be determined by just replacing resistances R1 & R2 in the
previously established voltage equations by Z1 and Z2.
Therefore, the voltage equations are,
Resistance drops are in the direction of current vector but, reactive drop
will be perpendicular to the current vector as shown in the above vector
diagram of transformer.
Resistance and Leakage Reactance

or Impedance of Transformer
Leakage Reactance of Transformer
All the flux in transformer will not be able to link with both the primary
and secondary windings. A small portion of flux will link either winding
but not both. This portion of flux is called leakage flux. Due to this
leakage flux in transformer, there will be a self-reactance in the
concerned winding. This self-reactance of transformer is alternatively
known as leakage reactance of transformer. This self-reactance
associated with resistance of transformer is impedance. Due to this
impedance of transformer, there will be voltage drops in both primary
and secondary transformer windings.
Resistance of Transformer
Generally, both primary and secondary windings of electrical power
transformer are made of copper. Copper is a very good conductor of
current but not a super conductor. Actually, super conductor and super
conductivity both are conceptual, practically they are not available. So
both windings will have some resistance. This internal resistance of both
primary and secondary windings is collectively known as resistance of
transformer.
Impedance of Transformer
As we said, both primary and secondary windings will have resistance
and leakage reactance. These resistance and reactance will be in
combination, is nothing but impedance of transformer. If R1 and R2
and X1 and X2 are primary and secondary resistance and leakage
reactance of transformer respectively, then Z1 & Z2 impedance of primary
and secondary windings are respectively,
The Impedance of transformer plays a vital role during parallel operation

of transformer.
Leakage Flux in Transformer
In ideal transformer, all the flux will link with both primary and secondary
windings but in reality, it is impossible to link all the flux in transformer
with both primary and secondary windings. Although maximum flux will
link with both windings through the core of transformer but still there will
be a small amount of flux which will link either winding but not both. This
flux is called leakage flux which will pass through the winding insulation
and transformer insulating oil instead of passing through core. Due to
this leakage flux in transformer, both primary and secondary windings
have leakage reactance. The reactance of transformer is nothing but
leakage reactance of transformer. This phenomenon in transformer is
known as Magnetic leakage.
Voltage drops in the windings occur due to impedance of transformer.

Impedance is combination of resistance and leakage reactance of
transformer. If we apply voltage V1 across primary of transformer, there
will be a component I1X1 to balance primary self induced emf due to
primary leakage reactance. (Here, X1 is primary leakage reactance). Now
if we also consider voltage drop due to primary resistance of transformer,
then voltage equation of a transformer can easily be written as,
Similarly for secondary leakage reactance, the voltage equation of

secondary side is,
Here in the figure above, the primary and secondary windings are shown
in separate limbs and this arrangement could result a large leakage flux
in transformer because there is a big room for leakage. Leakage in
primary and secondary windings could be eliminated if the windings could
be made to occupy the same space. This of course is physically
impossible but, by placing secondary and primary in concentric manner
can solve the problem in good extent.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

referred to Primary and Secondary
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated
because the electrical power transformer is an electrical power system
equipment for estimating different parameters of electrical power system
which may be required to calculate total internal impedance of an
electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side
as per requirement. This calculation requires equivalent circuit of
transformer referred to primary or equivalent circuit of
transformer referred to secondary sides respectively. Percentage
impedance is also very essential parameter of transformer. Special
attention is to be given to this parameter during installing a transformer
in an existing electrical power system. Percentage impedance of different
power transformers should be properly matched during parallel operation
of power transformers. The percentage impedance can be derived from
equivalent impedance of transformer so, it can be said that
equivalent circuit of transformer is also required during calculation of
% impedance.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to

Primary
For drawing equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary,
first we have to establish general equivalent circuit of transformer
then, we will modify it for referring from primary side. For doing this, first
we need to recall the complete vector diagram of a transformer which is
shown in the figure below.
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage
across the primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1.
So the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1
+ j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared
across winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage
equation of this portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total primary current
I1 has two components, one is no - load component Io and the other is
load component I2. As this primary current has two components or
branches, so there must be a parallel path with primary winding of
transformer. This parallel path of current is known as excitation branch of
equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive branches of
the excitation circuit can be represented as
The load component I2 flows through the primary winding of transformer

and induced voltage across the winding is E1 as shown in the figure right.
This induced voltage E1 transforms to secondary and it is E2 and load
component of primary current I2 is transformed to secondary as
secondary current I2. Current of secondary is I2. So the voltage E2 across
secondary winding is partly dropped by I2Z2 or I2R2 + j.I2X2 before it
appears across load. The load voltage is V2.
The complete equivalent circuit of transformer is shown below.
Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it
would be K times greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2.N1
= I2.N2
Therefore,
From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to

primary is,
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is

shown in the figure below,
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Since Io is very small compared to I1, it is less than 5% of full load
primary current, Io changes the voltage drop insignificantly. Hence, it is
good approximation to ignore the excitation circuit in approximate
equivalent circuit of transformer. The winding resistance and reactance
being in series can now be combined into equivalent resistance and
reactance of transformer, referred to any particular side. In this case it is
side 1 or primary side.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to

Secondary
In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
secondary can be drawn. Where equivalent impedance of transformer
referred to secondary, can be derived as
Core Losses and Copper Loss in
Transformer
Losses in Transformer
As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss in
transformer normally does not come into picture. We generally consider
only electrical losses in transformer. Loss in any machine is broadly
defined as difference between input power and output power. When input
power is supplied to the primary of transformer, some portion of that
power is used to compensate core losses in transformer i.e.
Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy current loss in
transformer core and some portion of the input power is lost as I2R loss
and dissipated as heat in the primary and secondary windings, because
these windings have some internal resistance in them. The first one is
called core loss or iron loss in transformer and the later is known as
ohmic loss or copper loss in transformer. Another loss occurs in
transformer, known as Stray Loss, due to Stray fluxes link with the
mechanical structure and winding conductors.
Copper Loss in Transformer

Copper loss is I2R loss, in primary side it is I12R1 and in secondary side it
is I22R2 loss, where I1 & I2 are primary and secondary current of
transformer and R1 and R2 are resistances of primary & secondary
winding. As the both primary & secondary currents depend upon load of
transformer, copper loss in transformer vary with load.
Core Losses in Transformer

Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon magnetic
properties of the materials used to construct the core of transformer and
its design. So these losses in transformer are fixed and do not depend
upon the load current. So core losses in transformer which is
alternatively known as iron loss in transformer can be considered as
constant for all range of load. Hysteresis loss in transformer is
denoted as,
Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,
Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant. Ke = Eddy current constant. Kf = form

constant. Copper loss can simply be denoted as,
IL2R2 + Stray loss
Where, IL = I2 = load of transformer, and R2 is the resistance of
transformer referred to secondary. Now we will discuss Hysteresis loss
and Eddy current loss in little bit more details for better understanding
the topic of losses in transformer
Hysteresis Loss in Transformer

Hysteresis loss in transformer can be explained in different ways. We will
discuss two of them, one is physical explanation and the other is
mathematical explanation.
Physical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss
The magnetic core of transformer is made of Cold Rolled Grain
Oriented Silicon Steel. Steel is very good ferromagnetic material. This
kind of materials are very sensitive to be magnetized. That means,
whenever magnetic flux would pass through, it will behave like magnet.
Ferromagnetic substances have numbers of domains in their structure.
Domains are very small regions in the material structure, where all the
dipoles are paralleled to same direction. In other words, the domains are
like small permanent magnets situated randomly in the structure of
substance. These domains are arranged inside the material structure in
such a random manner, that net resultant magnetic field of the said
material is zero. Whenever external magnetic field or mmf is applied to
that substance, these randomly directed domains get arranged
themselves in parallel to the axis of applied mmf. After removing this
external mmf, maximum numbers of domains again come to random
positions, but some of them still remain in their changed position.
Because of these unchanged domains, the substance becomes slightly
magnetized permanently. This magnetism is called " Spontaneous
Magnetism". To neutralize this magnetism, some opposite mmf is
required to be applied. The magneto motive force or mmf applied in the
transformer core is alternating. For every cycle due to this domain
reversal, there will be extra work done. For this reason, there will be a
consumption of electrical energy which is known as Hysteresis loss of
transformer.
Mathematical Explanation of Hysteresis Loss in Transformer
Determination of Hysteresis Loss
Consider a ring of ferromagnetic specimen of circumference L meter,

cross - sectional area a m2 and N turns of insulated wire as shown in the
picture beside, Let us consider, the current flowing through the coil is I
Amps, Magnetizing force,
Let, the flux density at this instant is B, Therefore, total flux through the
ring, = BXa Wb As the current flowing through the solenoid is
alternating, the flux produced in the iron ring is also alternating in
nature, so the emf (e) induced will be expressed as,
According to Lenz,s law this induced emf will oppose the flow of current,
therefore, in order to maintain the current I in the coil, the source must
supply an equal and opposite emf. Hence applied emf ,
Energy consumed in short time dt, during which the flux density has
changed,
Thus, total work done or energy consumed during one complete cycle of
magnetism,
Now aL is the volume of the ring and H.dB is the area of elementary strip
of B - H curve shown in the figure above,
Therefore, Energy consumed per cycle = volume of the ring X area of

hysteresis loop. In the case of transformer, this ring can be considered as
magnetic core of transformer. Hence, the work done is nothing but the
electrical energy loss in transformer core and this is known as hysteresis
loss in transformer.
What is Eddy Current Loss ?

In transformer, we supply alternating current in the primary, this
alternating current produces alternating magnetizing flux in the core and
as this flux links with secondary winding, there will be induced voltage in
secondary, resulting current to flow through the load connected with it.
Some of the alternating fluxes of transformer; may also link with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body of transformer etc. As
alternating flux links with these parts of transformer, there would be a
locally induced emf. Due to these emfs, there would be currents which
will circulate locally at that parts of the transformer. These circulating
current will not contribute in output of the transformer and dissipated as
heat. This type of energy loss is called eddy current loss of transformer.
This was a broad and simple explanation of eddy current loss. The detail
explanation of this loss is not in the scope of discussion in that chapter.
Voltage Regulation of Transformer

What is Voltage Regulation ?
The voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage difference between no
load and full load voltages of a transformer with respect to its full load
voltage.
Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, means load is not
connected with secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary
terminal voltage of the transformer will be its secondary induced emf E2.
Whenever full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the
transformer, rated current I2 flows through the secondary circuit and
voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation, primary winding will
also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in
the secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of
transformer.Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the
voltage between secondary terminals, he or she will get voltage V2 across
load terminals which is obviously less than no load secondary voltage E2
and this is because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the transformer.
Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer, represented in
percentage, is
Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging Power Factor

Now we will derive the expression of voltage regulation in detail. Say
lagging power factor of the load is cos2, that means angle between
secondary current and voltage is 2
Here, from the above diagram,
Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and

OD is considered nearly equal to OC i.e.
Voltage regulation of transformer at lagging power factor,
Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading Power Factor

Let's derive the expression of voltage regulation with leading current, say
leading power factor of the load is cos2, that means angle between
secondary current and voltage is 2.
Here, from the above diagram,
Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and

OD is considered nearly equal to OC i.e.
Voltage regulation of transformer at leading power factor,
Single Three Phase Transformer vs A

Bank of three Single Phase
Transformers
It is found that generation, transmission and distribution of electrical

power are more economical in three phase system than single phase
system. For three phase system three single phase transformers are
required. Three phase transformation can be done in two ways, by using
single three phase transformer or by using a bank of three single
phase transformers. Both are having some advantages over other. Single
3 phase transformer costs around 15 % less than bank of three single
phase transformers. Again former occupies less space than later. For very
big transformer, it is impossible to transport large three phase
transformer to the site and it is easier to transport three single phase
transformers which is erected separately to form a three phase unit.
Another advantage of using bank of three single phase transformers is
that, if one unit of the bank becomes out of order, then the bank can be
run as open delta.
Connection of Three Phase Transformer
A variety of connection of three phase transformer is possible on
each side of both a single 3 phase transformer or a bank of three single
phase transformers.
Marking or Labeling the Different Terminals of Transformer
Terminals of each phase of HV side should be labeled as capital letters, A,
B, C and those of LV side should be labeled as small letters a, b, c.
Terminal polarities are indicated by suffixes 1 and 2. Suffix 1s indicates
similar polarity ends and so do 2s.
Star-Star Transformer
Star-star transformer is formed in a 3 phase transformer by

connecting one terminal of each phase of individual side, together. The
common terminal is indicated by suffix 1 in the figure below. If terminal
with suffix 1 in both primary and secondary are used as common
terminal, voltages of primary and secondary are in same phase. That is
why this connection is called zero degree connection or 0 - connection.
If the terminals with suffix 1 is connected together in HV side as common
point and the terminals with suffix 2 in LV side are connected together as
common point, the voltages in primary and secondary will be in opposite
phase. Hence, star-star transformer connection is called 180-
connection, of three phase transformer.
Delta-Delta Transformer
In delta-delta transformer, 1 suffixed terminals of each phase primary
winding will be connected with 2 suffixed terminal of next phase primary
winding.
If primary is HV side, then A1 will be connected to B2, B1 will be

connected to C2 and C1 will be connected to A2. Similarly in LV side 1
suffixed terminals of each phase winding will be connected with 2
suffixed terminals of next phase winding. That means, a1 will be
connected to b2, b1 will be connected to c2 and c1 will be connected to a2.
If transformer leads are taken out from primary and secondary 2 suffixed
terminals of the winding, then there will be no phase difference between
similar line voltages in primary and secondary. This delta delta
transformer connection is zero degree connection or 0-connection.
But in LV side of transformer, if, a2 is connected to b1, b2 is connected to

c1 and c2 is connected to a1. The secondary leads of transformer are
taken out from 2 suffixed terminals of LV windings, and then similar line
voltages in primary and secondary will be in phase opposition. This
connection is called 180-connection, of three phase transformer.
Star-Delta Transformer
Here in star-delta transformer, star connection in HV side is formed by
connecting all the 1 suffixed terminals together as common point and
transformer primary leads are taken out from 2 suffixed terminals of
primary windings.
The delta connection in LV side is formed by connecting 1 suffixed

terminals of each phase LV winding with 2 suffixed terminal of next phase
LV winding. More clearly, a1 is connected to b2, b1 is connected to c2 and
c1 is connected to a2. The secondary (here it considered as LV) leads are
taken out from 2 suffixed ends of the secondary windings of transformer.
The transformer connection diagram is shown in the figure beside. It
is seen from the figure that the sum of the voltages in delta side is zero.
This is a must as otherwise closed delta would mean a short circuit. It is
also observed from the phasor diagram that, phase to neutral voltage
(equivalent star basis) on the delta side lags by 30 to the phase to
neutral voltage on the star side; this is also the phase relationship
between the respective line to line voltages. This star delta
transformer connection is therefore known as 30-connection. Star-
delta + 30-connection is also possible by connecting secondary
terminals in following sequence. a2 is connected to b1, b2 is connected to
c1 and c2 is connected to a1. The secondary leads of transformer are
taken out from 2 suffixed terminals of LV windings,
Delta-Star Transformer
Delta-star transformer connection of three phase transformer is similar

to star delta connection. If anyone interchanges HV side and LV side of
star-delta transformer in diagram, it simply becomes delta star
connected 3 phase transformer. That means all small letters of star-delta
connection should be replaced by capital letters and all small letters by
capital in delta-star transformer connection.
Delta-Zigzag Transformer
The winding of each phase on the star connected side is divided into two
equal halves in delta zig zag transformer. Each leg of the core of
transformer is wound by half winding from two different secondary
phases in addition to its primary winding.
Star-Zigzag Transformer
The winding of each phase on the secondary star in a star-zigzag
transformer is divided into two equal halves. Each leg of the core of
transformer is wound by half winding from two different secondary
phases in addition to its primary winding.
Choice between Star Connection and Delta
Connection of Three Phase Transformer
In star connection with earthed neutral, phase voltage i.e. phase to
neutral voltage, is 1/3 times of line voltage i.e. line to line voltage. But
in the case of delta connection phase voltage is equal to line voltage. Star
connected high voltage side electrical power transformer is about 10%
cheaper than that of delta connected high voltage side transformer.
Lets explain, Let, the voltage ratio of transformer between HV and LV is
K, voltage across HV winding is VH and voltage across LV winding is VL
and voltage across transformer leads in HV side say Vp and in LV say Vs.
In Star-Star Transformer
Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,
In Star-Delta Transformer
In Delta-Star Transformer
For 132/33KV Transformer K = 4

Case 1 Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,
In case 2 voltage difference between HV and LV winding is minimum

therefore potential stresses between them is minimum, implies insulation
cost in between these windings is also less. Hence for step down purpose
stardelta transformer connection is most economical, design for
transformer. Similarly it can be proved that for step up purpose delta-
star three-phase transformer connection is most economical.
Parallel operation of Transformers

Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is
required?
It is economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in
parallel than installing a bigger rated electrical power transformer. This
has mainly the following advantages:
1. To maximize electrical power system efficiency: Generally

electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load.
If we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only
those transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer
to its full load rating for that time. When load increases, we can switch
none by one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the total
demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.
2. To maximize electrical power system availability: If numbers of
transformers run in parallel, we can shutdown any one of them for
maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will
serve the load without total interruption of power.
3. To maximize power system reliability: if any one of the
transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to fault of other parallel
transformers is the system will share the load, hence power supply
may not be interrupted if the shared loads do not make other
transformers over loaded.
4. To maximize electrical power system flexibility: There is always a
chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it
is predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must
be a provision of connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill
the extra demand because, it is not economical from business point of
view to install a bigger rated single transformer by forecasting the
increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money.
Again if future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel
can be removed from system to balance the capital investment and its
return.
Conditions for Parallel Operation of Transformers
When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the
following conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the
conditions for parallel operation of transformers.
1. Same voltage ratio of transformer.
2. Same percentage impedance.
3. Same polarity.
4. Same phase sequence.
Same Voltage Ratio
If two transformers of different voltage ratio are connected in parallel
with same primary supply voltage, there will be a difference in secondary
voltages. Now say the secondary of these transformers are connected to
same bus, there will be a circulating current between secondaries and
therefore between primaries also. As the internal impedance of
transformer is small, a small voltage difference may cause sufficiently
high circulating current causing unnecessary extra I2R loss.
Same Percentage Impedance
The current shared by two transformers running in parallel should be
proportional to their MVA ratings. Again, current carried by these
transformers are inversely proportional to their internal impedance. From
these two statements it can be said that, impedance of transformers
running in parallel are inversely proportional to their MVA ratings. In
other words, percentage impedance or per unit values of impedance
should be identical for all the transformers that run in parallel.
Same Polarity
Polarity of all transformers that run in parallel, should be the same
otherwise huge circulating current that flows in the transformer but no
load will be fed from these transformers. Polarity of transformer means
the instantaneous direction of induced emf in secondary. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two transformers
are opposite to each other when same input power is fed to both of the
transformers, the transformers are said to be in opposite polarity. If the
instantaneous directions of induced secondary emf in two transformers
are same when same input power is fed to the both of the transformers,
the transformers are said to be in same polarity.
Same Phase Sequence
The phase sequence or the order in which the phases reach their
maximum positive voltage, must be identical for two parallel
transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle, each pair of phases will be
short circuited. The above said conditions must be strictly followed for
parallel operation of transformers but totally identical percentage
impedance of two different transformers is difficult to achieve practically,
that is why the transformers run in parallel may not have exactly same
percentage impedance but the values would be as nearer as possible.
Magnetizing Inrush Current in Power

Transformer
When an electrical power transformer is switch on from primary side,
with keeping its secondary circuit open, it acts as a simple inductance.
When electrical power transformer runs normally, the flux produced in
the core is in quadrature with applied voltage as shown in the figure
below. That means, flux wave will reach its maximum value, 1/4 cycle or
/2 angle after, reaching maximum value of voltage wave. Hence as per
the waves shown in the figure, at the instant when, the voltage is zero,
the corresponding steady state value of flux should be negative
maximum. But practically it is not possible to have flux at the instant of
switching on the supply of transformer. This is because, there will be no
flux linked to the core prior to switch on the supply. The steady state
value of flux will only reach after a finite time, depending upon how fast
the circuit can take energy. This is because the rate of energy transfer to
a circuit cannot be infinity. So the flux in the core also will start from its
zero value at the time of switching on the transformer.
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the voltage
induced across the winding is is given as e = d/dt. Where is the flux
in the core. Hence the flux will be integral of the voltage wave.
If the transformer is switched on at the instant of voltage zero, the flux
wave is initiated from the same origin as voltage waveform, the value of
flux at the end of first half cycle of the voltage waveform will be,
Where m is the maximum value of steady state flux. The transformer

core are generally saturated just above the maximum steady state value
of flux. But in our example, during switching on the transformer the
maximum value of flux will jump to double of its steady state maximum
value. As, after steady state maximum value of flux, the core becomes
saturated, the current required to produced rest of flux will be very high.
So transformer primary will draw a very high peaky current from the
source which is called magnetizing inrush current in transformer or
simply inrush current in transformer.
Magnetizing inrush current in transformer is the current which is drown

by a transformer at the time of energizing the transformer. This current
is transient in nature and exists for few milliseconds. The inrush current
may be up to 10 times higher than normal rated current of transformer.
Although the magnitude of inrush current is so high but it generally does
not create any permanent fault in transformer as it exists for very small
time. But still inrush current in power transformer is a problem,
because it interferes with the operation of circuits as they have been
designed to function. Some effects of high inrush include nuisance fuse or
breaker interruptions, as well as arcing and failure of primary circuit
components, such as switches. High magnetizing inrush current in
transformer also necessitate over-sizing of fuses or breakers. Another
side effect of high inrush is the injection of noise and distortion back into
the mains.
Transformer Accessories:
Breather, Conservator Tank and
Radiator
For providing long service life to the transformer, different transformer
accessories get fitted with it. These transformer accessories should
also be included in our study for better understanding transformer
operation and maintenance.
Breather of Transformer
When the temperature changes occur in transformer insulating oil, the oil
expands or contracts and there an exchange of air also occurs when
transformer is fully loaded. When transformer gets cooled, the oil level
goes down and air gets absorbed within. This process is called breathing
and the apparatus that pass through the air is called breather. Actually,
silica gel breathers controls the level of moisture, entering electrical
equipment during the change in volume of the cooling medium and/or
airspace caused by temperature increasing.
Conservator Tank of a Transformer
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof of
the transformer's main tank. When transformer is loaded, the
temperature of oil increases and consequently the volume of oil in the
transformer gets increased. Again; when ambient temperature is
increased, the volume of oil is also increased. The conservator tank of
a transformer provides adequate space for expansion of oil. Conservator
tank of transformer also acts as a reservoir of oil.
Explosion Vent of Transformer

The purpose of the explosion vent in a transformer is to prevent damage
of the transformer tank be releasing any excessive pressure generated
inside the transformer.
Construction of Explosion Vent of Transformer
This is nothing but a bent pipe with thin aluminium diaphragms at both
ends. A wire mesh is provided at lower end of the explosion vent to
prevent the pieces of rutted diaphragm from entering the tank. A wire
mesh is also provided at upper end of vent pipe to protect mechanical
damages of upper diaphragm. Near the lower end, a small oil level
indicator is provided to lower diaphragm ruptures; transformer oil rises in
the vent pipe and is visible through the indicator indicating the failure of
the lower diaphragm. If even after brushing the lower diaphragm, there
is enough pressure and is not reduced, the upper diaphragm then bursts
out to give way to release the inside pressure of transformer tank by
thronging out oil and gases. In this way, explosion vent of transformer
prevents mechanical damage to the transformer tank. Sometimes, upper
portion of conservator tank is connected with explosion vent with an
equalizer pipe with or without a valve.
Radiator of Transformer
Oil immersed transformer is always provided with radiator. In case of
electrical power transformer, the radiators are detachable and
transported separately to the site. The upper and lower portions of the
radiator unit is connected with the transformer tank via valves. These
values are provided to prevent draining of oil during detaching a radiator
unit from the transformer for cleaning and maintenance purposes.
Operation and Purpose of Radiator in Transformer
When transformer is in the loaded condition, the hot oil comes up in the
main tank, and enters into the radiator tank through upper valve. As the
heat transfer surface of the radiator is quite large, the oil gets cooled and
enters into the transformer tank via lower value of radiator units. The
convectional flow of oil in the tank and radiator of transformer continues.
The cooling effect of radiator can be accelerated by applying force air to
the radiator outer wall by air fans.
Silica Gel Breather of Transformer
Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the temperature of the
transformer insulating oil increases, consequently the volume of the oil is
increased. As the volume of the oil is increased, the air above the oil level
in conservator will come out. Again at low oil temperature; the volume of
the oil is decreased, which causes the volume of the oil to be decreased
which again causes air to enter into conservator tank. The natural air
always consists of more or less moisture in it and this moisture can be
mixed up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the transformer. The air
moisture should be resisted during entering of the air into the
transformer, because moisture is very harmful for transformer insulation.
A silica gel breather is the most commonly used way of filtering air from
moisture.
Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with conservator tank
by means of breathing pipe.
Construction of Silica Gel Breather

The silica gel breather of transformer is very simple in the aspect of
design. It is nothing but a pot of silica gel through which, air passes
during breathing of transformer. The silica gel is a very good absorber of
moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is very efficient, it may dry down air to
a dew point of below 40C. A well maintained silica gel breather will
generally operate with a dew point of 35C as long as a large enough
quantity of gel has been used. The picture shows a silica gel breather
of transformer.
Working Principle of Silica Gel Breather

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of absorbing moisture. When
air passes through these crystals in the breather; the moisture of the air
is absorbed by them. Therefore, the air reaches to the conservator is
quite dry, the dust particles in the air get trapped by the oil in the oil seal
cup. The oil in the oil sealing cup acts as barrier between silica gel crystal
and air when there is no flow of air through silica gel breather. The color
of silica gel crystal is dark blue but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes
pink. When there is sufficient difference between the air inside the
conservator and the outside air, the oil level in two components of the oil
seal changes until the lower oil level just reaches the rim of the inverted
cup, the air then moves from high pressure compartment to the low
pressure compartment of the oil seal. Both of these happen when the oil
acts as core filter and removes the dust from the outside air.
Conservator Tank of a Transformer
This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof the
transformer main tank. The main function of conservator tank of
transformer is to provide adequate space for expansion of oil inside the
transformer.
Function of Conservator Tank of a Transformer
When transformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises, the
volume of oil inside transformer increases. A conservator tank of
transformer provides adequate space to this expanded transformer oil. It
also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.
Construction of Conservator Tank
This is a cylindrical shaped oil container closed from both ends. One large
inspection cover is provided on either side of the container to facilitate
maintenance and cleaning inside of the conservator.
Conservator pipe, i.e. pipe comes from main transformer tank, is

projected inside the conservator from bottom portion. Head of the
conservator pipe inside the conservator is provided with a cap. This pipe
is projected as well as provided with a cap because this design prevent oil
sludge and sediment to enter into main tank from conservator. Generally
silica gel breather fixing pipe enters into the conservator from top. If it
enters from bottom, it should be projected well above the level of oil
inside the conservator. This arrangement ensure that oil does not enter
the silica gel breather even at highest operating level.
Working of Conservator Tank

When volume of transformer insulating oil increases due to load and
ambient temperature, the vacant space above the oil level inside the
conservator is partially occupied by the expanded oil. Consequently,
corresponding quantity of air of that space is pushed away through
breather. On other hand, when load of transformer decreases, the
transformer is switched off and when the ambient temperature
decreases, the oil inside the transformer contracts. This causes outside
air to enter in the conservator tank of transformer through silica gel
breather.
Atmoseal Type Conservator
In this type conservator of transformer, an air cell made of NBR material
is fitted inside the conservator reservoir. The silica gel breather is
connected at the top of this air cell. The oil level in the power transformer
rises and falls according to this air cell deflated and inflated. When the air
cell gets deflated the air inside the air cell comes out via breather and on
the other hand if the cell is inflated the outside air comes in through
breather. This arrangement prevents direct contact of oil with air,
thereby reduces ageing affect of oil.
The space available outside the cell in conservator tank is totally filled by
oil. Air vents are provided on the top of the conservator for venting
accumulated air outside the air cell. The pressure inside the air cell must
be maintained 1.0 PSI.
Diaphragm Sealed Conservator
Here diaphragm is used as a barrier between transformer oil and
atmospheric air. In this case the conservator of transformer is made of
tow semicircular halves as shown below.
The diphram is held between the the two halves and bolted. As oil
expands it pushes up the diaphragm. The position of the diaphragm is
indicated by the oil level indicator i.e. magnetic oil gauge (Here MOG is
not shown in the figure above) as the rod of this MOG is connected to the
diaphragm. When the oil level falls down in the conservator, the
diaphragm deflects and the atmospheric air fills the vacant place. This air
is sucked through silica gel breather which is connected to the top middle
of conservator tank of transformer. (Here silica gel breather is not
shown in the figure above)
This type of conservator has one advantage over air cell conservator. If
gas is pressurized to a high level, it gets dissolved in oil. Over a period of
time the amount of gas in oil reaches the saturation point. If at this
stage, the load of transformer is suddenly dropped or the ambient
temperature falls severely, the pressure falls, oil becomes supersaturated
and the gas bubbles will be evolved. If there is a pimp connected in the
cooling circuit, it will help generating bubbles. These bubbles may cause
insulation failure in the region of strong fields. (Here silica gel breather,
MOG, Drain Valves, Air Pockets and Conservator to main tank
connections are not shown in the figure above.)
Radiator of Transformer
Function of Radiator
When an electrical transformer is loaded, the current starts flowing
through its windings. Due to this flowing of electric current, heat is
produced in the windings, this heat ultimately rises the temperature of
transformer oil. We know that the rating of any electrical equipment
depends upon its allowable temperature rise limit. Hence, if the
temperature rise of the transformer insulating oil is controlled, the
capacity or rating of transformer can be extended up to significant range.
The radiator of transformer accelerates the cooling rate of
transformer. Thus, it plays a vital role in increasing loading capacity of an
electrical transformer.This is basic function of radiator of an electrical
power transformer.
Oil immersed power transformer is generally provided with detachable
pressed sheet radiator with isolating valves. But in case of small size
distributing transformer, the radiators are generally integrated parts of
transformer body and projected from the main tank.
The working principle of radiator is very simple. It just increases the
surface area for dissipating heat of the oil. In case of electrical power
transformer, due to the transport limitation, this units are sent separately
and assembled at site with transformer main body. At the time of
dispatching, the flings of radiator are blanketed by gasket and blanketing
plates. The radiator valves on the main tank are also blanketed by gasket
and blanketing plates.
Assembling and Mounting of Transformer Radiator
Special care should be taken while removing radiators from crates and
the same care should also be taken during handling and mounting the
radiator bank. This is because any minor damage can initiate oil leakage
from the bank as radiator units are made from very thin steel sheets of
metal for good conduction of heat from oil to air.
After removing from crates, these radiators must be cleaned externally.
These are also required to be clean from inside by flashing with
transformer insulating oil. The radiator units must be assembled one by
one that means, fitting and fixing of one unit must be completed in all
respect before assembling the next unit. The assembling should be
started from one side and finished at other side. Before assembling the
unit, remove blanketing plates from the top and bottom radiator valves.
During the removing of blanketing plates; if gasket surface is damaged, it
should be replaced by new gasket. Then the radiator unit would be lifted
vertically and brought nearer to the respective main tank valves. Now
remove the blanketing plates of the main tank valves. Fit the radiator
flange on respective valve of main tank by nuts, bolts, plain and spring
washers. Assemble all the other radiator units in same manner.
After assembling all the units, this is the time for filling insulating oil. This
should also be done one unit by one unit. For that, first the bottom valve
is opened and air release plug on the top of the radiator is also gets
slowly unscrewed. The oil from main tank will enter into the transformer
radiator unit. Air starts escaping from air release plug till the unit is
totally filled with transformer insulating oil. The oil filling in the unit is
completed when oil comes out from unscrewed air release plug. After
that, the air release plug is tightened and top radiator valve is open.
Operation of Transformer Radiator
Under loaded condition, warm oil increases in volume and comes to the
upper portion of the main tank. Then this oil enters in the radiator
through top valve and cools down by dissipating heat through the thin
radiator wall. This cold oil comes back to the main tank through the
bottom radiator valve. This cycle is repeated continuously till the load is
connected to the transformer. Dissipation of heat in the transformer
radiator; can be accelerated further by force air provided by means of
fans. These fans are fitted either on the radiator bank itself or fitted
nearby the bank but all the fans must be faced towards the radiator.
Sometime, the cooling rate of convectional circulation of oil is not
sufficient. That time an oil pump may be used for speeding up oil
circulation.
Magnetic Oil Gauge or MOG

This device is used to indicate the position of transformer insulating oil
level in conservator of transformer. This is a mechanical device.
Magnetic oil level indicator of transformer consists of mainly three
parts:
1. One float
2. Bevel gear arrangement and
3. An indicating dial.
Construction of Magnetic Oil Gauge or MOG

Lets explain the construction of magnetic oil gauge or MOG from its
dial parts. The dial of this device has scale from empty to full. It has
some intermediate divisions such as 1/4, 1/1, 3/4. The prescribed oil
level at either 30C or 35C ambient temperature may also be indicated
on the dial. A mercury switch and bevel gear is fixed with pointer. When
pointer rotates, the alignment of mercury switch also changes according
to the angle of rotation of the pointer.
One ball type or drum type float is attached with a sufficiently long float
arm. One unit of bevel gear is fitted on the other side of the float arm.
Other unit of the bevel gear is magnetically coupled with pointer and
mercury switch arrangement. The bevel gear arrangement is positioned
inside the conservator tank of transformer and dial, pointer and mercury
switch are positioned outside the conservator tank.
Working Principle of Magnetic Oil Gauge or MOG
All oil immersed distribution and electrical power transformers are
provided with expansion vessel which is known as conservator of
transformer. This vessel takes care of oil expansion due to temperature
rise. When transformer insulating oil is expanded, the oil level in the
conservator tank goes up.
Again when oil volume is reduced due to fall in oil temperature, the oil
level in the conservator goes down. But it is essential to maintain a
minimum oil level in the conservator tank of transformer even at lowest
possible temperature. All large electrical power transformers are
therefore provided with a magnetic oil level indicator or magnetic oil
gauge. In conventional conservator tank, a light weight hollow ball or
drum floats on the transformer insulating oil. The float arm is attached
with bevel gear as we already explained during the discussion on the
construction of magnetic oil gauge. Naturally the position of the float
goes up and down depending upon the oil level in the conservator and
consequently the alignment of float arm changes. Consequently, the
bevel gear rotates. This movement of bevel gear is transmitted to the
pointer outside the conservator, as this pointer is magnetically coupled
with the bevel gear. The pointer of magnetic oil level indicator is also
incorporated with a mercury switch. So it is need not say, when oil level
in the conservator goes up and down, the pointer moves on the MOG dial
to indicate the actual level of transformer insulating oil in conservator
tank. As the alignment of mercury switch changes along with the pointer,
this switch closes and actuates an audible alarm when pointer reaches
near empty position on the dial of magnetic oil gauge. This event alerts
us for topping up oil in electrical power transformer. In air cell
conservator, the float arm is attached with air cell and alignment of float
arm changes with the changing size of air cell due to the expansion and
contraction of oil.
Oil Winding and Remote

Temperature Indicator
Temperature Indicator of Transformer
These are generally precision instruments. A temperature indicator of
power transformer is specially designed for protection of transformer in
addition to its temperature indication and cooling control features. That
means, this device performs three functions
1. These instruments indicate instantaneous temperature of oil and
windings of transformer.
2. These also record maximum temperature rise of oil and windings.
3. These instruments operate high temperature alarm at a predetermined
value of allowable temperature limit.
4. Temperature indicators of transformer can also trip the circuit breakers
associated with the power transformer when the temperature of oil or
winding reaches a predetermined limit.
5. These devices also control the cooling system of transformer. Switch on the
cooling equipment when the winding attains a preset high temperature
and switch it off when the temperature drops by an established
differential.
Types of Temperature Indicator of Transformer
There are mainly two types of temperature indicators used in
transformer. Principally both of the instruments are the same but, one is
used for oil temperature and the other is used for winding temperature.
There is another type of temperature indicator often used in power
transformer, which is little bit different principally and this is remote
temperature indicator.
The types of temperature indicator of transformer are-
1. Oil temperature indicator (OTI)
2. Winding temperature indicator (WTI)
3. Remote temperature indicator (RTI)
Construction of Temperature Indicator of Transformer
These indicators are provided with a sensing bulb. This sensing bulb is
placed in a pocket on the roof of transformer tank. The pocket is filled
with transformer oil. The bulb is connected to the instrument housing by
means of flexible connecting tubing consisting of two capillary tubes. One
capillary tube is connected to the operating bellow of the instrument and
other to a compensating bellow. Compensating bellow compensates
variation of ambient temperature. The pointer is fixed with a steel
carriage on which normally four mercury switches are mounted. The
make and break temperature of these mercury switches can be adjusted
separately. One mercury switch is use to operate cooling fans, one
mercury switch is used to switch on oil pumps, one mercury switch is for
high temperature alarm and last switch is used to inter trip the
transformer in extremely high temperature condition. In addition to these
the dial of oil temperature indicator is also provided with dummy
pointer which is pushed by main pointer when temperature rises. When
main pointer moves back due to decreasing temperature, the dummy
pointer stays at maximum temperature position of the main pointer. This
indicates maximum temperature rise of transformer during a preset
period of time.
Oil Temperature Indicator or OTI
This device is used to measure the top oil temperature. An oil
temperature indicator or OTI is also used for protection of transformer.
Operating Principle of Oil Temperature Indicator
This device measures top oil temperature with the help of sensing bulb
immersed in the pocket by using liquid expansion in the bulb through a
capillary line to operating mechanism. A link and lever mechanism
amplifies this movement to the disc carrying pointer and mercury
switches. When volume of the liquid in operating mechanism changes,
the bellow attached to end of capillary tube expands and contracts. This
movement of bellow is transmitted to the pointer in temperature
indicator of transformer through a lever linkage mechanism.
Winding Temperature Indicator or WTI
This device measures the LV and HV winding temperature. A winding
temperature indicator or WTI is also used as protection of transformer.
Operating Principle of Winding Temperature Indicator

The basic operating principle of WTI is same as OTI. But only difference
is that the sensing bulb pocket on transformer top cover is heated by a
heater coil surrounded it. This heater coil is fed by secondary of current
transformers associated with transformer winding. Hence the current
through the heater coil is directly proportional to the current flowing
through transformer winding. This is because there is no scope of direct
measuring of temperature inside a winding. When load of transformer
increases, the winding temperature is also increased and this increased
temperature is sensed by sensing bulb as the heater coil surrounds it.
Rest of the working principle of winding temperature indicator is same as
principle of oil temperature indicator.
Remote Temperature Indicator
A precision potentiometer mounted inside the instrument case functions
as a transmitter and operates an electrical repeater for remote reading of
measured temperature. In one scheme the transmitter is directly
connected to the repeaters and alternative scheme is to connect the
transmitter to a resistance transducer, which will supply direct current for
operating repeater.
Transformer Cooling System and

Methods
The main source of heat generation in transformer is its copper loss or
I2R loss. Although there are other factors contribute heat in transformer
such as hysteresis andeddy current losses but contribution of I2R loss
dominate them. If this heat is not dissipated properly, the temperature of
the transformer will rise continually which may cause damages in paper
insulation and liquid insulation medium of transformer. So it is essential
to control the temperature with in permissible limit to ensure the long life
of transformer by reducing thermal degradation of its insulation system.
In electrical power transformer we use external transformer cooling
system to accelerate the dissipation rate of heat of transformer.There
are different transformer cooling methods available for trans former,
we will now explain one by one.
Different Transformer Cooling Methods

For accelerating cooling different transformer cooling methods are
used depending upon their size and ratings. We will discuss these one by
one below
ONAN Cooling of Transformer
This is the simplest transformer cooling system. The full form of
ONAN is "Oil Natural Air Natural". Here natural convectional flow of hot oil
is utilized for cooling. In convectional circulation of oil, the hot oil flows to
the upper portion of the transformer tank and the vacant place is
occupied by cold oil. This hot oil which comes to upper side, will dissipate
heat in the atmosphere by natural conduction, convection & radiation in
air and will become cold. In this way the oil in the transformer tank
continually circulate when the transformer put into load. As the rate of
dissipation of heat in air depends upon dissipating surface of the oil tank,
it is essential to increase the effective surface area of the tank. So
additional dissipating surface in the form of tubes or radiators connected
to the transformer tank. This is known as radiator of transformer or
radiator bank of transformer. We have shown below a simplest form on
natural cooling or ONAN cooling arrangement of an earthing transformer
below.
ONAF Cooling of Transformer
Heat dissipation can obviously be increased, if dissipating surface is
increased but it can be make further faster by applying forced air flow on
that dissipating surface. Fans blowing air on cooling surface is employed.
Forced air takes away the heat from the surface of radiator and provides
better cooling than natural air. The full form of ONAF is "Oil Natural Air
Forced". As the heat dissipation rate is faster and more in ONAF
transformer cooling method than ONAN cooling system, electrical power
transformer can be put into more load without crossing the permissible
temperature limits.
OFAF Cooling of Transformer
In oil forced air natural cooling system of transformer, the heat
dissipation is accelerated by using forced air on the dissipating surface
but circulation of the hot oil in transformer tank is natural convectional
flow.
The heat dissipation rate can be still increased further if this oil
circulation is accelerated by applying some force. In OFAF cooling system
the oil is forced to circulate within the closed loop of transformer tank by
means of oil pumps. OFAF means "Oil Forced Air Forced" cooling methods
of transformer. The main advantage of this system is that it is compact
system and for same cooling capacity OFAF occupies much less space
than farmer two systems of transformer cooling. Actually in oil natural
cooling system, the heat comes out from conducting part of the
transformer is displaced from its position, in slower rate due to
convectional flow of oil but in forced oil cooling system the heat is
displaced from its origin as soon as it comes out in the oil, hence rate of
cooling becomes faster.
OFWF Cooling of Transformer
We know that ambient temperature of water is much less than the
atmospheric air in same weather condition. So water may be used as
better heat exchanger media than air. In OFWF cooling system of
transformer, the hot oil is sent to an oil-to-water heat exchanger by
means of oil pump and there the oil is cooled by applying sowers of cold
water on the heat exchanger's oil pipes. OFWF means "Oil Forced Water
Forced" cooling in transformer.
ODAF Cooling of Transformer
ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer can be considered
as the improved version of OFAF. Here forced circulation of oil directed to
flow through predetermined paths in transformer winding. The cool oil
entering the transformer tank from cooler or radiator is passed through
the winding where gaps for oil flow or pre-decided oil flowing paths
between insulated conductor are provided for ensuring faster rate of heat
transfer. ODAF or oil directed air forced cooling of transformer is
generally used in very high rating transformer.
ODWF Cooling of Transformer
ODAF or oil directed water forced cooling of transformer is just like ODAF
only difference is that here the hot oil is cooled in cooler by means of
forced water instead of air. Both of these transformer cooling methods
are called forced directed oil cooling of transformer.
Tap Changer of Transformer

No Load Tap Changer or NLTC
In larger electrical power transformer, for proper voltage regulation of
transformer, on load tap changer is required. As there is no permission
of switching off the transformer during tap changing. The tapping
arrangement, is placed in separate divertor tank attached to electrical
power transformer main tank. Inside this tank, the tap selectors are
generally arranged in a circular form. The divertor switches have contacts
operating in rapid sequence with usually four separate make and break
units.
Figure shows a typical selector and switching arrangements with no load

tap changer or NLTC on neutral and of the star connected winding of a
electrical power transformer.
On Load Tap Changer (OLTC)

PO STED JAN 28 2015 BY EDV ARD I N ENERGY AND POWER , TRANSFO RM ERS WI TH 13 COMM ENTS
4 Essential Features of Transformer On-Load Tap Changer (photo credit: on-electricity.blogspot.fr)
Done on the HV winding

On-load tap changers (or circuit tap changers), as the name suggests, permit tap changing
and hence voltage regulation with the transformer on-load. Tap changing is usually done on
the HV winding for two reasons:
1. Because the currents are lower, the tap changer contacts, leads, etc., can be smaller.
2. As the HV winding is wound outside the LV winding, it is easier to get the tapping connections out
to the tap changer.
Figure 1 below shows the connections for an on-load tap changer that operates on the
HV winding of the transformer.
Figure 1 On-Load Tap Changer
The tap changer has four essential features:

1. Selector Switches
These switches select the physical tap position on the transformer winding and,
because of their construction, cannot and must not make or break the load current.
2. Reactors
The load current must never be interrupted during a tap change.
Therefore, during each tap change, there is an interval where two voltage taps are spanned.
Reactors (inductors) are used in the circuit to increase the impedance of the selector circuit
and limit the amount of current circulating due to this voltage difference. Under normal load
conditions, equal load current flows in both halves of the reactor windings and the fluxes
balance out giving no resultant flux in the core.
With no flux, there is no inductance and, therefore, no voltage drop due to inductance. There will
be however, a very small voltage drop due to resistance.
During the tap change, the selector switches are selected to different taps (see Figure 2) and
a circulating current will flow in the reactor circuit. This circulating current will create a flux
and the resulting inductive reactance will limit the flow of circulating current.
3. Vacuum Switch
This device performs the duty of a circuit breaker that makes and breaks current during the
tap changing sequence.
4. Bypass Switch
This switch operates during the tap changing sequence but, at no time, does it make or
break load current, though it does make before break each connection.
An example of the tap changing sequence is detailed in Figure 2 (diagrams 1 through
10). Table 1describes the sequence of operations for the tap changer of Figure 2 to change
from tap 1 to tap 2. Changing to any other tap position is done similarly with the selector
switch always moving sequentially (i.e., it is impossible to go from tap 1 to tap 3 directly, the
order must be tap 1, tap 2, then tap 3).
The operating mechanism for the on-load tap changer is motor driven. Manual operation is used in
the event of motor failure.
The sequence of operation is mechanically linked, orinterlocked, to ensure that all contacts
always operate in their correct order. Any failure of the operating mechanism can result in
severe damage to the transformers and tap changers.
Table 1 Description of Tap Changing Sequence for Figure 1

No. Details of Tap-Changer operation
1 Present position tap changer selected to tap 1, bypass switch in, A + B, home position.
2 Bypass switch selects lower circuit arm.
3 Vacuum switch opens, removing load current from upper circuit arm freeing one half of
selector switch for move.
4 As there is no load current on upper arm of selector switch, it moves to tap 2.
5 Vacuum switch closes both selector switches onload, circulating current is limited by
reactors.
6 Bypass switch selects upper arm circuit arm. No arcing occurs as vacuum switch is closed and
in parallel.
7 Vacuum switch opens, removing load current from lower circuit arm, freeing lower selector
switch for move.
8 As there is no load current on lower arm of selector switch, it moves to tap 2.
9 Vacuum switch closes both selector switches onload, in parallel, on tap 2.
10 With vacuum switch closed and selector switch on a single tap, the bypass switch can now
return to its home position. Both reactor circuits stay normally in parallel. The tap change is
now complete.
Figure 2 Illustration of an On-Load Change Operation
The previous example describes one type of on-load tap changer. There are several other
types inuse however, which may differ significantly from the type described.
Differences are usually in how the selection of taps is made and the degree of
mechanization. However, most importantly, all on-load tap changers allow voltage changes to take
place without interrupting the power circuit.
Watch the function principle of On-Load Tap Changer in this link
Tertiary Winding of Transformer |

Three Winding Transformer
In some high rating transformer, one winding in addition to its primary
and secondary winding is used. This additional winding, apart from
primary and secondary windings, is known as Tertiary winding of
transformer. Because of this third winding, the transformer is called
three winding transformer or 3 winding transformer.
Advantages of Using Tertiary Winding in

Transformer
Tertiary winding is provided in electrical power transformer to meet
one or more of the following requirements-
1. It reduces the unbalancing in the primary due to unbalancing in three

phase load.
2. It redistributes the flow of fault current.
3. Sometime it is required to supply an auxiliary load in different voltage
level in addition to its main secondary load. This secondary load can be
taken from tertiary winding of three winding transformer.
4. As the tertiary winding is connected in delta formation in 3 winding
transformer, it assists in limitation of fault current in the event of a
short circuit from line to neutral.
Stabilization by Tertiary Winding of Transformer

In star-star transformer comprising three single units or a single unit with
5 limb core offers high impedance to the flow of unbalanced load
between the line and neutral. This is because, in both of these
transformers, there is very low reluctance return path of unbalanced flux.
If any transformer has N turns in winding and reluctance of the magnetic
path is RL, then,
Where I and are current and flux in the transformer.
Now, from equation (1) & (2), it can be rewritten as,
From this above mathematical expression it is found that, impedance is

inversely proportional to reluctance. The impedance offered by the return
path of unbalanced load current is very high where very low reluctance
return path is provided for unbalanced flux.
In other words, very high impedance to the flow of unbalanced current in

3 phase system is offered between line and neutral. Any unbalanced
current in three phase system can be divided into three sets of
components likewise positive sequence, negative sequence and zero
sequence components. The zero sequence current is actually co-phasial
current in three lines. If value of co-phasial current in each line is Io, then
total current flows through the neutral of secondary side of transformer is
In = 3.Io. This current cannot be balanced by primary current as the zero
sequence current cannot flow through the isolated neutral star connected
primary. Hence the said current in the secondary side set up a magnetic
flux in the core. As we discussed earlier in this chapter, low reluctance
path is available for the zero sequence flux in a bank of single phase
units and in the 5 limb core consequently; the impedance offered to the
zero sequence current is very high. The delta connected tertiary winding
of transformer permits the circulation of zero sequence current in it. This
circulating current in this delta winding balances the zero sequence
component of unbalance load, hence prevents unnecessary development
of unbalance zero sequence flux in the transformer core. In few words it
can be said that, placement of tertiary winding in star - star-neutral
transformer considerably reduces the zero sequence impedance of
transformer.
Rating of Tertiary Winding of Transformer

Rating of tertiary winding of transformer depends upon its use. If it
has to supply additional load, its winding cross - section and design
philosophy is decided as per load, and three phase dead short circuit on
its terminal with power flow from both sides of HV & MV. In case it is to
be provided for stabilizing purpose only, its cross - section and design
has to be decided from thermal and mechanical consideration for the
short duration fault currents during various fault conditions single line to
ground fault being the most onerous.
Core of Transformer and Design of

Transformer Core
Purpose of Transformer Core
In an electrical power transformer, there are primary, secondary and
may be tertiary windings. The performance of a transformer mainly
depends upon the flux linkages between these windings. For efficient flux
linking between these windings, one low reluctance magnetic path
common to all windings should be provided in the transformer. This low
reluctance magnetic path in transformer is known as core of
transformer.
Influence of Diameter of Transformer Core

Let us consider, the diameter of transformer core be D Then, cross-
sectional area of the core,
Now, voltage per turn,
Where Bm is the maximum flux density of the core.
E is proportional to D2. Therefore voltage per turn is increased with

increase in diameter of transformer core. Again if voltage across the
winding of transformer is V. Then V = eN, where N is the number of turns
in winding. If V is constant, e is inversely proportional to N. And hence,
D2 is inversely proportional to N. So, diameter of the core is increased,
the number of turns in the transformer winding reduced. Reduction of
number of turns, reduction in height of the core legs in-spite of reduction
of core legs height increased in core diameter, results increase in overall
diameter of magnetic core of transformer. This increased steel weight
ultimately leads to increased core losses in transformer. Increased
diameter of the core leads to increase in the main diameter on the
winding. In spite of increased diameter of the winding turns, reduced
number of turns in the windings, leads to less copper loss in transformer.
So, we go on increasing diameter of the transformer core, losses in the
transformer core will be increased but at the same time, load loss or
copper loss in transformer is reduced. On the other hand, if diameter of
the core is decreased, the weight of the steel in the core is reduced;
which leads to less core loss of transformer, but in the same time, this
leads to increase in number of turns in the winding, means increase in
copper weight, which leads to extra copper loss in transformer. So,
diameter of the core must be optimized during designing of
transformer core, considering both the aspects.
Material for Transformer Core
The main problem with transformer core is, its hysteresis loss and eddy
current loss in transformer. Hysteresis loss in transformer mainly
depends upon its core materials. It is found that, a small quantity of
silicon alloyed with low carbon content steel produces material for
transformer core, which has low hysteresis loss and high permeability.
Because of increasing demand of power, it is required to further reduce
the core losses and for that, another technique is employed on steel,
which is known as cold rolling. This technique arranges the orientation of
grain in ferromagnetic steel in the direction of rolling. The core steel
which has under gone through both the silicon alloying and cold rolling
treatments is commonly known as CRGOS or Cold Rolled Grain Oriented
Silicon Steel. This material is now universally used for manufacturing
transformer core. Although this material has low specific iron loss but
still; it has some disadvantages, like, it is susceptible to increase loss due
to flux flow in direction other than grain orientation and it also
susceptible to impaired performance due to impact of bending and
blanking the cutting CRGOS sheet. Both the surfaces of the sheet are
provided with an insulating of oxide coating.
Optimum Design of Cross Section of

Transformer Core
The maximum flux density of CRGO steel is about 1.9 Tesla. Means the
steel becomes saturated at the flux density 1.9 Tesla. One important
criteria for the design of transformer core, is that, it must not be
saturated during the transformers normal operation mode. Voltages of
transformer depend upon its total magnetizing flux. Total magnetizing
flux through core is nothing but the product of flux density and cross
sectional area of the core. Hence, flux density of a core can be controlled
by adjusting the cross sectional area of the core during its design.
The ideal shape of cross-section of a transformer core is circular. For

making perfect circular cross section, each and every successive
lamination steel sheet should be cut in different dimension and size. This
is absolutely uneconomical for practical manufacturing.
In reality, manufacturers use different groups or packets of predefined
number of same dimension lamination sheets. The group or packet is a
block of laminated sheets with a predefined optimum height (thickness).
The core is an assembly of these blocks in such a successive manner as
per their size from core central line, that it gives an optimum circular
shape of the cross-section. Such typical cross-section is shown in the
figure below. Oil ducts are needed for cooling the core. Cooling ducts are
necessary because hot-spot temperature may rise dangerously high and
their number depends on the core diameter and materials that get used
for core. In addition to that, clamp plates made of steel are needed on
either sides of the core to clamp the lamination. The steel sheet
lamination blocks, oil ducts, and clamping plates; all should lie within the
peripheral of optimum core circle. The net sectional area is calculated
from the dimensions of various packets and allowance is made for the
space lost between lamination (known as stacking factor) for which steel
sheet of 0.28 mm thickness with insulation coating is approximately
0.96. Area is also deducted for oil ducts. The ratio of net cross sectional
area of core to the gross cross - sectional area inside the imaginary
peripheral circle is known as Utilization factor of transformer core.
Increasing numbers of steps improve the Utilization factor but at the
same time, it increases manufacturing cost. Optimum numbers of steps
are between 6 (for smaller diameter) to 15 (larger diameter).
Manufacturing of Transformer Core
During core manufacturing in factory some factors are taken into
consideration,
1. Higher reliability.
2. Reduction in iron loss in transformer and magnetizing current.
3. Lowering material cost and labor cost.
4. abatement of noise levels.
Quality checking is necessary at every step of manufacturing to ensure
quality and reliability. The steel sheet must be tested for ensuring the
specific core loss or iron loss values. The lamination should be properly
checked and inspected visually, rusty and bend lamination should be
rejected. For reducing the transformer noises, the lamination should be
tightly clamped together and punch holes should be avoided as far as
possible to minimize cross flux iron losses. The air gap at the joint of
limbs and yokes should be reduced as much as possible for allowing
maximum smooth conducting paths for magnetizing current.
Corner Jointing of Limbs with Yokes
Core losses in transformer happen mainly due to,
1. Magnetic flux flow along the direction of the grain orientation,

2. Magnetic flux flow perpendicular to the direction of the grain
orientation, this is also known as cross grain iron losses. The cross
grain loss mainly occurs in the zones of corner jointing of limbs with
yokes and it can be controlled to some extent by applying special
corner jointing techniques. There are normally two types of joints used
in transformer core,
3. Interleaved joints
4. Mited joints
Interleaved Joints in Transformer Core
Interleaved joint in transformer core is the simplest form of joints. This
joint is shown in the figure. The flux leaves and enters at the joint in
perpendicular to grain orientation. Hence cross grain losses are high in
this type of joints. But considering the low manufacturing cost, it is
preferable to use in small rating transformer.
Mitred Joints in Transformer Core

Here the lamination's are cut at 45. The limbs and yoke lamination
edges are placed face to face at the Mitred joints in transformer core.
Here the flux enters and leaves the lamination, gets smooth path in the
direction of its flow; hence, cross grain loss is minimum here. However it
involves extra manufacturing cost but it is preferable to use in electrical
power transformer where loss minimization is the main criteria in
designing of transformer core.
Transformer Insulating Oil and

Types of Transformer Oil
An Introduction to Insulating Oil
Insulating oil in an electrical power transformer is commonly known as
transformer oil. It is normally obtained by fractional distillation and
subsequent treatment of crude petroleum. That is why this oil is also
known as mineral insulating oil. Transformer oil serves mainly two
purposes one it is liquid insulation in electrical power transformer and
two it dissipates heat of the transformer e.i. acts as coolant. In addition
to these, this oil serves other two purposes, it helps to preserve the core
and winding as these are fully immersed inside oil and another important
purpose of this oil is, it prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen
with cellulose made paper insulation of windings, which is susceptible to
oxidation.
Types of Transformer Oil

Generally there are two types of transformer Oil used in transformer,
1. Paraffin based transformer oil

2. Naphtha based transformer oil
Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than Paraffin oil. But oxidation
product i.e. sludge in the naphtha oil is more soluble than Paraffin oil.
Thus sludge of naphtha based oil is not precipitated in bottom of the
transformer. Hence it does not obstruct convection circulation of the oil,
means it does not disturb the transformer cooling system. But in the case
of Paraffin oil although oxidation rate is lower than that of Naphtha oil
but the oxidation product or sludge is insoluble and precipitated at
bottom of the tank and obstruct the transformer cooling system.
Although Paraffin based oil has above mentioned disadvantage but still in
our country it is generally used because of its easy availability. Another
problem with paraffin based oil is its high pour point due to the wax
content, but this does not effect its use due to warm climate condition of
India.
Properties of Transformer Insulating Oil

Some specific parameters of insulating oil should be considered to
determined the serviceability of that oil.
Parameters of Transformer Oil
The parameters of transformer oil are categorized as,
1. Electrical parameters : Dielectric strength, specific resistance,
dielectric dissipation factor.
2. Chemical parameter :- Water content, acidity, sludge content.
3. Physical parameters :- Inter facial tension, viscosity, flash point, pour
point.
Electrical Parameter of Transformer Oil
Dielectric Strength of Transformer Oil
Dielectric strength of transformer oil is also known as breakdown

voltage of transformer oil or BDV of transformer oil. Break down
voltage is measured by observing at what voltage, sparking strants
between two electrods immerged in the oil, separated by specific gap.
low value of BDV indicates presence of moisture content and conducting
substances in the oil. For measuring BDV of transformer oil, portable
BDV measuring kit is generally available at site. In this kit, oil is kept in a
pot in which one pair of electrodes are fixed with a gap of 2.5 mm (in
some kit it 4mm) between them. Now slowly rising voltage is applied
between the electrodes. Rate of rise of voltage is generally controlled at 2
KV/s and observe the voltage at which sparking starts between the
electrodes. That means at which voltage dielectric strength of
transformer oil between the electrodes has been broken down.
Generally this measurement is taken 3 to 6 times in same sample of oil
and the average value of these reading is taken. BDV is important and
popular test of transformer oil, as it is primary indication of health of oil
and it can be easily carried out at site.
Dry and clean oil gives BDV results, better than the oil with moisture
content and other conducting impurities. Minimum breakdown voltage
of transformer oil or dielectric strength of transformer oil at which
this oil can safely be used in transformer, is considered as 30 KV.
Specific Resistance of Transformer Oil
This is another important property of transformer oil. This is measure of
DC resistance between two opposite sides of one cm3 block of oil. Its unit
is taken as ohm-cm at specific temperature. With increase in temperature
the resistivity of oil decreases rapidly. Just after charging a transformer
after long shut down, the temperature of the oil will be at ambient
temperature and during full load the temperature will be very high and
may go up to 90C at over load condition. So resistivity of the insulating
oil must be high at room temperature and also it should have good value
at high temperature as well. That is why specific resistance or resistivity
of transformer oil should be measured at 27C as well as 90C. Minimum
standard specific resistance of transformer oil at 90C is 35 1012 ohm
cm and at 27C it is 1500 1012 ohmcm.
Dielectric Dissipation Factor of Tan Delta of Transformer Oil

Dielectric dissipation factor is also known as loss factor or tan delta of
transformer oil. When a insulating materials is placed between live part
and grounded part of an electrical equipment, leakage current will flow.
As insulating material is dielectric in nature the current through the
insulation ideally leads the voltage by 90o. Here voltage means the
instantaneous voltage between live part and ground of the equipment.
But in reality no insulating materials are perfect dielectric in nature.
Hence current through the insulator will lead the voltage with an angle
little bit shorter than 90. Tangent of the angle by which it is short of 90
is called dielectric dissipation factor or simply tan delta of transformer
oil. More clearly, the leakage current through an insulation does have
two component one is capacitive or reactive and other one is resistive or
active. Again it is clear from above diagram, value of which is also
known as loss angle,
is smaller, means resistive component of the current IR is smaller which

indicates high resistive property of the insulating material. High resistive
insulation is good insulator. Hence it is desirable to have loss angle as
small as possible. So we should try to keep the value of tan as small as
possible. High value of this tan is an indication of presence of
contaminants in transformer oil. Hence there is a clear relationship
between tan and resistivity of insulating oil. If resistivity of the
insulating oil is decreased, the value of tan-delta increases and vice
verse. So both resistivity test and tan delta test of transformer oil are
not normally required for same piece of insulator or insulating oil. In one
sentence it can be said that, tan is measure of imperfection of dielectric
nature of insulation materials like oil.
Chemical Parameters of Transformer Oil

Water Content in Transformer Oil
Moisture or water content in transformer oil is highly undesirable as it
affects adversely the dielectric properties of oil. The water content in oil
also affects the paper insulation of the core and winding of transformer.
Paper is highly hygroscopic in nature. Paper absorbs maximum amount of
water from oil which affects paper insulation property as well as reduced
its life. But in loaded transformer, oil becomes hotter, hence the solubility
of water in oil increases as a result the paper releases water and increase
the water content in transformer oil. Thus the temperature of the oil
at the time of taking sample for test is very important. During oxidation
acid are formed in the oil the acids give rise the solubility of water in the
oil. Acid coupled with water further decompose the oil forming more acid
and water. This rate of degradation of oil increases. The water content in
oil is measured as pm (parts per million unit).
Water content in oil is allowed up to 50 ppm as recommended by IS

335(1993). The accurate measurement of water content at such low
levels requires very sophisticated instrument like Coulometric Karl Fisher
Titrator .
Acidity of Transformer Oil

Acidity of transformer oil is harmful property. If oil becomes acidic,
water content in the oil becomes more soluble to the oil. Acidity of oil
deteriorates the insulation property of paper insulation of winding. Acidity
accelerates thee oxidation process in the oil. Acid also includes rusting of
iron in presence of moisture. The acidity of transformer oil is measure
of its acidic constituents of contaminants. Acidity of oil is express in mg
of KOH required to neutralize the acid present in a gram of oil. This is
also known as neutralization number.
Physical Parameters of Transformer Oil

Inter Facial Tension of Transformer Oil
Inter facial tension between the water and oil interface is the way to
measure molecular attractive force between water and oil. It is measured
in Dyne/cm or mili-Newton/meter. Inter facial tension is exactly useful
for determining the presence of polar contaminants and oil decay
products. Good new oil generally exhibits high inter facial tension. oil
oxidation contaminants lower the IFT.
Flash Point of Transformer Oil
Flash point of transformer oil is the temperature at which oil gives
enough vapors to produce a flammable mixture with air. This mixture
gives momentary flash on application of flame under standard condition.
Flash point is important because it specifies the chances of fire hazard in
the transformer. So it is desirable to have very high flash point of
transformer oil. In general it is more than 140 (>10).
Pour Point of Transformer Oil
It is the minimum temperature at which oil just start to flow under
standard test condition. Pour point of transformer oil is an important
property mainly at the places where climate is extremely cold. If the oil
temperature falls below the pour point, transformer oil stops convection
flowing and obstruct cooling in transformer. Paraffin based oil has higher
value of pour point, compared to Naphtha based oil, but in India like
country, it does not affect the use of Paraffin oil due tits warm climate
condition. Pour Point of transformer oil mainly depends upon wax content
in the oil. As Paraffin based oil has more wax content, it has higher pour
point.
Viscosity of Transformer Oil
In few wards, viscosity of transformer oil can be said that viscosity is
the resistance of flow, at normal condition. Obviously resistance to flow
of transformer oil means obstruction of convection circulation of oil inside
the transformer. A good oil should have low viscosity so that it offers less
resistance to the convectional flow of oil thereby not affecting the cooling
of transformer. Low viscosity of transformer oil is essential, but it is
equally important that, the viscosity of oil should increase as less as
possible with decrease in temperature. Every liquid becomes more
viscous if temperature decreases.
DGA or Dissolved Gas Analysis of

Transformer Oil | Furfural or
Furfuraldehyde Analysis
DGA or Dissolved Gas Analysis of Transformer Oil
Whenever electrical power transformer goes under abnormal thermal and
electrical stresses, certain gases are produced due to decomposition of
transformer insulating oil, when the fault is major, the production of
decomposed gases are more and they get collected in Buchholz relay. But
when abnormal thermal and electrical stresses are not significantly high
the gasses due to decomposition of transformer insulating oil will get
enough time to dissolve in the oil. Hence by only monitoring the Buchholz
relay it is not possible to predict the condition of the total internal
healthiness of electrical power transformer. That is why it becomes
necessary to analyse the quantity of different gasses dissolved in
transformer oil in service. From dissolved gas analysis of transformer
Oil or DGA of transformer oil, one can predict the actual condition of
internal health of a transformer. It is preferable to conduct the DGA test
of transformer oil in routine manner to get prior information about the
trend of deterioration of transformer health and life.
Actually in dissolved gas analysis of transformer oil or DGA of

transformer oil test, the gases in oil are extracted from oil and analyze
the quantity of gasses in a specific amount of oil. By observing
percentages of different gasses present in the oil, one can predict the
internal condition of transformer. Generally the gasses found in the oil in
service are hydrogen (H2), methane(CH4), Ethane (C2H6), ethylene(C2H4),
acetylene (C2H3), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen(N2) and oxygen(O2). Most commonly used method of
determining the content of these gases in oil, is using a Vacuum Gas
Extraction Apparatus and Gas Chronographs. By this apparatus first
gasses are extracted from oil by stirring it under vacuum. These
extracted gasses are then introduced in gas Chronographs for
measurement of each component. Generally it is found that hydrogen
and methane are produced in large quantity if internal temperature of
power transformer rises up to 150C to 300C due to abnormal thermal
stresses. If temperature goes above 300C, ethylene(C2H4) are produced
in large quantity. At the temperature is higher than 700C large amount
of hydrogen(H2) and ethylene(C2H4) are produced. Ethylene(C2H4) is
indication of very high temperature hot spot inside electrical
transformer.If during DGA test of transformer oil, CO and CO2 are
found in large quantity it is predicted that there is decomposition of
proper insulation.
Furfural Test or Furfuraldehyde Analysis of Transformer Oil
Transformer core and winding have mainly paper insulation. Base of
paper is cellulose. The Cellulose has a structure of long chain of
molecules. As the paper becomes aged, these long chains are broken into
number of shorter parts. This phenomenon we often observe in our
home. The pages of very old books become very much brittle. In
transformer, the aging affect of paper insulation is accelerated due to
oxidation occurs in oil. When insulating paper becomes mechanically
weak, it can not withstand the mechanical stresses applied during
electrical short circuit and leads to electrical breakdown. It is therefore
necessary to monitor the condition of paper insulation inside a power
transformer. It is not possible to bring out a piece of paper insulation
from a transformer in service for testing purpose. But we are lucky
enough, that there is a testing technique developed, where we can
examine the condition of paper insulation without touching it. The
method is called Furfuradehyde analysis of in short Furfural test.
Although by dissolved gas analysis one can predict the condition of the
paper insulation primarily, but it is not very sensitive method. There is a
guide line in IEC-599, where it is told that if the ratio of CO2 and CO in
DGA results is more than 11, it is predicted that the condition of paper
insulation inside the transformer is not good. A healthy cellulose
insulation gives that ratio in a range of 4 to 11. But still it is not a very
sensitive way of monitoring the condition of paper insulation. Because
CO2 and CO gases also produced during oil breakdown and sometimes
the ratio may misleads the prediction.
When oil is soaked into paper, it is damaged by heat and some unique oil
soluble compounds are realized and dissolved in the oil along with CO2
and CO. These compounds belong to the Furfuraldehyde group. These
are some times called Furfural in short. Among all Furfurals compounds
2- Furfural is the most predominant. These Furfural family compound
can only be released from destructive heating of cellulose or paper.
Furfuraldehyde analysis is very sensitive as because damage of few
grams of paper is noticeable in the oil even of a very large size
transformer. It is a very significant diagnostic test. It is best test for
assessing life of transformer. The rate of rise of percentage of Furfurals
products in oil, with respect to time, is used for assessing the condition
and remaining life of paper insulation in power transformer.
Transformer Testing
For confirming the specifications and performances of an electrical power
transformer it has to go through numbers of testing procedures. Some
tests are done at manufacturer premises before delivering the
transformer. Mainly two types of transformer testing are done at
manufacturer premises- type test of transformer and routine test of
transformer. In addition to that some transformer tests are also
carried out at the consumer site before commissioning and also
periodically in regular & emergency basis through out its service life.
Type of Transformer Testing

Tests done at factory
1. Type tests
2. Routine tests
3. Special tests
Tests done at site
1. Pre-commissioning tests
2. Periodic/condition monitoring tests
3. Emergency tests
Type Test of Transformer
To prove that the transformer meets customers specifications and design
expectations, the transformer has to go through different testing
procedures in manufacturer premises.
Some transformer tests are carried out for confirming the basic design
expectation of that transformer. These tests are done mainly in a
prototype unit not in all manufactured units in a lot. Type test of
transformer confirms main and basic design criteria of a production lot.
Routine Tests of Transformer
Routine tests of transformer are mainly for confirming operational
performance of individual unit in a production lot. Routine tests are
carried out on every unit manufactured.
Special Tests of Transformer
Special tests of transformer are done as per customer requirement to
obtain information useful to the user during operation or maintenance of
the transformer.
Pre Commissioning Test of Transformer

In addition to these, the transformer also goes through some other tests,
performed on it, before actual commissioning of the transformer at site.
The transformer testing performed before commissioning the
transformer at site is called pre-commissioning test of transformer. These
tests are done to assess the condition of transformer after installation
and compare the test results of all the low voltage tests with the factory
test reports.
Type tests of transformer includes

1. Transformer winding resistance measurement
2. Transformer ratio test.
3. Transformer vector group test.
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal
tap) and load loss (Short circuit test).
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test).
6. Measurement of insulation resistance.
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Temperature rise test of transformer.
9. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
10. Vacuum tests on tank and radiators.
Routine tests of transformer include
1. Transformer winding resistance measurement.
2. Transformer ratio test.
3. Transformer vector group test.
4. Measurement of impedance voltage/short circuit impedance (principal
tap) and load loss (Short circuit test).
5. Measurement of no load loss and current (Open circuit test)
6. Measurement of insulation resistance.
7. Dielectric tests of transformer.
8. Tests on on-load tap-changer.
9. Oil pressure test on transformer to check against leakages past joints
and gaskets.
That means Routine tests of transformer include all the type tests except
temperature rise and vacuum tests. The oil pressure test on transformer
to check against leakages past joints and gaskets is included.
Special Tests of transformer include
1. Dielectric tests.
2. Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase
transformers
3. Short-circuit test.
4. Measurement of acoustic noise level.
5. Measurement of the harmonics of the no-load current.
6. Measurement of the power taken by the fans and oil pumps.
7. Tests on bought out components / accessories such as buchhloz
relay, temperature indicators, pressure relief devices, oil preservation
system etc.
Transformer Winding Resistance Measurement
Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out to calculate
the I2R losses and to calculate winding temperature at the end of a
temperature rise test. It is carried out as a type test as well as routine
test. It is also done at site to ensure healthiness of a transformer that is
to check loose connections, broken strands of conductor, high contact
resistance in tap changers, high voltage leads and bushings etc.
There are different methods for measuring of transformer winding,

likewise
Current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance.

Bridge method of measurement of winding resistance.
Kelvin bridge method of Measuring Winding Resistance.
Measuring winding resistance by Automatic Winding Resistance
Measurement Kit.
NB:- Transformer winding resistance measurement shall be carried out at
each tap.
Transformer Ratio Test
The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of
specific turns or voltage ratio of transformer. So transformer ratio test is
an essential type test of transformer. This test also performed as
routine test of transformer. So for ensuring proper performance of
electrical power transformer, voltage and turn ratio test of transformer
one of the vital tests.
The procedure of transformer ratio test is simple. We just apply three

phase 415 V supply to HV winding, with keeping LV winding open. The
we measure the induced voltages at HV and LV terminals of transformer
to find out actual voltage ratio of transformer. We repeat the test for all
tap position separately.
Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer
Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three phase
transformers to check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit.
Procedure of Magnetic Balance Test of Transformer

1. First keep the tap changer of transformer in normal position.
2. Now disconnect the transformer neutral from ground.
3. Then apply single phase 230 V AC supply across one of the HV winding
terminals and neutral terminal.
4. Measure the voltage in two other HV terminals in respect of neutral
terminal.
5. Repeat the test for each of the three phases.
In case of auto transformer, magnetic balance test of transformer should
be repeated for LV winding also.
There are three limbs side by side in a core of transformer. One phase
winding is wound in one limb. The voltage induced in different phases
depends upon the respective position of the limb in the core. The voltage
induced in different phases of transformer in respect to neutral terminals
given in the following table.
Left side phase Central phase Right side phase
AN BN CN
Voltage applied at left side phase 230 V 180 V 50 V
Voltage applied at central phase 115 V 230 V 115 V
Voltage applied at right side phase 50 V 180 V 230 V
Magnetizing Current Test of Transformer

Magnetizing current test of transformer is performed to locate
defects in the magnetic core structure, shifting of windings, failure in turn
to turn insulation or problem in tap changers. These conditions change
the effective reluctance of the magnetic circuit, thus affecting the current
required to establish flux in the core.
1. First of all keep the tap changer in the lowest position and open all IV
& LV terminals.
2. Then apply three phase 415 V supply on the line terminals for three
phase transformers and single phase 230 V supply on single phase
transformers.
3. Measure the supply voltage and current in each phase.
4. Now repeat the magnetizing current test of transformertest with
keeping tap changer in normal position.
5. And repeat the test with keeping the tap at highest position.
Generally there are two similar higher readings on two outer limb phases
on transformer core and one lower reading on the centre limb phase, in
case of three phase transformers. An agreement to within 30% of the
measured exciting current with the previous test is usually considered
satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50 times higher
than the value measured during factory test, there is likelihood of a fault
in the winding which needs further analysis.
Caution: This magnetizing current test of transformer is to be

carried out before DC resistance measurement.
Vector Group Test of Transformer
In three phase transformer, it is essential to carry out a vector group test
of transformer. Proper vector grouping in a transformer is an essential
criteria for parallel operation of transformers.
There are several internal connection of three phase transformer are

available in market. These several connections gives various magnitudes
and phase of the secondary voltage; the magnitude can be adjusted for
parallel operation by suitable choice of turn ratio, but the phase
divergence can not be compensated. So we have to choose those
transformer for parallel operation whose phase sequence and phase
divergence are same. All the transformers with same vector ground have
same phase sequence and phase divergence between primary and
secondary. So before procuring one electrical power transformer, one
should ensure the vector group of the transformer, whether it will be
matched with his or her existing system or not. The vector group test of
transformer confirms his or her requirements.
Insulation Resistance Test or Megger Test of
Transformer
Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential type test. This
test is carried out to ensure the healthiness of over all insulation system
of an electrical power transformer.
Procedure of Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer

6. First disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer.
7. Megger leads to be connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure
insulation resistance IR value in between the LV and HV windings.
8. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs and transformer
tank earth point to measure insulation resistance IR value in between
the HV windings and earth.
9. Megger leads to be connected to LV bushing studs and transformer
tank earth point to measure insulation resistance IR value in between
the LV windings and earth.
NB : It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per phase wise in three phase
transformer. IR values are taken between the windings collectively as because all the windings on HV side are
internally connected together to form either star or delta and also all the windings on LV side are internally
connected together to form either star or delta.
Measurements are to be taken as follows: For auto transformer: HV-IV to
LV, HV-IV to E, LV to E. For two winding transformer: HV to LV, HV to E,
LV to E. Three winding transformer: HV to IV, HV to LV, IV to LV, HV to
E, IV to E, LV to E. Oil temperature should be noted at the time of
insulation resistance test of transformer. Since the IR value of
transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be
recorded at intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes. With the
duration of application of voltage, IR value increases. The increase in IR
is an indication of dryness of insulation. Absorption coefficient = 1 minute
value/ 15 secs. value. Polarization index = 10 minutes value / 1 minute
value.
Dielectric Tests of Transformer
Dielectric tests of transformer is one kind of insulation test. This test is
performed to ensure the expected over all insulation strength of
transformer. There are several test performed to ensure the required
quality of transformer insulation, dielectric test is one of them. Dielectric
tests of transformer is performed in two different steps, first one called
Separate source voltage withstand test of transformer, where a single
phase power frequency voltage of prescribed level, is applied on
transformer winding under test for 60 seconds while the other windings
and tank are connected to the earth and it is observed that whether any
failure of insulation occurs or not during the test. Second one is induced
voltage test of Transformer where, three phase voltage, twice of rated
secondary voltage is applied to the secondary winding for 60 second by
keeping the primary of the transformer open circuited. The frequency of
the applied voltage should be double of power frequency too. Here also if
no failure of insulation, the test is successful. In addition to dielectric
tests of transformer there are other type test for checking insulation of
transformer, such as lightning impulse test, switching impulse test and
partial discharge test.
Induced Voltage Test of Transformer
The induced voltage test of transformer is intended to check the inter
turn and line end insulation as well as main insulation to earth and
between windings:
1. Keep the primary winding of transformer open circuited.
2. Apply three phase voltage to the secondary winding. The applied
voltage should be twice of rated voltage of secondary winding in
magnitude and frequency.
3. The duration of the test shall be 60 second.
4. The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage,
and it shall be quickly increased up to desired value.
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during
test.
Temperature Rise Test of Transformer
Temperature rise test of transformer is included in type test of
transformer. In this test we check whether the temperature rising limit
of the transformer winding and oil as per specification or not. In this type
test of transformer, we have to check oil temperature rise as well as
winding temperature rise limits of an electrical transformer.
Transformer Winding Resistance

Measurement
Transformer winding resistance measurement is carried out as a
type test, routine test and also as a field test. In the factory, it helps in
determining the following:
1. Calculation of the I2R losses in transformer.

2. Calculation of winding temperature at the end of temperature rise test
of transformer.
3. As a benchmark for assessing possible damages in the field.
It is done at site in order to check for abnormalities due to loose
connections, broken strands of conductor, high contact resistance in tap
changers, high voltage leads and bushings.
Procedure of Transformer Winding Resistance

Measurement
For star connected winding, the resistance shall be measured between
the line and neutral terminal. For star connected auto-transformers the
resistance of the HV side is measured between HV terminal and IV
terminal, then between IV terminal and the neutral. For delta connected
windings, measurement of winding resistance shall be done between
pairs of line terminals. As in delta connection the resistance of individual
winding can not be measured separately, the resistance per winding shall
be calculated as per the following formula:
Resistance per winding = 1.5 x Measured value

The resistance is measured at ambient temperature and then converted
to resistance at 75C for all practical purposes of comparison with
specified design values, previous results and diagnostics. Winding
Resistance at standard temperature of 75 C
Rt = Winding resistance at temperature t. t = Winding temperature.
Generally transformer windings are immersed in insulation liquid and

covered with paper insulation, hence it is impossible to measure the
actual winding temperature in a de-energizing transformer at time of
transformer winding resistance measurement. An approximation is
developed to calculate temperature of winding at that condition, as
follows
Temperature of winding = Average temperature of insulating oil.
(Average temperature of insulating oil should be taken 3 to 8 hours after
de-energizing transformer and when the difference between top & bottom
oil temperatures becomes less than 5 C.) The resistance can be
measured by simple voltmeter ammeter method, Kelvin Bridge meter or
automatic winding resistance measurement kit. (ohm meter, preferably
25 Amps kit)
Caution for voltmeter ammeter method: Current shall not exceed 15% of
the rated current of the winding. Large values may cause inaccuracy by
heating the winding and thereby changing its temperature and
resistance.
NB: - Measurement of winding resistance of transformer shall be carried out at each tap.
Current Voltage Method of Measurement of

Winding Resistance
The transformer winding resistances can be measured by current voltage
method. In this method of measurement of winding resistance, the test
current is injected to the winding and corresponding voltage drop across
the winding is measured.
By applying simple Ohm's law i.e. Rx = V I, one can easily determine

the value of resistance.
Procedure of Current Voltage Method of Measurement of Winding Resistance
1. Before measurement the transformer should be kept in OFF condition
without excitation at least for 3 to 4 hours. During this time the
winding temperature will become equal to its oil temperature.
2. Measurement is done with D.C.
3. To minimize observation errors, polarity of the core magnetization
shall be kept constant during all resistance readings.
4. Voltmeter leads shall be independent of the current leads to protect it
from high voltages which may occur during switching on and off the
current circuit.
5. The readings shall be taken after the current and voltage have reached
steady state values. In some cases this may take several minutes
depending upon the winding impedance.
6. The test current shall not exceed 15% of the rated current of the
winding. Large values may cause inaccuracy by heating the winding
and thereby changing its resistance.
7. For expressing resistance, the corresponding temperature of the
winding at the time of measurement must be mentioned along with
resistance value. As we said earlier that after remaining in switch off
condition for 3 to 4 hours, the winding temperature would become
equal to oil temperature. The oil temperature at the time of testing is
taken as the average of top oil and bottom oil temperatures of
transformer.
1. For star connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase
would be half of measured resistance between two line terminals of
the transformer.
2. For delta connected three phase winding, the resistance per phase
would be 0.67 times of measured resistance between two line
terminals of the transformer.
3. This current voltage method of measurement of winding
resistance of transformer should be repeated for each pair of line
terminals of winding at every tap position.
Bridge Method of Measurement of Winding

Resistance
The main principle of bridge method is based on comparing an unknown

resistance with a known resistance. When currents flowing through the
arms of bridge circuit become balanced, the reading of galvanometer
shows zero deflection that means at balanced condition no current will
flow through the galvanometer. Very small value of resistance ( in milli-
ohms range) can be accurately measured by Kelvin bridge method
whereas for higher value Wheatstone bridge method of resistance
measurement is applied. In bridge method of measurement of winding
resistance, the errors is minimized.
The resistance measured by Kelvin bridge,
All other steps to be taken during transformer winding resistance

measurement in these methods are similar to that of current voltage
method of measurement of winding resistance of transformer,
except the measuring technique of resistance.
The resistance measured by Wheatstone bridge,
Voltage and Turn Ratio Test of Transformer
The performance of a transformer largely depends upon perfection of
specific turns or voltage ratio of transformer. So transformer ration
test is an essential type test of transformer. The voltage should be
applied only in the high voltage winding in order to avoid unsafe voltage.
Ratio Test of Transformer and Check of Phase

Displacement
Actually the no load voltage ratio of transformer is equal to the turn ratio.
Soit is basically a ratio test of transformer.
Procedure of Transformer Ratio Test

1. First, the tap changer of transformer is kept in the lowest position and
LV terminals are kept open.
2. Then apply 3-phase 415 V supply on HV terminals. Measure the
voltages applied on each phase (Phase-phase) on HV and induced
voltages at LV terminals simultaneously.
3. After measuring the voltages at HV and LV terminals, the tap changer
of transformer should be raised by one position and repeat test.
4. Repeat the same for each of the tap position separately.
The above transformer ratio test can also be performed by portable
transformer turns ratio (TTR) meter. They have an in built power supply,
with the voltages commonly used being very low, such as 8-10 V and 50
Hz. The HV and LV windings of one phase of a transformer are connected
to the instrument, and the internal bridge elements are varied to produce
a null indication on the detector.
Let's have a discussion on transformer turns ratio (TTR) meter method of

turn ratio test of transformer. A phase voltage is applied to the one of
the windings by means of a bridge circuit and the ratio of induced voltage
is measured at the bridge. The accuracy of the measuring instrument is
< 0.1 %.
This theoretical turn ratio is adjusted on the transformer turn ratio tested
or TTR by the adjustable transformer as shown in the figure above and it
should be changed until a balance occurs in the percentage error
indicator. The reading on this indicator implies the deviaton of measured
turn ratio from expected turn ratio in percentage.
Out-of-tolerance, ratio test of transformer can be due to shorted

turns, especially if there is an associated high excitation current. Open
turns in HV winding will indicate very low exciting current and no output
voltage since open turns in HV winding causes no excitation current in
the winding means no flux hence no induced voltage. But open turn in LV
winding causes, low fluctuating LV voltage but normal excitation current
in HV winding. Hence open turns in LV winding will be indicated by
normal levels of exciting current, but very low levels of unstable output
voltage. The turn ratio test of transformer also detects high resistance
connections in the lead circuitry or high contact resistance in tap
changers by higher excitation current and a difficulty in balancing the
bridge.
Vector Group Test of Power
Transformer
Vector Group Test of Transformer
The vector group of transformer is an essential property for successful
parallel operation of transformers. Hence every electrical power
transformer must undergo through vector group test of transformer
at factory site for ensuring the customer specified vector group of
transformer. The phase sequence or the order in which the phases
reach their maximum positive voltages, must be identical for two
paralleled transformers. Otherwise, during the cycle, each pair of phases
will be short circuited. The several secondary connections are available in
respect of various primary three phase connection in a the three phase
transformer. So for same primary applied three phase voltage there may
be different three phase secondary voltages with various magnitudes and
phases for different internal connection of the transformer. Let's have a
discussion in detail by example for better understanding.
We know that, the primary and secondary coils on any one limb have
induced emfs that are in time-phase. Let's consider two transformers of
same number primary turns and the primary windings are connected in
star. The secondary number of turns per phase in both transformers are
also same. But the first transformer has star connected secondary and
other transformer has delta connected secondary. If same voltages are
applied in primary of both transformers, the secondary induced emf in
each phase will be in same time-phase with that of respective primary
phase, as because the the primary and secondary coils of same phase
are wound on the same limb in the core of transformer. In first
transformer, as the secondary is star connected, the secondary line
voltage is 3 times of induced voltage per secondary phase coil. But in
case of second transformer, where secondary is delta connected, the line
voltage is equal to induced voltage per secondary phase coil. If we go
through the vector diagram of secondary line voltages of both
transformer, we will easily find that there will be a clear 30o angular
difference between the line voltages of these transformers. Now, if we try
to run these transformers in parallel then there will be a circulating
current flows between the transformers as because there is a phase
angle difference between their secondary line voltages. This phase
difference can not be compensated. Thus two sets of connections giving
secondary voltages with a phase displacement can not be intended for
parallel operation of transformers.
The following table gives the connections for which from the view point of
phase sequence and angular divergences, transformer can be operated
parallel. According to their vector relation, all three phase transformers
are divided into different vector group of transformer. All electrical
power transformers of a particular vector group can easily be operated in
parallel if they fulfill other condition for parallel operation of transformers.
GROUP Connection Connection
Yy0 Dd0
0
(0o)
Yd1 Dy1
1
( 30o)
Yy6 Dd6
6
( 180o)
Yd11 Dy11
11
( - 30o)
Procedure of Vector Group Test of Transformer
Lets have a YNd11 transformer.
1. Connect neutral point of star connected winding with earth.

2. Join 1U of HV and 2W of LV together.
3. Apply 415 V, three phase supply to HV terminals.
4. Measure voltages between terminals 2U-1N, 2V-1N, 2W-1N, that
means voltages between each LV terminal and HV neutral.
5. Also measure voltages between terminals 2V-1V, 2W-1W and 2V-1W.
For YNd11 transformer, we will find, 2U-1N > 2V-1N > 2W-1N 2V-1W >
2V-1V or 2W-1W . The vector group test of transformer for other
group can also be done in similar way.
Open and Short Circuit Test on

Transformer
These two tests are performed on a transformer to determine
1. equivalent circuit of transformer
2. voltage regulation of transformer
3. efficiency of transformer. The power required for these open circuit
test and short circuit test on transformer is equal to the power
loss occurring in the transformer.
Open Circuit Test on Transformer

The connection diagram for open circuit test on transformer is shown
in the figure. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in
LV side of the transformer as shown. The voltage at rated frequency is
applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
transformer.
The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac,
applied voltage gets slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading
equal to the rated voltage of the LV side. After reaching at rated LV side
voltage, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Wattmeter readings) are recorded.
The ammeter reading gives the no load current Ie. As no load current Ie is
quite small compared to rated current of the transformer, the voltage
drops due to this current that can be taken as negligible. Since,
voltmeter reading V1 can be considered equal to secondary induced
voltage of the transformer, the input power during test is indicated by
watt-meter reading. As the transformer is open circuited, there is no
output, hence the input power here consists of core losses in transformer
and copper loss in transformer during no load condition. But as said
earlier, the no load current in the transformer is quite small compared to
full load current, so copper loss due to the small no load current can be
neglected. Hence, the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to core
losses in transformer. Let us consider wattmeter reading is Po.
Where Rm is shunt branch resistance of transformer. If, Zm is shunt

branch impedance of transformer.
Therefore, if shunt branch reactance of transformer is Xm,.
These values are referred to the LV side of transformer as because the
test is conducted on LV side of transformer. These values could easily be
referred to HV side by multiplying these values with square of
transformation ratio.
Therefore it is seen that the open circuit test on transformer is used
to determine core losses in transformer and parameters of shunt branch
of the equivalent circuit of transformer.
Short Circuit Test on Transformer
The connection diagram for short circuit test on transformer is shown
in the figure. A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in
HV side of the transformer as shown. The voltage at rated frequency is
applied to that HV side with the help of a variac of variable ratio auto
transformer.
The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of
variac applied voltage is slowly increased until the ammeter gives reading
equal to the rated current of the HV side. After reaching at rated current
of HV side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt-
meter readings) are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary
equivalent of full load current IL. As the voltage applied for full load
current in short circuit test on transformer is quite small compared to the
rated primary voltage of the transformer, the core losses in transformer
can be taken as negligible here.
Lets say, voltmeter reading is Vsc. The input power during test is
indicated by watt-meter reading. As the transformer is short circuited,
there is no output; hence the input power here consists of copper losses
in transformer. Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage in
the transformer and hence it is quite small compared to rated voltage, so
core loss due to the small applied voltage can be neglected. Hence the
wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to copper losses in transformer.
Let us consider wattmeter reading is Psc. Where Re is equivalent
resistance of transformer. If, Ze is equivalent impedance of transformer.
Therefore, if equivalent reactance of transformer is Xe
These values are referred to the HV side of transformer as because the

test is conduced on HV side of transformer. These values could easily be
referred to LV side by dividing these values with square of transformation
ratio.
Therefore it is seen that the short circuit test on transformer is used
to determine copper loss in transformer at full load and parameters of
approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.
Insulation Dielectric Test of

Transformer
The dielectric test of transformer is generally performed in two
different steps, likewise, separate source voltage withstand test and
induced voltage withstand test of transformer, which we have discussed
one by one below.
Separate Source Voltage Withstand Test of

Transformer
This dielectric test is intended to check the ability of main insulation to
earth and between winding.
Procedure
1. All three line terminals of the winding to be tested are connected
together.
2. Other winding terminals which are not under test and also tank of the
transformer should be connected to earth.
3. Then a single-phase power frequency voltage of shape approximately
sinusoidal is applied for 60 seconds to the terminals of the winding
under test.
4. The test shall be performed on all the windings one by one.
5. The test is successful if no break down in the dielectric of the
insulation occurs during test.
In this transformer testing, the peak value of voltage is measured, that is

why the capacitor voltage divider with digital peak voltmeter is employed
as shown in the diagram above. The peal value multiplied by 0.707
(1/2) is the test voltage.
The values of test voltage for different fully insulated winding are
furnished below in the table.
Rated short duration
Nominal system Highest system
power frequency
voltage rating voltage rating
withstand
for equipment for equipment
voltage
415V 1.1 KV 3 KV
11 KV 12 KV 28 KV
33 KV 36 KV 70 KV
132 KV 145 KV 230 / 275 KV
220 KV 245 KV 360 / 395 KV
400 KV 420 KV 570 / 630 KV
Winding with graded insulation, which has neutral intended for direct earthing,
is tested at 38KV
Induced Voltage Test of Transformer
The induced voltage test of transformer is intended to check the inter

turn and line end insulation as well as main insulation to earth and
between windings-
1. Keep the primary winding of transformer open circuited.

2. Apply three phase voltage to the secondary winding. The applied
voltage should be twice of rated voltage of secondary winding in
magnitude and frequency.
3. The duration of the test shall be 60 second.
4. The test shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage,
and it shall be quickly increased up to desired value.
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during
test.
Transformer Oil and Winding

Temperature Rise Test
Temperature rise test of Transformer is included in type test of
transformer. In this test we check whether the temperature rising limit of
transformer winding and oil as per specification or not.
Temperature Rise Test for Top Oil of Transformer

1. First the LV winding of the transformer is short circuited.
2. Then one thermometer is placed in a pocket in transformer top cover.
Other two thermometers are placed at the inlet and outlet of the
cooler bank respectively.
3. The voltage of such value is applied to the HV winding that power
input is equal to no load losses plus load losses corrected to a
reference temperature of 75C.
4. The total losses are measured by three watt-meters method.
5. During the test, hourly readings of top oil temperature are taken from
the thermometer already placed in the pocket of top cover.
6. Hourly readings of the thermometers placed at inlet and outlet of the
cooler bank are also noted to calculate the mean temperature of the
oil.
7. Ambient temperature is measured by means of thermometer placed
around the transformer at three or four points situated at a distance of
1 to 2 meter from and half-way up the cooling surface of the
transformer.
8. Temperature rise test for top oil of transformer should be continued
until the top oil temperature has reached an approximate steady value
that means testing would be continued until the temperature
increment of the top oil becomes less than 3C in one hour. This
steady value of top oil is determined as final temperature rise of
transformer insulating oil.
9. There is another method of determination of oil temperature. Here the

test in allowed to be continued until the top oil temperature rise does
not vary more than 1C per hour for four consecutive hours. The least
reading is taken as final temperature rise of the oil.
During temperature rise test for top oil of transformer we make the LV
winding short circuited and apply voltage to the HV winding. So for full
load rated current flows in the transformer, the supply voltage required
will much less than rated transformer voltage. We know that core loss of
a transformer depends upon voltage. So there will not be any
considerable core loss occurs in the transformer during test. But for
getting actual temperature rise of the oil in a transformer, we have to
compensate the lack of core losses by additional copper loss in the
transformer. For supplying this total losses, transformer draws current
from the source much more than its rated value for transformer.
Temperature rise limits of transformer when it is oil immersed, given in

the table below
Temperature rise limit Temperature rise limit
for air as for water as Condition
cooling medium cooling medium
55oC 60oC When oil circulation is natural

Winding
60oC 65oC When oil circulation is forced
When transformer is sealed &

o o
50 C 55 C equipped with conservator
tank
Top Oil
When transformer is neither
sealed
45oC 50oC
nor equipped with conservator
tank
NB: These temperature rises limits mentioned in the above table are the
temperature rises above the temperature of cooling medium. That means
these are the difference between winding or oil temperature and
temperature of cooling air or water.
Winding Temperature Rise Test on Transformer
1. After completion of temperature rise test for top oil of transformer the
current is reduced to its rated value for transformer and is maintained
for one hour.
2. After one hour the supply is switch off and short circuit and supply
connection to the HV side and short circuit connection to the LV side
are opened.
3. But, the fans and pumps are kept running (if any).
4. Then resistance of the windings are measured quickly.

5. But there is always a minimum 3 to 4 minutes time gap between first
measurement of resistance and the instant of switching off the
transformer, which can not be avoided.
6. Then the resistances are measured at the same 3 to 4 minutes time
intervals over a period of 15 minutes.
7. Graph of hot resistance versus time is plotted, from which winding
resistance (R2) at the instant of shut down can be extrapolated.
8. From this value, 2, the winding temperature at the instant of shut
down can be determined by the formula given below-
Where, R1 is the cold resistance of the winding at temperature t1.
For determining winding temperature rise we have to apply the above
discussed indirect method. That means hot winding resistance is
measured and determined first and then from that value we have to
calculate the winding temperature rise, by applying resistance
temperature relation formula. This is because unlike oil the winding of
transformer is not accessible for external temperature measurement.
Impulse Test of Transformer

Lighting is a common phenomenon in transmission lines because of their
tall height. This lightning stroke on the line conductor causes impulse
voltage. The terminal equipment of transmission line such as power
transformer then experiences this lightning impulse voltages. Again
during all kind of online switching operation in the system, there will be
switching impulses occur in the network. The magnitude of the switching
impulses may be about 3.5 times the system voltage. Insulation is one of
the most important constituents of a transformer. Any weakness in the
insulation may cause failure of transformer. To ensure the effectiveness
of the insulation system of a transformer, it must confirms the dielectric
test. But the power frequency withstand test alone can not be adequate
to demonstrate the dielectric strength of a transformer. That is why
impulse test of transformer performed on it. Both lightning impulse
test and switching impulse test are included in this category of
testing.
Lightning Impulse
The lightning impulse is a pure natural phenomenon. So it is very difficult
to predict the actual wave shape of an lightning disturbance. From the
data compiled about natural lightning, it may be concluded that the
system disturbance due to natural lightning stroke, can be represented
by three basic wave shapes.
Full wave
Chopped wave and
Front of wave
Although the actual lightning impulse disturbance may not have exactly
these three shapes but by defining these waves one can establish a
minimum impulse dielectric strength of a transformer. If lighting
disturbance travels some distance along the transmission line before it
reaches the transformer, its wave shape may approach to full wave. If
during traveling, if flash-over occurs at any insulator of the transmission
line, after the peak of the wave has been reached, the wave may become
in form of chopped wave. If the lightning stroke directly hits the
transformer terminals, the impulse voltage rises rapidly until it is relieved
by a flash over. At the instant of flash - over the voltage suddenly
collapses and may form the front of wave shape. The effect of these
wave forms on the transformer insulation may be different from each
other. We are not going here in detail discussion of what type of impulse
voltage wave forms causes what type of failure in transformer. But
whatever may be the shape of lightning disturbance voltage wave, all of
them can cause insulation failure in transformer. So lighting impulse
test of transformer is one of the most important type tests of
transformer.
Switching Impulse
Through studies and observations reveal that the switching over voltage
or switching impulse may have front time of several hundred
microseconds and this voltage may be periodically damped out. The IEC -
600060 has adopted for their switching impulse test, a long wave having
front time 250 s and time to half value 2500 s with tolerances. The
purpose of the impulse voltage test is to secure that the transformer
insulation withstand the lightning overvoltage which may occur in
service.

The impulse generator design is based on the Marx circuit. The basic
circuit diagram is shown on Figure above. The impulse capacitors Cs (12
capacitors of 750 F) are charged in parallel through the charging
resistors Rc (28 k) (highest permissible charging voltage 200 kV). When
the charging voltage has reached the required value, breakdown of the
sparkgap F1 is initiated by an external triggering pulse. When F1 breaks
down, the potential of the following stage (point B and C) rises. Because
the series resistors Rs is of low-ohmic value compared with the
discharging resistors Rb (4,5 k) and the charging resistor Rc, and since
the low-ohmic discharging resistor Ra is separated from the circuit by the
auxiliary spark-gap Fal, the potential difference across the spark-gap F2
rises considerably and the breakdown of F2 is initiated.
Thus the spark-gaps are caused to break down in sequence.

Consequently the capacitors are discharged in series-connection. The
high-ohmic discharge resistors Rb are dimensioned for switching impulses
and the low-ohmic resistors Ra for lightning impulses. The resistors Ra are

connected in parallel with the resistors Rb, when the auxiliary spark-gaps
break down, with a time delay of a few hundred nano-seconds.
The arrangement is necessary in order to secure the functioning of the
generator. The wave shape and the peak value of the impulse voltage are
measured by means of an Impulse Analysing System (DIAS 733) which
are connected to the voltage divider. The required voltage is obtained by
selecting a suitable number of series-connected stages and by adjusted
the charging voltage. In order to obtain the necessary discharge energy
parallel or series-parallel connections of the generator can be used. In
these cases some of the capacitors are connected in parallel during the
discharge. The required impulse shape is obtained by suitable selection of
the series and discharge resistors of the generator. The front time can be
calculated approximately from the equation: For R1 >> R2 and Cg >> C
(15.1) Tt = .R.C.123 and the half time to half value from the equation T
0,7.R.C In practice the testing circuit is dimensioned according to
experience.
Performance of Impulse Test
The test is performed with standard lightning impulses of negative

polarity. The front time (T1) and the time to half-value (T2) are defined in
accordance with the standard. Standard lightning impulse Front time T1 =

1,2 s 30% Time to half-value T2 = 50 s 20% In practice the
impulse shape may deviate from the standard impulse when testing low-
voltage windings of high rated power and windings of high input
capacitance. The impulse test is performed with negative polarity
voltages to avoid erratic flashovers in the external insulation and test
circuit. Waveform adjustments are necessary for most test objects.
Experience gained from results of tests on similar units or eventual
precalculation can give guidance for selecting components for the wave
shaping circuit. The test sequence consists of one reference impulse (RW)
at 75% of full amplitude followed by the specified number of voltage
applications at full amplitude (FW) (according to IEC 60076-3 three full
impulses). The equipment for voltage and current signal recording
consists of digital transient recorder, monitor, computer, plotter and
printer. The recordings at the two levels can be compared directly for
failure indication. For regulating transformers one phase is tested with
the on-load tap changer set for the rated voltage and the two other
phases are tested in each of the extreme positions.
Connection of Impulse Test
All the dielectric tests check the insulation level of the job. Impulse
generator is used to produce the specified voltage impulse wave of
1.2/50 micro seconds wave. One impulse of a reduced voltage between
50 to 75% of the full test voltage and subsequent three impulses at full
voltage. For a three phase transformer, impulse is carried out on all three
phases in succession. The voltage is applied on each of the line terminal

in succession, keeping the other terminals earthed. The current and
voltage wave shapes are recorded on the oscilloscope and any distortion
in the wave shape is the criteria for failure.
Transformer Maintenance
A power transformer is most costly and essential equipment of an
electrical transformer. So for getting high performance and long
functional life of the transformer, it is desired to perform various
maintenance activities. Not only that, a power transformer also requires
various maintenance actions including measurement and testing of
different parameters of the transformer. There are mainly two types of
maintenance of transformer. We perform one group is in routine
basis, and second group is as when required. That means for getting
smooth performance from a transformer we have to perform some
maintenance actions in regular basis.
Some other type of maintenance of transformer we perform as when

they are required. But if one performs regular maintenance properly, he
may not have any provision of performing emergency maintenance. The
regular checking and maintenance of transformer is also known as
condition maintenance. Hence by proper condition maintenance one can
avoid emergency and breakdown maintenance. That is why one technical
personnel should mainly concentrate on condition maintenance. As 100%
condition maintenance causes 0% breakdown of an equipment. There are
many different maintenance action, to be performed on a power
transformer. Some of them in yearly basis, some of them are monthly
basis, some other are quarterly, some are half-yearly basis. These are
mainly transformer maintenance action, which to be performed in 3 to 4
years interval.
Monthly Basis Maintenance of Transformer
Let us first discuss about the action to be taken on power transformer in
monthly basis.
1. The oil level in oil cap under silica gel breather must be checked in one
month interval. If it is found the transformer oil inside the cup comes
below the specified level, oil to be top up as per specified level.

2. Breathing holes in silica gel breather should also be checked monthly
and properly cleaned if required, for proper breathing action.
3. If the transformer has oil filled bushing the oil level of transformer oil
inside the bushing must be vidually checked in the oil gage attached to
those bushing. This action also to be done monthly basis.
If it is required, the oil to be filled in the bushing upto correct level. Oil
filling to be done under shutdown condition.
Daily Basis Maintenance and Checking
There are three main things which to be checked on a power transformer
in daily basis and they are :
1. Reading of MOG (Magnetic Oil Gage) of main tank and conservator
tank.
2. Color of silica gel in breather.
3. Leakage of oil from any point of a transformer.
In case of unsatisfactory oil level in the MOG, oil to be filled in
transformer and also the transformer tank shall be checked for oil
leakage. If oil leakage is found take required action to plug the leakage.
If silica gel becomes pinkish, it should be replaced.
Yearly Basis Transformer Maintenance Schedule
1. The auto, remote, manual function of cooling system that means, oil
pumps, air fans, and other items engaged in cooling system of
transformer, along with their control circuit to be checked in the
interval of one year. In the case of trouble, investigate control circuit
and physical condition of pumps and fans.
2. All the bushings of the transformer to be cleaned by soft cotton cloths
yearly. During cleaning the bushing should be checked for cracking.
3. Oil condition of OLTC to be examined in every year. For that, oil
sample to be taken from drain valve of divertor tank, and this
collected oil sample to be tested for dielectric strength (BDV) and
moisture content (PPM). If BDV is low and PPM for moisture is found
high compared to recommended values, the oil inside the OLTC to be
replaced or filtered.
4. Mechanical inspection of Buchholz relays to be carried out on yearly
basis.

5. All marshalling boxes to be cleaned from inside at least once in a
year. All illumination, space heaters, to be checked whether they are
functioning properly or not. If not, required maintenance action to be
taken. All the terminal connections of control and relay wiring to be
checked an tighten at least once in a year.
6. All the relays, alarms and control switches along with their circuit, in
R&C panel (Relay and Control Panel) and RTCC (Remote Tap Changer
Control Panel) to be cleaned by appropriate cleaning agent.
7. The pockets for OTI, WTI (Oil Temperature Indicator & Winding
Temperature Indicator) on the transformer top cover to be checked
and if required oil to be replenished.
8. The proper function of Pressure Release Device and Buchholz relay
must be checked annually. For that, trip contacts and alarm contacts
of the said devices are shorted by a small piece of wire, and observe
whether the concerned relays in remote panel are properly working or
not.
9. Insulation resistance and polarization index of transformer must be
checked with battery operated megger of 5 KV range.
10.Resistive value of earth connection and rizer must be measured
annually with clamp on earth resistance meter.
11.DGA or Dissolve Gas Analysis of transformer Oil should be performed,
annually for 132 KV transformer, once in 2 years for the transformer
below 132 KV transformer and in 2 years interval for the transformer
above 132 KV transformer.
The Action to be taken once in 2 years :
1. The calibration of OTI and WTI must be carried once in two years.
2. Tan & delta; measurement of bushings of transformer also to be done
once in two years.
Maintenance of Transformer on Half Yearly Basis
The transformer oil must be checked half yearly basis that means once in
6 months, for dielectric strength, water content, acidity, sludge content,
flash point, DDA, IFT, resistivity for transformer oil. In case of
distribution transformer, as they are operating light load condition all the
time of day remaining peak hours , so there are no maintenance
required.

Maintenance of Current Transformer
A Current Transformer or CT is very essential equipment installed in an
electrical substation for electrical measurement and protection purpose.
If a current transformer does not perform properly, there may be huge
disturbance in the system due to malfunctioning of protection relays. So
far accurate measurement and smooth operation of electrical power
system, CTs must be properly maintained. A schedule of such
maintenance of Current Transformer is preferred below for ready
reference. Let us first discuss about the maintenance of CT which to be
performed in one year interval.
1. Insulation resistance of the CT must be checked in yearly basis. During

insulation resistance measurement, it must be remembered that, in
current transformer there are two level of insulation. The insulation
level of primary of CT is quite high as it has to withstand full system
voltage. But the secondary of the CT has low insulation level generally
1.1 KV. So primary to secondary and primary to earth of a current
transformer are measured with 2.5 or 5 KV megger. But this high
voltage megger can not be used for secondary measurement, as here
insulation level is quite low in the view of economy of the design. So
secondary insulation is measured with 500 V megger. Hence, primary
terminals to earth, primary terminals to secondary measuring core,
primary terminals to secondary protection cores are measured by 2.5
or 5 KV megger. In between secondary cores and secondary to earth
resistances are measured by 500V megger.
2. Thermo vision scanning of primary terminals and top dome of a live CT
should be performed at least once in a year. This scanning can be
done with help of infra-red Thermo-vision Camera.
3. All the CT secondary connections in CT secondary box and CT junction
box must be checked, cleaned and tighten every year to ensure
maximum possible low resistance path for CT secondary currents. It
should also be ensured that CT junction box is properly cleaned.

There are some other maintenance of Current Transformer which to be
performed in half yearly basis, such as,
1. The porcelain housing of CTs should be checked for hire crack if any
crack is observed on insulator, necessary advice to be obtained from
manufacturer.
2. The porcelain insulator housing of current transformer, to be cleaned
properly by cotton clothes.
Now we will discuss about monthly basis maintenance of current
transformer.
1. Oil leakage from any joint should be visually inspected if leakage
found, it must be plugged by taking shutdown.
2. The secondary terminals are also checked for oil leakage, if leakage
found, immediate action to be taken to plug the leakage.
In addition to these, tans or loss factor measurement to be performed on
a current transformer, preferably above 66 KV class, once in two years.
Dissolve Gas Analysis of oil also to be done preferably once in 4 years. If
the results are found unsatisfactory as per standard, the insulating oil
must be replaced.
Maintenance of Voltage Transformer and

Capacitor Voltage Transformer
Construction wise a voltage transformer and a capacitor voltage
transformer are same. Hence basis scheme of maintenance of both
voltage transformer and capacitor voltage transformer are more or less
same. As heavy current does not flow through PT and CVT, the defect
and fault generally very low.
That is why monthly maintenance of voltage transformer and

maintenance of capacitor voltage transformer may not be required.
Moreover very frequent maintenance of bus PT or CVT may not also be
possible as far taking shutdown of such PT or CVT total bus section would
be out of protection and metering. Only yearly maintenance of such
equipments are sufficient.
Yearly Maintenance of Voltage Transformer or Capacitor Voltage

Transformer
1. The porcelain housing must be cleaned with cotton clothes.

2. The spark gap assembly to be checked on yearly basis. Remove the
moveable part of spark gap as assembly, clean the braes electrode
with emery paper and fix it back in position.
3. The high frequency earthing point should be visually checked yearly in
the case, the point is not used for PLCC.
4. Thermo vision camera to be used for checking any hot spots in the
capacitor stacks to ensure pro action of rectification.
5. The terminal connections PT junction box including earth connections
to be checked for tightness once in a year. In addition to that, the PT
junction box also to be cleaned properly once in a year.
6. The health of all gasket joint also to be visually checked and replaced
if any damaged gasket found.
N. B. : In addition all yearly basis maintenance of potential transformer or Capacitor Voltage
Transformer, must also be checked for tan once in 3 years. An increase in value of tan indicates
deterioration of insulation whereas both increase in tan and capacitance indicates entry of
moisture in insulation.
Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

Test
This is very reliable and sensitive method or tool for condition monitoring
of the physical condition of transformer windings. The winding of
transformer may be subjected to mechanical stresses during
transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient switching impulses
and lightening impulses etc. These mechanical stresses may cause
displacement of transformer windings from their position and may also
cause deformation of these windings. Windings collapse in extreme
cases, such physical defects eventually lead to insulation failure or
dielectric faults in the windings. Sweep Frequency Response Analysis Test
or in short SFRA Test can detect efficiently, displacement of transformer
core, deformation and displacement of winding, faulty core grounds,
collapse of partial winding, broken or loosen clamp connections, short
circuited turns, open winding conditions etc.

Principle of SFRA Test
The principle of SFRA is quite simple. As all the electrical equipments
theoretically have some resistance, inductance and some capacitance
values hence each of them can be considered as a complex RLC circuit.
The term 'theoretically' means some equipment may have very low or
zero resistance compared to their inductance and capacitance values
again, some equipments may have very low or zero inductance compared
to their resistance and capacitance and again some equipments may
have very low or zero capacitance compared to their resistance and
inductance but theoretically all of them can be considered as RLC circuit
although may be R = 0, or L = 0 or C = 0. But in most cases the
resistance, inductance and capacitance of an equipment have non zero
values. Hence most of the electrical equipments can be considered as
RLC circuit hence they response to the sweep frequencies and produce an
unique signature. As in a transformer each winding turn is separated
from other by paper insulation which acts as dielectric and windings
themselves have inductance and resistance, a transformer can be
considered as a complicated distributed network of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance or in other words a transformer is a
complicated RLC circuit.
Because of that each winding of a transformer exhibits a particular

frequency response. In Sweep Frequency Response Analysis a sinusoidal
voltage Vi is applied to one end of a winding and output voltage Vo is
measured at the other end of the winding. Other windings are kept open.
As the winding is itself an distributed RLC circuit it will behave like RLC
filter and gives different output voltages at different frequencies. That

means if we go on increasing the frequency of the input signal without
changing its voltage level we will get different output voltages at different
frequencies depending upon the RLC nature of the winding. If we plot
these output voltages against the corresponding frequencies we will get a
particular patter for a particular winding. But after transportation, heavy
short circuit faults, transient switching impulses and lightening impulses
etc, if we do same Sweep Frequency Response Analysis test and
superimpose the present signature with the earlier patterns and observe
some deviation between these tow graphs, we can asses that there is
mechanical displacement and deformation occurred in the winding.
In addition to that, SFRA test also helps us to compare between physical

condition of the same winding of different phases at the same tap
position. It also compares different transformers of the same design.
Analysis Low frequency response 1) Winding behaves as a simple RL
circuit formed by series inductance and resistance of the winding (At low
frequencies capacitance acts as almost open circuit) 2) At low frequencies
winding inductance is determined by the magnetic circuit of the
transformer core. High frequency response 3) At high frequencies
winding behaves as RLC circuits 4) Winding exhibits many resonant
points 5) Frequency response is more sensitive to winding movement.

Different Connection During SFRA Test
Signal applied across
Conditions
transformer terminals
HV Red phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are open
HV Yellow phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are open
HV Blue phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are open
HV Red phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are shorted
HV Yellow phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are shorted
HV Blue phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are shorted
LV Red to Yellow phase HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Blue phase are open
LV Yellow to Blue phase HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Red phase are open
LV Blue to Red phase HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Yellow phase are open

Example Data Sheet for SFRA Test Result
Installation of Power Transformer

Power transformer is second most costly equipment installed in power
system. Hence, special care to be taken during installation of a new
power transformer in an electrical substation. During accessing the
interior of a power transformer, the worker should empty their pockets of
all loose articles so that there would not be any risk of falling anything
inside the transformer from their pocket. The tools used during the work,
should be securely tied with cotton tap so that they can be recovered if
accidentally fall into the transformer interior. Jute should not be used as
cleaning materials for a transformer. Loose fibers of the jute may be
remained even after completing the cleaning work, which may affect the
insulating properties of the equipment in future. Cleaning should be done
by clean cotton cloth without any suspended loose fibers. Generally,

many parts of a power transformer are transported from manufacturers
separately.
All the parts or components dispatched separately should be properly

cleaned from inside and outside before being fitted to the transformer
body. Special attention, to be given if, interior surface of the any
component is found rusty. Transformer oil is also dispatched in separate
sealed steel drums. This oil is highly inflammable hence no flame should
be brought nearer to the transformer oil. Transformer oil and the
cellulose-based insulating material used in transformer, both absorb
moisture easily hence, transformer oil and cellulose-based insulated parts
of the transformer should be handled very carefully. The main body of
power transformer can be supplied by the manufacturer without or with
insulating oil inside it. In both cases it is best practice to circulate dry and
warm oil through it until its temperature is 5C to 10C above ambient.
This should be done before allowing external access to the interior of the
tank. The warm and dry oil should be circulated in the transformer
during all the time the transformer remains open to atmosphere. The oil
pump and all joints in the oil pipe work should be properly air tight
otherwise air will enter in the transformer and get lodged in the
vulnerable places such as winding.
Locations and Site Preparation for Installation of
a Power Transformer
For installation of a power transformer, no special type of foundation
is required. The foundation should be strong enough to carry the heavy
load of transformer and it should be efficiently designed to prevent
accumulation of water below the transformer. It is essential to drain all
the oil coming out from transformer during any fire hazard and hence
special oil drainage facilities should be provided in the foundation design.
This last point is strongly recommended especially for large power
transformer. The foundation should be created in such a place where
easy accessibility can be provided to all indicating and protecting devises.
That means there should be sufficient place all around for proper viewing
of diaphragm plates, thermometers, valves, oil gauges, etc. Sufficient
and minimum standard electrical clearances of all live parts of the
transformer from earth and other live bodies are also to be provided. If

the transformer is of Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) type, there should be
sufficient space available all around the transformer for circulating the air
naturally. If the ONAN transformer is indoor type, the room must be well
ventilated. In this case the air inlets and outlets should be of sufficient
size and number. Air inlets of the room must be as nearer the floor as
possible and air outlets must be as high as the building will allow and this
arrangement will facilitate sufficient and efficient circulation of air during
natural cooling of transformer. Sometime in case of indoor transformer,
exhaust fans are used for forced circulation of air in the room. Where
wheels or rollers are not fitted on the base of the transformer body, level
concrete plinth with bearing plates of sufficient size and strength can be
adopted for outdoor transformer. To prevent the formation of rust, it is
essential to avoid presence of air and water in the space between the
plinth and the base of the transformer by use of cretex or similar
bituminous compounds. Where rollers are fitted on the base, suitable
rails or tracks should be fitted with the foundation to place and lock the
rollers on the rail. Locking of rollers on the rail is essential because it
prevents the accidental movement of transformer during earth quakes or
any similar hazard.
Preparation of Oil during Installation of

Transformer
When transformer is dispatched without oil, required entire oil which is
supplied by the manufacturer in separate sealed steel drums. But when
the transformer is dispatched with oil in the main tank, the required oil
for conservator tank, radiators of transformer, and for other essential
parts is dispatched in separate sealed steel drums. Although the oil
supplied by the manufacturer are brand-new but still it is required to be
filtered, cleaned and dried before feeling in the transformer. Filtering
process must be continued until the transformer oil satisfies the
specifications indicated by manufacturer. The parameters of the oil, to be
checked during filter process are generally for electrical strength,
resistivity at 27C, resistivity at 90C, tan delta value at 90C, and
moisture content in ppm. Oil is easily contaminated hence it is important,
when sampling the oil and filling the tank, to keep the oil free from
contamination. All the components used for handling the transformer oil

should be cleaned and flushed with fresh transformer oil before use. For
collecting sample of the oil for the testing purpose, glass containers with
glass stopper is preferable over the metallic container. Cleanliness of the
container is essential because very small amount of moisture can affect
the test results. Never Use wax for sealing the oil sample containers. If
possible, glass stopper is covered by a pack of silica gel tied in a piece of
cloths. Flexible steel hose pipe is preferable for filtering and handling of
insulating oil. Some kind of a specially made synthetic rubber pipe or PVC
pipe can be used as hose but ordinary rubber hose pipe must not be used
in any case as the transformer oil dissolves the sulphur from rubber and
is thereby contaminated. The steel hose used for this purpose must also
be properly cleaned and free from moisture and loose rust.
Oil Filling in Transformer Tank during Installation

The oil can only be filled in the transformer which satisfies the standard
specifications mentioned by the manufacturer of transformer. When the
transformer is supplied gas filled, the oil filling is done in the main tank
under vacuum. The large transformers are generally designed to
withstand the full vacuum for long periods. During oil filling in the main
tank of the transformer, it is preferable to connect the inlet hose pipe at
the bottom of the tank. After filling the oil up to the top of the
transformer core, maximum suitable vacuum is maintained above the oil
level in the tank to minimize the hazard of bubbles lodging in the
inaccessible corners of winding. It should be noted that condenser
bushing, diaphragm, Buchholz relay, tap changer board, conservator
tank, radiators units etc are not designed for withstanding vacuum hence
they should not be subjected to vacuum. That means vacuum processes
only to be done in main tank without connecting or with blocking all the
above-mentioned components of the transformer.
Drying out Power Transformer using Streamlined Filter Machine

The most common process of drying out a power transformer is by using
a streamlined filter machine connected across the inlet and outlet oil
hose. The vacuum chamber and oil heater incorporated in the filter
machine are mainly utilised for this purpose. Before using the filter
machine it should be ensured that the oil previously filled in the machine,

must be drained out and the machine is refilled with the transformer oil
supplied by the manufacturer. This oil first circulated inside the machine
itself for several times and tested again and again for achieving required
result. If the required result is achieved then the machine should be
connected across inlets and outlet hose of the transformer and the entire
oil should be circulated through the transformer and filter machine
several times and the oil sample is to be tested during a specified interval
normally after each one hour. The vacuum pump of the filter machine
should have the capacity of creating vacuum as high as possible, but not
less than 710 mm of mercury. Where possible, an additional vacuum
pump can be connected at the top cover of the tank to keep the oil in the
tank under vacuum consistently. This additional vacuum pump may
accelerate the drying out process of the transformer. Although, the oil
was filled in the transformer under vacuum from the bottom of the tank,
but during drying out process oil is drawn out from the bottom and fed
into the top of the transformer tank. This helps to remove any settled
moisture/impurities remain in the oil. The oil circulation in that direction
must be continued about 8 to 12 hours and then the cycle is reversed i.e.
oil is drawn from the top and fed in the bottom of the tank. During this
process the oil must not be heated beyond 85C in the machine and the
temperature of the oil inside the transformer tank should not exceed
75C. If this maximum allowable temperature limit is not maintained, the
oil may be decomposed due to higher temperature operation. The
process of drying out is continued until the satisfactory insulation
resistance value is achieved. The insulation resistance or I R value of the
oil mainly depends upon its moisture content hence, by analyzing the I R
value, the moisture content in the oil can be predicted. The I R values of
the oil taken in a regular interval (at the interval of one hour) are plotted
against time. It should be observed from the graph that initially the I R
value drops down and this I R value will be low till the moisture is
present inside. Once the entire moisture is removed from the oil, as well
as interior of the transformer, the I R value again goes up and becomes
steady. Initially insulation resistance value came down because the
moisture contained in the core and winding of the transformer were
removing in the hot oil thereby moisture content of the oil was increased.
After, this moisture removed from the oil in the filter machine, the

insulation resistance value of the oil became again high and steady. The I
R values taken at regular intervals as should also be plotted against
temperature readings. In the beginning, I R values drop down as the
temperature goes up. The I R value will be low till the moisture is present
inside. Once the moisture is removed, the IR value will start rising and
then becomes steady. In addition to the drying out process by filter
machine, the transformer can also be heated up by short-circuiting the
LV winding and supplying a reduced voltage at the high voltage
terminals. The value of the applied voltage is so maintained that the
current through the short-circuited winding should be under 70% of the
rated current. It must also be of observed during heating up the
transformer winding by applying reduced voltage, the temperature of the
oil must not exceed 75C. At the same time temperature of the winding
must not exceed 90C.
Gaskets and Gasket Joints
Transformer gasket are neoprene bonded, cork gasket. The gaskets are
supplied loosely by the manufacturer without any bolt holes created on
them. The gaskets are usually cut to the size and shape and punched for
the holes at site. Joints in the gasket should be located away from the
corner and bold holes. Before using, the gasket must be checked for their
proper flexibility and free from local thickening. Neoprene solution is used
as adhesive for joints in the gasket. After fitting the gasket the bolts are
typed in sequence, a little every time so that uniform pressure is exerted
on the gasket until the gasket is compressed to about 2/3 of its original
thickness.
Fitting and Fixing Bushings of Transformer
Before fitting the bushings on the transformer, they should be checked
for any damage or crack. If they are all right, these should be cleaned by
dry cotton cloth. Bushings are normally delivered in complete assembled
form. When clamping the bushing to the tank, care should be taken to
ensure that an even pressure is obtained to the flange of the porcelain
and its gasket by tightening the diagonally opposite nuts alternatively.
The power connection at the stud of the bushing should be flexible
enough to absorb any vibration. If arcing horns are supplied with the

bushing they must be fitted and the gap between the horns must be
adjusted as per the drawing supplied with the transformer.
Installation of Conservator Tank
Conservator tank, where fitted should be assembled with its pipe work,
etc, making sure that SKATED joints are oil tight and the pipe work is
clean and free from moisture. The mechanism of the float type oil gauge
inside the conservator is locked to prevent damage during transit. After
placing the conservator in position, it should be released by turning the
locking bolt in the direction indicated on the plate. While feeling the
conservator with transformer oil, it should be ensured that the oil filled
up to the level indicated by the oil gauge on the conservator. On the oil
gauges dial there is an indication of temperature, this tells the prescribed
level of oil in the conservator at that temperature. For example, if 30C is
indicated in oil gauges dial, the oil should be filled in conservator up to
that level when oil temperature is 30C. But during actual oil filling in
conservator tank, we should commensurate with the oil temperature at
that time.
Fittings of Silica Gel Breather

Silica gel breather always comes as loose item. The plastic plug sealing
on the top of the breather should be removed and fitted to the associated
pipe work. The oil cup at the bottom of the breather should be removed,
filled with transformer oil to the level indicated on it and then re fitted to
the position. Thus the silica gel is prevented from absorbing moisture
from atmosphere.
Installation of Explosion Vent

Explosion vent is fitted with suitable gasket. Here care should be taken to
ensure that the top diaphragm with its gasket makes an air tight joint.
The explosion vent is sent blanket from works and the top blanking plate
should not be removed till the oil level inside the transformer comes up
of the tank cover. When a transformer is provided with a Buchholz
device, bottom paper diaphragm which acts as a deflector plate, is fitted
at the base of the explosion vent to ensure that any gases liberated in
the transformer, will pass through the Buchholz relay and not collect in
the vent. A hole in the side permits the oil to enter the vent and equalise

the pressure on either side of the deflector diaphragm. In transformers of
large rating the space above the oil in the vent is usually connected by a
pipe to the top of the conservator to equalise the pressure and vent it to
the atmosphere through the breather. For transformer supplied without
equalising pipe and air cock is fitted at the top which must be opened
when the tank is being filled with the oil and closed again.
Fitting of Buchholz Relay
Buchholz relay is connected across the pipe work between conservator
tank and main tank of the transformer. There is generally a Stop Valve
between Buchholz relay and conservator tank. The Buchholz relay should
be mounted on the pipe work only after the oil level inside the
transformer is above the tank cover. The Buchholz relay is provided with
an arrow marked on its housing and this arrow should always point
towards the conservator. If the gas release pipe is provided, it must be
fitted to the top pocket of the Buchholz relay. In this case the top pockets
of Buchholz relay should be opened and gas release pipes should be full
of oil during normal operation of transformer. When the gas is to be
collected through the gas release pipe, oil will flow out initially followed
by the gas. But when gas release pipe is not provided with Buchholz
relay, the top pockets are generally screwed tightly. During fittings of
Buchholz relay in the pipe work, the relay should be mechanically locked
with the locking screw provided in the relay. It prevents any mechanical
damage inside the relay due to transit. The alarm and trip contacts
provided on the relay should be properly identified from the control
drawings of the relay before connecting the control wires on those
terminals of the relay. The NO contacts for alarm and trip should be
checked for their proper functioning.
Installation of Temperature Indicator

Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI) and Winding Temperature Indicator
(WTI) are fitted in the Marshalling Kiosk. The thermometer bulbs are
enclosed in the pockets on the top cover of the transformer. The
thermometer pockets for OTI and WTI should be filled with transformer
oil during inserting the thermometer bulbs inside them. Both Oil
Temperature Indicator and Winding Temperature Indicator are provided
with maximum pointers and mercury switches. The steel capillary tubes

are normally quite flexible but it should not be bent sharply and
repeatedly and should be supported by clips to prevent unnecessary
sagging. Before installation, the instrument should be checked for proper
calibration by hot and cold oil bath. The mercury switches are adjusted to
make contact at the desired temperature depending upon the site
condition i.e. ambient temperature, loading condition, etc. The Current
Transformers connection of the WTI is made to the thermometer pocket
as per instructions given on the WTI terminal board.
Installation of Cooling Equipment

The radiator units are washed by clean dry oil before fittings to the main
body of the transformer. After fittings the radiators with proper gasket
work, are filled with transformer oil. The air should be released by loosing
air release pocket at the top of the header and also at each radiator unit.
When only the drying out process of main tank is completed, the
interconnecting valves between the tank and the radiator unit are
opened. This is because radiator unit should not be subjected to the
vacuum, applied in the main tank during drying out process. The cooling
fans and oil circulating pumps should also be fitted and proper wiring
should be done according to the cooler control drawings provided with
the transformer.
Fitting of On Load Tap Changer

The tap changer, if dispatched separately, it is to be fitted onto the tank,
The insulation resistance value of each tap changer lead should be
measured and the cause of low values, if any, investigated. The lead
from the tap changer should then be connected to their respective
position on the terminal board provided on the tank. The tightness of all
connections of the selector switch and terminal board should be ensured.
Sometimes it is difficult to get good insulation resistance values if there is
moisture in the tap changer board or on any of the parts of the selector
switch and diverter switch. Then it should be ensured that selector switch
and diverter switch are filled with clean dry processed oil. To remove the
moisture from the terminal board, it is preferable to circulate the
transformer oil in the selector switch tank and main transformer tank

simultaneously and at as high a temperature as permissible. If some
other special instructions are provided, the same should be followed.
Fitting of Off Load Tap Changer
If the transformer is supplied with off load tap changer, it is previously
assembled in the transformer itself. No extra connection to be done
unlike in the case of on load tap changer. In this case only precaution is
maintained and that transformer should be isolated from the system
during changing of tap from one position to other.
Earthing of Transformer
The main tank of the transformer should be effectively earthed at least
more than one point. This is to be noted that the earthing connection
should be of sufficient cross-section to carry the fault current for at least
30 seconds. The fans, oil pumps, neutrals, marshalling kiosk etc. should
also be properly earthed.
Completion of Erection Work for Installation of Power Transformer
Any other work such as wiring of various alarm/trip contacts from various
accessories of the transformer to marshalling kiosk, settings of relays,
checking of protection scheme, etc. should be completed before the
transformer is cleared for commissioning.
Commissioning of Power
Transformer
After installation of power transformer, several pre-commissioning tests
to be done before putting the transformer in service. Along with different
pre-commissioning tests, different instruments associated to the
transformer also to be checked.
Common Pre-commissioning Tests of

Transformer
Insulation resistance values of various winding should be checked. During
measurement of insulation resistance, the transformer must not be
connected with any external lines or lightning arrestor etc. The I R values
obtained should be comparable with those indicated in the
manufacturer's test reports. Oil sample from the top and the bottom of

the tank, selector switch and diverter switch tank of the tap changer and
radiator tank etc should be tested. The dielectric strength of the
transformer oil should be more than 50 KV. Resistance measurement of
winding should be done at all tap positions. The ratio test between the
HV and LV at all tap positions should also be performed. For three
winding transformers ratio between other pair of windings should also be
taken.
The phase relationship test should also be carried out. The tap changer
should be undergone the following tests
Manual operation
Local electrical operation
Remote electrical operation
Parallel operation
The operation should be checked from one end of the range to the
other to check for the limit switch operation also.

IR values of the motor and control wiring should be checked by 500 V
Megger.
Buchholz Relay Test

Buchholz relay operation for alarm and trip should also be checked by
injecting air to the test pocket provided in the relay.
Low Oil Level Alarm Test

The low oil level alarm of the magnetic oil gauge should be checked.
Temperature Indicator Test

The contacts of the Oil Temperature Indicator and Winding Temperature
Indicator for alarm trip and control should be checked and set at required
temperature
Cooling Gear Test

The IR values and setting for operation of oil pumps and fans motor
should be checked.
Alarm trip contact settings of differential pressure gauge, oil and water
flow indicators, where provided should be checked.

Marshalling Box
The wiring from various accessories to the Marshalling kiosk should be
checked
Protective Relay Test

Trapping of associated circuit breakers is to be provided by actual
operation of differential relay, over current relay, earth fault relay and
other protective relays as applicable.
Magnetizing Current Test

The magnetizing current can be measured by feeding 400 V, three phase
50 Hz supply from HV side keeping the LV side open circuited and the
value in different phases could be compared.
Additional checks during commissioning of power transformer
1. All oil valves are in correct position closed or opened as required.
2. All air pockets are cleared.
3. Thermometer pockets are filled with oil.
4. Oil is at correct level in the bushing, conservator tank, diverter switch
tank etc.
5. Arcing horn of the bushing is set correctly
6. CT polarity is correct when bushing mounted CTs are provided.
If all the above tests/checks are found satisfactory, a settling time of at
least 24 hours, should be allowed for the oil and air released from all
points at six hourly intervals, before commissioning the transformer.
Whenever possible, while commissioning, the voltage should be build up
slowly and brought to the full level in about 4 to 6 hours. If the circuit
breaker is tripped on differential, Buchholz or any other devices, the
cause must be investigated before re-energizing the transformer.
Sometimes tripping occurs maybe because of magnetic inrush current
which depends upon the switching at a particular moment in the cycle.
After commissioning magnetising current should be measured by
connecting clip on meter in current transformer circuits and the reading
should be compared with the test report value.

Electrical Power Transformer |
Definition and Types of Transformer
Definition of Transformer
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one
circuit to another without changing frequency. This is a very basic
definition of transformer. Since there is no rotating or moving part so
transformer is a static device. Transformer operates on ac supply.
Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.
History of Transformer
If we want to know the history of transformer we have go back long in
the 1880s. Around 50 years before that in 1830 property of induction
which is the working principle of transformer was discovered. Later the
transformer design was improved resulting in more efficiency and lesser
size. Gradually the large capacity of transformers in the range of several
KVA, MVA came into existence. In the year 1950, 400KV electrical
power transformer was introduced in high voltage electrical power
system. In the early 1970s, unit rating as large as 1100 MVA was
produced and 800KV and even higher KV class transformers were
manufactured in year of 1980.
Use of Power Transformer

Generation of electrical power in low voltage level is very much cost
effective. Theoretically, this low voltage level power can be transmitted
to the receiving end. This low voltage power if transmitted results in
greater line current which indeed causes more line lossesBut if the
voltage level of a power is increased, the current of the power is reduced
which causes reduction in ohmic or I2R losses in the system, reduction in
cross sectional area of the conductor i.e. reduction in capital cost of the
system and it also improves the voltage regulation of the system.
Because of these, low level power must be stepped up for efficient
electrical power transmission. This is done by step up transformer at the
sending side of the power system network. As this high voltage power
may not be distributed to the consumers directly, this must be stepped
down to the desired level at the receiving end with the help of step down

transformer. Electrical power transformer thus plays a vital role in power
transmission.
Two winding transformers are generally used where ratio of high voltage
and low voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to use auto
transformer where the ratio between high voltage and low voltage is less
than 2. Again a single unit three phase transformer is more cost effective
than a bank of three single phase transformers unit in a three phase
system. But a single three phase transformer unit is a bit difficult to
transport and have to be removed from service entirely if one of the
phase winding breaks down.
Types of Transformer
Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their
purpose, use, construction etc. The types of transformer are as
follows,
1. Step Up Transformer & Step Down Transformer - Generally used

for stepping up and down the voltage level of power in transmission
and distribution power system network.
2. Three Phase Transformer & Single Phase Transformer - Former
is generally used in three phase power system as it is cost effective
than later. But when size matters, it is preferable to use a bank of
three single phase transformer as it is easier to transport than one
single three phase transformer unit.

3. Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer &
Instrument Transformer - Power transformers are generally used in
transmission network for stepping up or down the voltage level. It
operates mainly during high or peak loads and has maximum efficiency
at or near full load. Distribution transformer steps down the voltage for
distribution purpose to domestic or commercial users. It has good
voltage regulation and operates 24 hrs a day with maximum efficiency
at 50% of full load. Instrument transformers include C.T & P.T which
are used to reduce high voltages and current to lesser values which can
be measured by conventional instruments.
4. Two Winding Transformer & Auto Transformer - Former is
generally used where ratio between high voltage and low voltage is
greater than 2. It is cost effective to use later where the ratio between
high voltage and low voltage is less than 2.
5. Outdoor Transformer & Indoor Transformer - Transformers that
are designed for installing at outdoor are outdoor transformers and
transformers designed for installing at indoor are indoor transformers.
6. Oil Cooled & Dry Type Transformer - In oil cooled transformer the
cooling medium is transformer oil whereas the dry type transformer is
air cooled.
7. Core type, Shell type & Berry type transformer - In core type
transformer it has two vertical legs or limbs with two horizontal sections
named yoke. Core is rectangular in shape with a common magnetic
circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV & LV) are placed on both the limbs. Shell
type transformer: It has a central limb and two outer limbs. Both HV,
LV coils are placed on the central limb. Double magnetic circuit is

present. Berry type transformer: The core looks like spokes of wheels.
Tightly fitted metal sheet tanks are used for housing this type of
transformer with transformer oil filled inside.
What is Auto Transformer ?

Auto Transformer
Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and
secondary shares same common single winding. So basically its a one
winding transformer.
Theory of Auto Transformer

In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as
well as secondary winding. But in two windings transformer two different
windings are used for primary and secondary purpose. A diagram of auto
transformer is shown below. The winding AB of total turns N1 is
considered as primary winding. This winding is tapped from point C and
the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let's assume the number of
turns in between points B and C is N2.
If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between A and C.
Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be

understood that value of constant k is nothing but turns ratio or voltage
ratio of that auto transformer.
When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e.between B and

C, load current I2 starts flowing. The current in the secondary winding
or common winding is the difference of I2 & I1.

Copper Savings in Auto Transformer
Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared
to conventional two winding transformer.
We know that weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length
and cross - sectional area. Again length of conductor in winding is
proportional to its number of turns and cross - sectional area varies with
rated current. So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to
product of number of turns and rated current of the winding. Therefore,
weight of copper in the section AC proportional to,
and similarly, weight of copper in the section BC proportional to,
Hence, total weight of copper in the winding of auto transformer

proportional to,

In similar way it can be proved, the weight of copper in two winding
transformer is proportional to,
N1I1 + N2I2
2N1I1 (Since, in a transformer N1I1 = N2I2)
Let's assume, Wa and Wtw are weight of copper in auto transformer and
two winding transformer respectively,
Saving of copper in auto transformer compared to two winding

transformer,
Auto transformer employs only single winding per phase as against two
distinctly separate windings in a conventional transformer.

Advantages of using Auto Transformers
1. For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be
approximately 50% of the corresponding size of two winding
transformer. For transformation ratio say 20 however the size would
be 95 %. The saving in cost of the material is of course not in the
same proportion. The saving of cost is appreciable when the ratio of
transformer is low, that is lower than 2. Thus auto transformer is
smaller in size and cheaper.
2. An auto transformer has higher efficiency than two winding
transformer. This is because of less ohmic loss and core loss due to
reduction of transformer material.
3. Auto transformer has better voltage regulation as voltage drop in
resistance and reactance of the single winding is less.
Disadvantages of Using Auto Transformer
1. Because of electrical conductivity of the primary and secondary
windings the lower voltage circuit is liable to be impressed upon by
higher voltage. To avoid breakdown in the lower voltage circuit, it
becomes necessary to design the low voltage circuit to withstand
higher voltage.
2. The leakage flux between the primary and secondary windings is small
and hence the impedance is low. This results into severer short circuit
currents under fault conditions.
3. The connections on primary and secondary sides have necessarily
needs to be same, except when using interconnected starring
connections. This introduces complications due to changing primary
and secondary phase angle particularly in the case of delta / delta
connection.
4. Because of common neutral in a star / star connected auto
transformer it is not possible to earth neutral of one side only. Both
their sides should have their neutrality either earth or isolated.
5. It is more difficult to maintain the electromagnetic balance of the
winding when voltage adjustment tappings are provided. It should be
known that the provision of tapping on an auto transformer increases
considerably the frame size of the transformer. If the range of tapping

is very large, the advantages gained in initial cost is lost to a great
event.
Applications of Auto Transformers
1. Compensating voltage drops by boosting supply voltage in distribution
systems.
2. Auto transformers with a number of tapping are used for starting
induction and synchronous motors.
3. Auto transformer is used as variac in laboratory or where continuous
variable over broad ranges are required.
High Voltage Transformer

Such transformers are normally used in high voltage laboratory for
testing purpose. This transformer is subjected to transient voltages and
surges during their normal operation when the insulation under test
breaks down. To withstand these impulse voltages, the insulation of
transformer is carefully designed. This high voltage transformer is
single phase, core type. This type of transformer is generally oil
immersed. Bakelite sheets are used for separating high tension and low
tension winding. The high voltage transformers used for HT cable testing
purpose are to supply also sufficient electric current and that is why the
cooling system of these transformers is very carefully designed. Special
cares also to be taken for voltage regulation of transformers. For
insulator testing purposes, the required current is very less but, while the
insulator breaks down during testing, there would flow huge current
through the transformer. To limit this current, a high resistance is
connected in series with transformer. As the current required is very less
during insulation testing, this high voltage transformer needs not to have
high KVA ratings. The table below shows, the rating of transformer used
for various testing purposes.
Up to voltage 500 KV, generally single unit of high voltage transformer is

used. But for higher voltage rating more than one transformer, are
connected in cascade to produce required high voltage. Actually for
getting such high voltage, a single transformer has to be very huge in

size which is not at all economical.The figure below shows the typical
cascading connection of two transformers.
Low voltage is supplied to the low voltage winding of a step up

transformer 1 as shown in the figure below. The tank of this transformer
is earthed. The secondary of this transformer, is connected to the
earthed tank and other end comes out through a high voltage bushing.
The bushing is so specially designed and manufactured, that it can
withstand full secondary high voltage, in respect of earthed potential of
transformer tank. Another tapping terminal also runs through this high
voltage bushing. The high voltage end and tapping terminal ends are
connected across primary of the second transformer. One end of the
secondary winding of second transformer is connected to its tank. The
tank of second transformer is not earthed like first transformer. This is
isolated and insulated from earth for full secondary voltage of the
transformer. One end of the high voltage or secondary winding of second
transformer is connected to the earth and other end alone comes out
from the high voltage bushing for feeding high voltage to the equipment
and insulators under testing.

SL Purposes Capacity Maximum Voltage
1. Routine test for electric motors & switch gears small 2 to 3 KV
2. Insulation testing 10 to 20 KVA 50 KV
3. Routine test of cable 50 KVA 10 to 30 KV
4. Extra high voltage transformer & insulators testing 20 to 50 KVA 100 200 KV
5. String insulator testing 0.5 to 1 KVA per KV 500 to 2000 KV
6. High voltage cable testing 100 to 500 KVA 100 to 500 KV
Voltage Regulation
The surges on the high voltage side of the transformer should be
avoided. Also for accuracy of voltage measurement, the voltage
regulation of transformer should be smooth enough. Sudden variation of
voltage during test also to be avoided. A voltage regulator should not
distort the voltage wave form during testing. The output voltage of high
voltage transformer is regulated by changing input voltage to the primary
side.
This variation of input voltage to the primary can be done either by
1. Variation of alternator field current.

2. Inserting resistance or inductance in the supply circuit from alternator.
3. Using induction regulator.
4. Using tapped transformer.
Variation of Alternator Field Current
If one single alternator is used to supply power to the high voltage
transformer, the method of variation of alternator field current can be
performed. An alternator gives sinusoidal wave form of voltage at no
load. But it is also desirable, that, this voltage waveform should not be
distorted under load condition. This is achieved by making larger air gap
between stator and rotor and by special design of armature winding of
alternator.

For regulating voltage, no impedance is required to be connected in
series with the primary of the transformer, in this case. So voltage wave
form distortion due to inserted impedance can be avoided in voltage
regulation with variation of alternator field current. The field current of
the alternator is varied by a voltage divider, connected across DC supply
to the field. In this method zero voltage can be achieved by neutralizing
residual magnetism of field by severing required field current.
Voltage Regulation by Inserting Resistance or Inductance

When there is no provision of using separate alternator for high voltage
testing in the lab, this method is applied. The high voltage transformer is
fed from AC supply mains in case of testing of small equipments. The
variation of supply voltage to the H. V. transformer is obtained by
inserting resistance in series with the AC supply. A sliding >resistance is
most suitable for achieving smooth regulation of voltage supplied to the
transformer primary. Sometimes the resistance can also be connected
across main supply and used as voltage divider, to supply variable
voltage to the transformer.

This method is quite simple but it suffers from power loss problem. The
power loss across the resistance is not practically accepted for high
power tests. The resistance required for high power application is quite
large in size and also not cost effective. Because of these disadvantages
this method is limited upto the application for the equipment rated from
2 KVA to 3 KVA.
Instead of resistance, voltage regulation can be achieved by connecting a

choke coil (inductor) in series with the primary of the transformer.
Voltage variation can be obtained by changing the position of iron core in
the choke coil. That means, by inserting and withdrawing iron core inside
the coil, the voltage variation is achieved. Due to lower power loss, this
method is more efficient than resistance method. But still it has some
inherent disadvantages.
1. For higher power, very large size of this choke coil is required.
2. There is always a good chance of voltage distortion due to iron core in
the coil.
3. Another disadvantage of this method, is in fact that increase of its
inductance will increase the primary voltage of the transformer instead
of decreasing it if the power factor of the load on the secondary side of
the testing transformer is leading as is often the case.
Induction Regulator Method
Inductance regulator control is suitable for all ranges of power. It can be
efficiently used for all load and power factors. Smooth voltage regulation
from zero to full range can be achieved by this method.In induction
regulator is essentially a variable transformer. The secondary voltage of
this variable transformer can be varied by changing primary turns.
Variation of primary turns is achieved by rotating a knob attached to the
transformer. Actually in this type of variable transformer, the number of
turns in primary and secondary windings are same. But when we rotate
the said knob attached to the transformer the number of active turns
across primary varies, hence turns ratio changes which ultimately results
to variable secondary voltage. During designing this type of transformer
it must be kept in mind that, the winding of transformer on rotor portion
are so designed and distributed that, it does not distort the actual wave
form of the test voltage. Induction regulator method is most suitable for

the high voltage transformer, used for power cable testing purpose.
Because its gradual voltage variation at loads of any magnitude is
advantageous for such work.
Voltage Variation by Means of Tapped Transformer

In this method of voltage regulation of transformer, a tapped transformer
is essentially used. The theory of voltage variation by tapped transformer
is quite simple. In this arrangement the primary of transformer is
connected with LT supply main. The secondary winding of the
transformer is tapped at various points. The voltage at primary of HT
transformer is supplied from these tapped points. When the contact of
tapping switch moves from one tap to another, these would be a chance
of opening the secondary circuit of tapping transformer. Due to this
opening there may be a high chance of surge in the high voltage
transformer. To avoid this situation two contact brushes are used for tap
changer switch. It makes contact with adjacent studs and with a buffer
resistance or reactance coil between them to prevent short circuit of a
section of the transformer winding. Here in the diagram we have shown a
two winding transformer as tapped transformer but it can be a auto
transformer too. For gradual regulation a number of course tapping are
used together with fine tappings. This method of voltage regulation by
tapped transformer is advantageous for its high efficiency and small wave
form distortion as there is no voltage drops in the circuit, only the voltage

wave is stepped up. As the winding is tapped the voltage regulation is not
very smooth. But it can be made smoother by using very large number of
taps in the secondary winding of tapped transformer but it increases cost
of the transformer. Hence this method of voltage regulation is used on
high voltage transformer only when it is required for large and
expensive switchgear testing.
Distribution Transformer | All Day

Efficiency of Distribution
Transformer
Distribution Transformer
The step down transformers used for electric power distribution purpose
are referred as distribution transformer. There are several types of
transformer used in the distribution system. Such as single phase
transformer, three phase transformer, pole mounted transformer, pad
mounted transformer, and underground transformer. Distribution
transformers are generally small in size and filled with insulating oil.
These transformers are available in the market in various sizes and
efficiencies. Selection of distribution transformer depends upon the
purpose and budget of the end users.

Secondary Terminals of Distribution Transformer
Secondary terminals of distribution transformer deliver electrical power at
a utilization voltage level to the consumer end via energy metering
system.
In case of three phase distribution system three phase four wire

secondary systems are adopted. Here, three phases, which means red,
yellow and blue phase conductors, come out from three low voltage
bushing studs of the transformer. The neutral wire is connected to the
fourth bushing which is also referred as a neutral bushing of the
transformer.
The neutral point of the distribution transformer is projected from the tie
point of 3phase winding inside the transformer. In case of industrial
heavy three phase load, four wire system is directly delivered to the
consumer end, but in case of single phase light load, one phase and
neutral connection of the three phase distribution transformer, are
connected to the consumers energy meter.

The secondary terminals of distribution transformer at first is connected
to the three phase bus of distribution kiosk, located nearby the
transformer. This connection is essentially made via a fuse unit to
provide protection from external fault to the transformer. From this three
phase bus in the distribution kiosk, different, three phase or single phase
service mains or sub distributors are connected.
A typical type of-single phase system is available in United State of

America for supplying single phase residential tons. Here, single phase
pole mounted transformer is used for supplying single phase residential
load. This type pole mounted transformer has total three secondary
terminals, one of which is ground and other two are phase terminals. Two
phase wires provide 240 volts across them, and the voltage across any of
the phase wire and the ground wire is 120 volts. So a consumer can be
supplied either of 240 volts or 120 volts supply depending upon his
requirement. Actually in this system, the secondary winding of the
distribution transformer is center tapped. The center wire is grounded
and marked as neutral. The two end conductors of the winding is called
hot wire.
Efficiency of Distribution Transformer

The efficiency of distribution transformer is defined as the ratio
between output power to input power of the transformer at full load
condition, but in case of a distribution transformer, the concept is a little

bit different as the possibility of running a distribution transformer at its
full load condition is nearly nil. The efficiency of the transformer is
maximum at 50% of full load.
A transformer has mainly two types of losses, these are, iron losses and
copper losses. Iron loss, which is also referred as core loss, consists of
hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. These two losses are constant
when the transformer is charged. That means the amount of these losses
does not depend upon the condition of secondary load of the transformer.
In all loading condition, these are fixed. But the copper loss which is also
referred as I2R loss entirely depends upon load I. A distribution
transformer cannot be run with constant load throughout 24 hours. At
day peak time its loading is high, whereas in night lean time its loading
may be negligible. So selecting a transformer depending upon its
conventional efficiency is not practical and economical, too. As a solution
of these problems, the concept of all day efficiency of distribution
transformer came into the picture. So this efficiency is same as the
efficiency of distribution transformer. In this concept, we use the
ratio of total energy delivered by the transformer to the total energy fed
to the transformer, during a 24 hrs span of time instead of ratio of power
output and input of the transformer. Hence, all day efficiency is
determined as, total KWh at the secondary to the total KWh at the
primary of the transformer for a long specific time period preferably 24
hrs. i.e,
This is very much useful to judge the performance of a distribution

transformer, whose primary is connected to the system forever, but
secondary load varies tremendously throughout the day.
Dry Type Transformer

What is Dry Type Transformer?
Dry type transformer never uses any insulating liquid where its
winding with core be immerged. Rather windings with core are kept
within a sealed tank that is pressurized with air.

Type of Dry Type Transformer
The dry type transformer is of two types. They are
1. Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer ( CRT)
2. Vacuum pressure Impregnated Transformer ( VPI)
Cast Resin Dry Type Transformer ( CRT)
Cast resin dry type transformer (CRT) is used in the high moisture prone
areas. It is because of its primary and secondary windings are
encapsulated with epoxy resin. This encapsulation helps to prevent
moisture to penetrate to affect the winding material. Complete protection
is achieved by this cast resin encapsulation so that the transformer can
work without disruption in highly moisture prone area. Thus this
transformer is non hygroscopic. This type of transformer is available in
ratings of 25 KVA to 12,500 KVA. with insulation class of F (90C Temp.
Rise).
This type of transformer has some featured advantages. They are-
1. Better over load capacity.
2. Low partial discharge along with low loss. Hence efficiency is very
good.
3. As it is with non inflammable winding insulation, it offers zero risk to
fire hazard. So it is suitable for indoor installation.
4. Can be fitted outdoor in IP 45 enclosure.
5. And off course non hygroscopic.
Vacuum Pressure Impregnated Transformer ( VPI)
This type of transformer is made with minimum flammable material as
insulation of windings. The windings of this transformer are made in foil
or strip in a continuous layer. But for higher voltages, the winding is
made of disks that are connected in series or parallel as per power rating
with respect to voltage level. The insulation of the winding is void free
impregnation that is made with class H polyester resin. The primary and
secondary winding with core are laced safely within a vacuum protective
box. Moisture Ingress Protection is high and it never gets affected by
moisture. This type of transformer is available from 5 KVA to 30MVA with
insulation grade F(155oC) and H(180oC). Its with Protection up to IP56 .
This type of transformer has several advantages. They are-

1. High mechanical strength.
2. Void free insulation
3. No temperature fluctuation
4. Easy maintenance.
5. Less prone to fire hazard.
Advantages of Dry Type Transformer

The main advantages of dry type transformer are given below.
Safety for people and property.
Maintenance and pollution-free solution.
Easy installation.
Side clearance is less.
Environmentally friendly.
Excellent capacity to support overloads.
Reduced cost on civil installation works and fire protection systems.
Excellent performance in case of seismic events.
No fire hazard.
Excellent resistance to short circuit currents.
Long lasting due to low thermal and dielectric heating.
Suited for damp and contaminated areas.
Disadvantages of Dry Type Transformer

But there are some disadvantages of dry type transformer. They are-
Dry type transformer is long lasting and with less chance of winding
failure. But once it fails whole set up is to changed, i.e. complete

change of high voltage and low voltage winding with limb.
For same power and voltage rating, dry type transformer is costlier
than oil cooled transformer.
Application of Dry Type Transformer

Dry type transformer are widely used in-
Chemical, oil and gas industry
Environmentally sensitive areas (e.g. water protection areas)
Fire-risk areas (e.g. forests)
Inner-city substations
Indoor and underground substations
Renewable generation (e.g. off-shore wind turbines)

Important Factors to Design a Dry Type
Transformer
The important design parameters for a dry type transformer are given
below.
Choice of Insulation Type
Generally F and H class of insulation of insulation is used to insulate the

primary and secondary winding. It is because these classes have high
temperature withstand property, i.e. 155 degree Celsius for F and 180
degree Celsius for H class of insulation. Generally varnish and polyester
resin are used as insulation of the winding. Apart from the temperature
withstand capability, mechanical strength; dielectric strength and
resistance to thermal shock are the basic capabilities that have to be
fulfilled by the insulation selected for the windings.
Selection of Winding Material
Generally copper and aluminum are used to make the winding or coil.
Though copper is better conductor, aluminum conductor wound
transformer possesses low cost and weight. For the same current rating,
copper conductor with less cross section is used as the winding material
in the transformer. Copper coil provides more mechanical strength than
aluminum coil.
Selection of Core Material with Low Hysteresis Loss
Core material selection is very important in transformer design. Core

material must possess high permeability and less hysteresis loss. But
both cannot be achieved in any core material. Generally silicon steel,
CRGO etc are used to allow minimum hysteresis loss with higher
permeability.
Regulation
When transformer secondary voltage drops abruptly due to increase in

load, this regulation is called poor regulation. Poor regulation is due to

transformer higher internal leakage reactance. So, leakage reactance is
kept within 2 % during design.
Life Expectancy Life of the transformer depends on the breakdown of

winding insulation due to temperature rising effect in winding due to
overloading. Normally class B, F and H insulation is preferred for dry type
transformer to withstand higher temperature gradient including ambient
temperature. So design of the transformer must be done with respect to
the rise of the temperature of operating full load condition. Losses No
load losses mean core loss and eddy current that is independent of
loading condition. But in loading condition copper loss occurs that
includes the iron loss to increase the value of voltage regulation, i.e. poor
voltage regulation. Leakage reactance and winding resistance must be
within moderate value to minimize this loss and better voltage regulation,
thus higher efficiency. Overloading Over loading condition is harmful for
transformer for long time span. Overloading is the cause of overheating
when transformer has to fulfill its connected load demand. Hence huge
amount of current makes copper loss in the winding, and that causes
transformer damage. To cool the winding, fan cooling system is
provided in dry type transformer. K-factor It is the ability of
withstanding of heat generated by non sinusoidal current in the
transformer winding. Pure sine wave is not obtained in voltage and
current wave form. It is due to todays various electronic devices uses.
Several harmonics are present in the voltage and current wave form.
Robust design of a transformer off course bothers k-factor to provide
transformer long lasting life. Insulation Level In transformer design,
insulation level adjustment is an important factor. Generally insulation
level is chosen as per basic impulse level and system over voltage.
Strong insulation level increases the life of a transformer.
Air Core Transformer

If an alternating current is supplied to a coil, an alternating magnetic field
is produced surrounding it. If another coil is brought inside this magnetic
field, an alternating emf is induced across the second coil also as per
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This induced emf in the
second coil can be utilized to feed a load. As in this example the flux is

linked with both coils through air, so this arrangement can be referred as
air core transformer. Here, first coil serves as primary winding and
second coil serves as secondary winding of the said transformer.
Whenever there is a need of changing voltage level from one level to
another in power network we use an electrical transformer.
Whenever there is a need of electrical isolation from one circuit to other,

we use transformer.For transforming current and voltage to low
measurable level we use current transformer and potential transformer
respectively. These are not only the applications of transformers.
Electrical transformers are also used for many different purposes. In
different electronics applications smaller sized transformers are used.
Examples of these transformers are air core transformer, audio
frequency transformer etc. These are referred as special purpose
transformers and simply called special transformer. Construction wise
they are different from general power transformer but basic working
principle is same as all other transformers. That means in this case, the
working principle of transformer is also based on mutual induction
between two magnetically linked windings. Here we will discuss about air
core transformers.

In an transformer primary winding and secondary windings are coupled
with a low reluctance ferromagnetic core. The core is used in an electrical
transforme for confining magnetic flux and facilitating maximum flux
linkage between primary and secondary winding. Laminated steel sheets
are used to construct the core of transformer. But, ferromagnetic
materials like steel as core of transformer, suffers from hysteresis loss,
eddy current losses. Also it faces problem of getting saturated after
certain level of magnetization. But these can be avoided in air core
transformer as ferromagnetic core is absent in this transformer.
In very high frequency applications, distortion in electromagnetic field

should be avoided otherwise there may be a significant affect in output
signal. So for maintaining quality of signal it is desired to avoid any noise
or distortion in the signal. As ferromagnetic material causes noise or
distortion in the signal, it should be avoided in high frequency application
like signal transmission. Thus air core transformer is introduced, in the
application of high frequency radio transmission. Here iron core of
transformer is absent and the flux is linked with the windings through air.
In addition to the noise-free operation, an air core transformer is quite
light weight due to absence of heavy weight iron core. That is why this
type of transformer is most suitable for portable, light weight electronic
devices and high frequency devices. Air core transformers are are
generally used in radio transmitter and communication devices etc.
Construction of Air Core Transformer

The coils of insulated copper wire are wound on a plastic tube or
cardboard etc. There are mainly two forms of air core transformer. One is
cylindrical form and other is toroidal form. In cylindrical form of air
transformer, insulated copper wires are wound on a non-metallic
cylindrical structure. This non-metallic hollow structure gives the winding
necessary mechanical support. The copper winding wounded around the
non-metallic cylinder is tapped at different points as necessary. The
secondary supply is taken across these taps. Sometimes capacitor is
connected to the winding to maintain the constant resonance of the
tuning circuit. The flux flows through the air surrounding the winding and
air inside hollow cylinder. For proper impedance matching, sometime a
guard winding is wound surrounding the main copper winding. This guard

winding is further connected with antenna receivers or grounded
properly.
On the other hand in toroidal form of air core transformer, insulated
copper wires are wound around a ring of hard plastic or other non-
metallic substance. Actually, the wire is wound in circular way around the
periphery of the ring. This type of transformers is only used in very high
frequency applications. In this case the winding is not tapped; here two
separate windings are used for primary and secondary purpose.
Therefore, the effect of stray coupling is minimized in toroidal air core
transformer. The primary is to secondary ratio of windings varies and it
depends upon the frequency range and the type of operation.
Design of Inductor in Switched Mode

Power Supply Systems
Designing an Inductor in Switched Mode Power Supply (S.M.P.S.)
Systems for desired value of inductance (L) and magnetizing current (I)
basically includes, selection of proper core from the energy storage
capacity point of view. As in a transformer the core is selected from the
power handling capacity point of view. After selecting the core for the
inductor it further includes calculating nos. of turns, size of the
conductor, calculating length of the air gap (Lg) to be provided in the core
from keeping in mind.This Documentation gives clear idea regarding
necessity of Inductor in S.M.P.S. systems, and basic concepts with
regards to conduction Ohms law in bulk as well in point form, Magnetic
ohms law, dielectric ohms law, defining inductance from their base,
introduces concept of core saturation and the way one can get control
over it , finally deriving the energy equation for an inductor from which
one can select the appropriate core for their application by considering
thermal and saturation constraints.
Necessity of an Inductor in Smps Systems

The basic fundamental behind introduction of S.M.P.S. systems before
the general linear power supply systems is to, perform the energy
transformation/conversion from the source to the load/sink in an optimal
way with less losses and greater efficiency, by deploying the energy

efficient devices/ non power dissipative devices like capacitors and
semiconductor switches. The power/energy flow in the S.M.P.S. systems
is not smoothly continuous because of the switching operation of
semiconductor switches, so as a concern to make the energy/power flow
continuously smooth we adopt an electro-magnetic reactive element
called the INDUCTOR. The inductor is also deployed in the S.M.P.S
system as in with a Snubber/Switching Aid Circuits to reduce the stress
on the semiconductor Switches during the Turn - On time. In this
document the designing of the inductor for smoothening the power flow
will be discussed.
As stated earlier an inductor is an electro-magnetic element, which

refers that on exciting an inductor with electrical energy it has the
kinetic potential to store the energy in the form of Magnetic Energy. So
the equivalent form of electrical and magnetic circuits for an inductor is
as shown in figure (1) and figure (2) respectively.
From the electrical equivalent circuit shown in the Fig.1, the electrical
circuit equation can be related as,
Where V, L, I are electrical circuit quantities. Similarly from the magnetic

equivalent circuit shown in the Fig.2, the magnetic circuit equation can be
related as
The above equation relates Faradays Law of Electromagnetism . where

V is the Electrical circuit quantity and N, are the Magnetic circuit
quantities. From the above equation (i) and (ii) the Electrical and
Magnetic equivalents of an Inductor Can be related as

Where,
LI = electrical flux linkages and
N = Magnetic flux linkages.
Derivation and Definition of Inductance (L)
Bulk Ohms Law
From most familiar basic electrical Ohms law in a bulk form, which states
that the Driving Current (I) through a conducting material is directly
proportional to the applied Driving Voltage (V) across the conducting
material, provided the operating temperature is constant. Therefore we
can equate the bulk Ohms Law to V = IR ........(iv) From the above,
OHM'S LAW at any particular point the space can be derived as below,
which is so called as Ohm's Law in Point Form.
From the Bulk Ohms Law i.e. V = IR, can be rewritten as,

Magnetic Ohms Law at A Point
As an analogy to the Conduction Ohms law at any point in the space from
the equation (v) , the Magnetic Ohms Law at any point in the space can
be equated as,
Dielectric Ohms Law at a Point

As an analogy to the Conduction Ohms law at any point in the space from
the equation (v) , the Dielectric Ohms Law at any point in the space
can be equated as

To derive the equation for the Inductance we shall start deriving the
Bulk Magnetic Ohms Law from the equation-6, so called Magnetic
Ohms Law at any point in the Space. From equation- (vi), we have
From the equation-(iii) we have,
From above Inductance (L) as be defined as, Flux linkages per ampere
in a turn is called Inductance measured in henries (H).
Core Saturation and Air Gap
The general purpose toroid core inductor with an Air Gap of length Lg is
as shown in the Fig.7.
With the Air gap in circuit the equation-(ix) can be rewritten as,

( As the relative permeability of the core r, is generally in terms of few
thousands the overall core reluctance can be neglected in comparison
with the Air Gap reluctance where r = 1. )
From the Equation-10 its clear that Providing an Air Gap in the Core
makes the inductance to be independent of the Core Shape used, Core
Reluctance and Core effective Length. It only depends on the Air Gap
length and Area. So, the advantage by providing Air Gap can be
understood as following. The typical Flux linkages versus magnetizing
current graph for ideal case is as shown below in fig.8.
Why dose Core saturate?

As shown in above graph the relation between flux linkages w.r.t.
magnetizing current is linear provided it is Ideal condition. Practically
in every magnetic material there undergoes a situation such that for a
particular value of the magnetizing current all the magnetic dipoles in the
magnet will get aligned up and there wont be any further alignment of
the dipoles to produce the net flux. Thus magnetic flux gets saturated.
This condition in magnetic materials is called SATURATION. This
condition gives rise to the graphical relationship as shown in FIG.9

What Happens if the Core Saturates?
This Saturation Condition if allowed it leads to the damage of core, this is
because At the point of saturation as discussed the magnetic flux
becomes leveled off and there is no net flux in the core, therefore the
change flux linkages (N) w.r.t. the magnetizing current decreases this
causes the Inductance of the core to reduce, as the inductance is reduced
the inductive reactance (XL) will reduce (XL = 2fL), with this drop in
inductive reactance the core magnetizing current further increases which
further drops the inductance and the process become cumulative and
core draws huge magnetizing currents leading to the thermal and
dielectric breakdowns.
How Air Gap Helps in Saturation?

One cant avoid the phenomenon of Saturation in the magnetic materials.
As the Air Gap is provided in the core the core reluctance increases this
makes the Flux to increase slowly w.r.t. the magnetizing current , hence
giving a flexibility to operate the core at higher magnetizing currents
which helps to Store huge energy as of inductor and as concerned to
the transformer it helps to Transfer higher Powers. Also from Equation-
10 its clear that Providing an Air Gap in the Core makes the inductance
to be independent of the Core Shape used, Core Reluctance and Core
effective Length. It only depends on the Air Gap length and Area.
Energy Equation for an Inductor
The familiar EE-geometry core is as show in the fig.10. We shall derive
the energy equation for that core, howsoever if air gap is provided the
inductance is not going to depend on the core geometry.

Where, Ac = effective core Area and Aw = Window Area From the
equation-(iii), considering the saturation constraints of the core we have
Also, volume of the conductor accommodated in the window can be

equated as below,
From the equation (xi) and (xii)
This equation is called ENEGRY EQUATION FOR AN INDUCTOR. This

forms the base to select appropriate core for an Inductor.
Example for Typical Design

Let, L= 20H and Im = Irms = 5A a typical DC-DC converter operating at
20KHz. Assumptions: B =0.2T ; J =3A/mm2 Kw = 0.35 Core Selection:
Solution:
From various range of cores available the product of AcAw is calculated

and is tabulated below:

From the above table its clear that E25.4/10/7 core suits our
application. NO. OF TURNS: From equation-(xi)
The core area (Ac=Ae) is taken from the data sheet magnetic
characteristics as shown in the below figure.
Size of The Conductor:

Design of High Frequency Pulse
Transformer
We were commonly aware of 50 Hz fundamental frequency in Distribution
and Power Transformers which are commonly used in the chain of Power
Generation, Transmission and Distribution network. The main purpose of
transformer is to either step up or step down the voltage level of power
at various point of network for efficient power transmission and
distribution.The power at generating stations is generated at low voltage
and high current so as to minimize the ohmic loss in the lines and to
transfer the power to the load centers with less power loss efficiently this
low voltage level of power is to be stepped up to reduce line current
hence to reduce ohmic loses and to get better voltage regulation. Since
in this journey of power from generating stations to the load centers, due
to line resistance there will be ohmic loss and due to the line impedance
there will be voltage fall or poor voltage regulation. For efficient
distribution and supply this high voltage power is again stepped down at
desired distribution and supply voltage level. All the way the frequency of
the transformer and power remain constant.
What is High frequency Transformers or Pulse

Transformer
As the name prefaces the operating frequency of these transformers
would be typically around few hundred kilo hertz. The main significance
of these transformers is in Switched Mode Power Supplies. The main
conceptual idea of Switched Mode Power Supply is that it is using energy
efficient devices to transfer/convert the Power (A.C./D.C) from the source
to the sink/load. One such energy efficient device is High Frequency Pulse
Transformer. The switching frequency of these SMPSs (Switched Mode
Power Supply) system will be very high as a concern it reduces the size
of magnetics (like transformer and inductor) and and it reduces the ripple
and so on. In later sessions we will be discussing about complete design
of High frequency transformer from fundamentals for a DC-DC converter
as an application.

High Frequency Transformer Designing
There are two main core requirements of High Frequency Transformer in
the SMPS system.
1. To match the voltage levels of Source and the Load
2. To provide electrical isolation between the power circuits.
The schematic diagram of the Transformer is as shown below,
We can basically categorize the transformer circuitry as Electrical

Circuit and Magnetic Circuit.
The electrical equivalent circuit of a transformer is shown below,
Where primary electric circuit is represented with a current source

representing the relation
and secondary electrical circuit is represented with a voltage source

representing the relation
The magnetic equivalent circuit is shown taking a Toroid Core as

magnetic medium for common flux,

Where
= permeability of the magnetic medium
V1 = primary voltage
V2= Secondary voltage
N1= Primary turns
N2= Secondary turns
Ac= Effective Core Area
I1 = Primary Current
I2 = Secondary Current
The normal frequency (50HZ) transformer is classified depending on the
Core used as
1. Core type transformer
2. Shell type transformer.
Generally Shell type core is preferred for High frequency transformer.
The prime reason for selecting shell type topology of core for high
frequency application is the 3rd harmonic components will circulate with
in primary without entering in to the secondary power circuit which is
similar to delta connection. Also as the flux divides in the outer limbs it
offers less core losses. The commonly used shell core is EE - Core.
In general CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) Silicon Steel Ferromagnetic
material is used as magnetic core for Power transformers and Distribution
transformers. How so ever in some of the distribution transformers
Amorphous Core is used. But in High frequency transformers generally
Ferrite Cores are used. Commonly for frequencies less than 5 MHz

manganese-zinc ferrites are used above which nickel-zinc ferrites are of
common choice.
These ferrites offers very low coercivity, that means the material's
magnetization can easily in reverse direction without dissipating much
energy (hysteresis losses), even they do not need core lamination to
reduce Eddy Current losses as the Powder core itself offers High
resistance. Only concern with ferrites is its operating maximum flux
density is limited to maximum of 0.5 T while it is a maximum of 2.2 T for
ferromagnetic cores and 1.8 T for amorphous cores.
Popularly EE Cores is used to form the Shell type High frequency
transformer. Its geometric version is as shown below,
Where
Ac= Effective Core Area of the transformer where the actual
magnetic flux passes
Aw = Window Area, which provides the accommodation to primary
winding, secondary winding and a portion of it to the insulation.
Deducing a relation for Ac (Core Area) and Aw (Window Area):
The high frequency transformers are also called Pulse transformer as the
input voltage wave form commonly applied to it is a pulse train as
depicted in the figure below. The flux waveform is also shown in it which
is integral of voltage waveform from the relation

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Where Ts= total switching time period

A) From the above waveform we shall now derive a relationship
for Aw (Core Area):
B) Secondly we shall derive an equation for Aw (Window Area):

Let, a1 = area of primary winding a2 = area of secondary winding J =
Current density of copper Kw = window space factor. N1, N2, I1, I2 = No.
of turns and current corresponding to primary and secondary
respectively.

As discussed earlier Window area of a transformer provides
accommodation for primary and secondary winding. But entire window
area is not used for the winding a portion of it is used for insulation
therefore a factor Kw is introduced which is called window space factor or
window utilization factor.
From equation 1 and equation 2
Now consider an example of DC-DC converter

V1 = 48 V, V2 = 400 V and I2 = 3 A.
High Frequency (50 kHz) Application.

Now we need to design transformer for above application
Assumptions:
Bm= 0.2 T
J= 3 A/mm2
Kw= 0.35.
Step 1: Selection of Core.
From the equation (3) that we have derived, there substituting all the
values and finding the value of window and core area.

After we derive this value, from the data sheets of the Core we need to
select the appropriate core. A typical data for ETD Cores is given in
following table:
ETD Core Series Data
Type Number Ac (mm2) Aw (mm2) AcAw (mm4)
ETD 29/16/10 76 128 9728
ETD 34/17/11 97 171 16587
ETD 39/20/13 125 234 29250
ETD 44/22/15 173 279 48267
ETD 49/25/16 211 343 72373
ETD 54/28/19 280 412 115360
ETD 59/31/22 368 473 174064
From the above table we can conclude that ETD 49/25/16 is the
required core for our application.
Step 2: Deriving No. of Primary Turns and No. of Secondary (N1
and N2)
NOTE: The Core Area (Ac) Value is taken from the ETD/49/25/16 Core
Step 3: Deriving primary and secondary conductor size/gauge(a1

and a2)
Generally for copper conductor the current density J is taken as 3A /
mm2.

Step 4: Deriving primary resistances and secondary resistances.
Once on calculating the mean length of the turn from the geometry of
ETD/49/25/16 core the resistance is derived from formulae:
For ETD 49/25/16 core mean length of a turn = 83 mm Primary

Resistance = 10 , Secondary resistance = 629
Step 5: Deriving primary inductance and secondary inductance.
Note: The value of le and Ac is taken from the core magnetic

characteristics as shown in the below for ETD49/25/16 Core. The value of
r/ e is taken from core material characteristics. For instance let the
core material is ungapped N27 material. The data for ETD 49/25/16
Core is shown below.

This completes the design of High frequency Pulse Transformer.

Instrument Transformers
Introduction of Instrument Transformers
Instrument Transformers are used in AC system for measurement of
electrical quantities i.e. voltage, current, power, energy, power factor,
frequency. Instrument transformers are also used with protective
relays for protection of power system. Basic function of Instrument
transformers is to step down the AC System voltage and current. The
voltage and current level of power system is very high. It is very difficult
and costly to design the measuring instruments for measurement of such
high level voltage and current. Generally measuring instruments are
designed for 5 A and 110 V.
The measurement of such very large electrical quantities, can be made

possible by using the Instrument transformers with these small rating
measuring instruments. Therefore these instrument transformers are
very popular in modern power system.
Advantages of Instrument Transformers

1. The large voltage and current of AC Power system can be measured by
using small rating measuring instrument i.e. 5 A, 110 120 V.
2. By using the instrument transformers, measuring instruments can be
standardized. Which results in reduction of cost of measuring
instruments. More ever the damaged measuring instruments can be
replaced easily with healthy standardized measuring instruments.

3. Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation between high
voltage power circuit and measuring instruments. This reduces the
electrical insulation requirement for measuring instruments and
protective circuits and also assures the safety of operators.
4. Several measuring instruments can be connected through a single
transformer to power system.
5. Due to low voltage and current level in measuring and protective
circuit, there is low power consumption in measuring and protective
circuits.
Types of Instrument Transformers

Instrument transformers are of two types:
1. Current Transformer (C.T.)
2. Potential Transformer (P.T.)
Current Transformer (C.T.)
Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system to
a lower level to make it feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter
(i.e. 5A ammeter). A typical connection diagram of a current transformer
is shown in figure below.
Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also
used. Primary is connected in series with the power circuit. Therefore,
sometimes it also called series transformer. The secondary is having
large no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an ammeter. As the
ammeter is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current

transformer operates almost in short circuited condition. One terminal of
secondary is earthed to avoid the large voltage on secondary with
respect to earth. Which in turns reduce the chances of insulation
breakdown and also protect the operator against high voltage. More ever
before disconnecting the ammeter, secondary is short circuited through a
switch S as shown in figure above to avoid the high voltage build up
across the secondary.
Potential Transformer (P.T.)
Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system
to a lower level to make is feasible to be measured by small rating
voltmeter i.e. 110 120 V voltmeter. A typical connection diagram of a
potential transformer is showing figure below.
Primary of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across

the line (generally between on line and earth). Hence, sometimes it is
also called the parallel transformer. Secondary of P.T. is having few
turns and connected directly to a voltmeter. As the voltmeter is having
large resistance. Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open
circuited condition. One terminal of secondary of P.T. is earthed to
maintain the secondary voltage with respect to earth. Which assures the
safety of operators.

Difference between C.T. and P.T.
Few differences between C.T. and P.T. are listed below
No. Current Transformer (C.T.) Potential Transformer (P.T.)
1 Connected in series with power circuit. Connected in Parallel with Power circuit.
2 Secondary is connected to Ammeter. Secondary is connected to Voltmeter.
3 Secondary works almost in short circuited Secondary works almost in open circuited
condition. condition.
4 Primary current depends on power circuit Primary current depends on secondary burden.
current.
5 Primary current and excitation vary over wide Primary current and excitation variation are
range with change of power circuit current restricted to a small range.
6 One terminal of secondary is earthed to avoid One terminal of secondary can be earthed for
the insulation break down. Safety.
7 Secondary is never be open circuited. Secondary can be used in open circuit condition.
Some References books for Instrument Transformer

1. Bakshi, U.A. 'Electrical Measurements And Instrumentation". Pune: Technical Publications, 2009. English.
2. Cooper, Helfrick and. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques. Prentice-Hall of
India, 1988.
3. Golding, E.W. Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments,. Sir Issac Pitman and Sons , 1960.
4. Jones, B.E. Instrumentation Measurement and Feedback. Tata McGraw-Hill, 1986.
5. Morris, Alan S. "Measurement and Instrumentation Principles" . 2001.
6. Sawhney, A. K. "Electrical and Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation". Delhi: Dhanpat Rai Co. (P)
Ltd., 2010. English.
Current Transformer CT class Ratio

Error Phase Angle Error in Current
Transformer
Definition of Instrument Transformer
Instrument transformers means current transformer and voltage
transformer are used in electrical power system for stepping down
currents and voltages of the system for metering and protection purpose.
Actually relays and meters used for protection and metering, are not
designed for high currents and voltages. High currents or voltages of

electrical power system can not be directly fed to relays and meters. CT
steps down rated system current to 1 Amp or 5 Amp similarly voltage
transformer steps down system voltages to 110 V. The relays and meters
are generally designed for 1 Amp, 5 Amp and 110 V.
Definition of Current Transformer(CT)
A CT is an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is
substantially proportional to primary current and differs in phase from it
by ideally zero degree.
CT Accuracy Class or Current Transformer Class

A CT is similar to a electrical power transformer to some extent, but
there are some difference in construction and operation principle. For
metering and indication purpose, accuracy of ratio, between primary and
secondary currents are essential within normal working range. Normally
accuracy of current transformer required up to 125% of rated current;
as because allowable system current must be below 125% of rated
current. Rather it is desirable the CT core to be saturated after this limit
since the unnecessary electrical stresses due to system over current can
be prevented from the metering instrument connected to the secondary
of the CT as secondary current does not go above a desired limit even
primary current of the CT rises to a very high value than its ratings. So
accuracy within working range is main criteria of a CT used for metering
purpose. The degree of accuracy of a metering CT is expressed by CT
accuracy class or simply current transformer class or CT class.
But in the case of protection, the CT may not have the accuracy level as
good as metering CT although it is desired not to be saturated during
high fault current passes through primary. So core of protection CT is so

designed that it would not be saturated for long range of currents. If
saturation of the core comes at lower level of primary current the proper
reflection of primary current will not come to secondary, hence relays
connected to the secondary may not function properly and protection
system losses its reliability.
Suppose, you have one CT with current ratio 400/1 A and its protection
core is situated at 500 A. If the primary current of the CT becomes 1000
A the secondary current will still be 1.25 A as because the secondary
current will not increase after 1.25 A because of saturation. If actuating
current of the relay connected the secondary circuit of the CT is 1.5 A, it
will not be operated at all even fault level of the power circuit is 1000 A.
The degree of accuracy of a protection CT may not be as fine as metering
CT but it is also expressed by CT accuracy class or simply current
transformer class or CT class as in the case of metering current
transformer but in little bit different manner.
Theory of Current Transformer or CT

A CT functions with the same basic working principle of electrical power
transformer, as we discussed earlier, but here is some difference. If a
electrical power transformer or other general purpose transformer,
primary current varies with load or secondary current. In case of CT,
primary current is the system current and this primary current or system
current transforms to the CT secondary, hence secondary current or
burden current depends upon primary current of the current transformer.
Are you confused? OK let us clear you. In a power transformer, if load is
disconnected, there will be only magnetizing current flows in the primary.
The primary of the power transformer takes current from the source

proportional to the load connected with secondary. But in case of CT, the
primary is connected in series with power line. So current through its
primary is nothing but the current flows through that power line. The
primary current of the CT, hence does not depend upon whether the load
or burden is connected to the secondary or not or what is the impedance
value of burden. Generally CT has very few turns in primary where as
secondary turns is large in number. Say Np is number of turns in CT
primary and Ip is the current through primary. Hence, the primary AT is
equal to NpIp AT. If number of turns in secondary and secondary current
in that current transformer are Ns and Is respectively then Secondary AT
is equal to NsIs AT. In an ideal CT the primary AT is exactly is equal in
magnitude to secondary AT. So, from the above statement it is clear that
if a CT has one turn in primary and 400 turns in secondary winding, if it
has 400 A current in primary then it will have 1 A in secondary burden.
Thus the turn ratio of the CT is 400/1 A
Error in Current Transformer or CT
But in an actual CT, errors with which we are connected can best be
considered through a study of phasor diagram for a CT:
Where
Is - Secondary current. I0 - Excitation current.
Es - Secondary induced emf. Im - Magnetizing component of I0.
Ip - Primary current. Iw - Core loss component of I0.
Ep - Primary induced emf. m - Main flux.
KT - Turns ratio = Numbers of
secondary turns/number of primary
turns.

Let us take flux as reference. EMF Es and Ep lags behind the flux by 90.
The magnitude of the passers Es and Ep are proportional to secondary
and primary turns. The excitation current Io which is made up of two
components Im and Iw.
The secondary current I0 lags behind the secondary induced emf Es by an
angle s. The secondary current is now transferred to the primary side
by reversing Is and multiplied by the turns ratio KT. The total current
flows through the primary Ip is then vector sum of KT Is and I0.
The Current Error or Ratio Error in Current Transformer or CT
From above passer diagram it is clear that primary current Ip is not
exactly equal to the secondary current multiplied by turns ratio, i.e. KTIs.
This difference is due to the primary current is contributed by the core
excitation current. The error in current transformer introduced due to
this difference is called current error of CT or sometimes ratio error in
current transformer.
Phase Error or Phase Angle Error in Current Transformer
For an ideal CT the angle between the primary and reversed secondary
current vector is zero. But for an actual CT there is always a difference in
phase between two due to the fact that primary current has to supply the
component of the exiting current. The angle between the above two
phases in termed as phase angle error in current transformer or CT.

Here in the pharos diagram it is the phase angle error is usually
expressed in minutes.
Cause of Error in Current Transformer
The total primary current is not actually transformed in CT. One part of
the primary current is consumed for core excitation and remaining is
actually transformers with turns ratio of CT so there is error in current
transformer means there are both ratio error in current transformer
as well as a phase angle error in current transformer.
How to Reduce Error in Current Transformer
It is desirable to reduce these errors, for better performance. For
achieving minimum error in current transformer, one can follow the
following,
1. Using a core of high permeability and low hysteresis loss magnetic
materials.
2. Keeping the rated burden to the nearer value of the actual burden.
3. Ensuring minimum length of flux path and increasing cross-sectional
area of the core, minimizing joint of the core.
4. Lowering the secondary internal impedance.
Voltage Transformer or Potential

Transformer Theory
Potential Transformer Definition
Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical
power system for stepping down the system voltage to a safe value
which can be fed to low ratings meters and relays. Commercially
available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are
designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form of potential
transformer definition.
Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer
Theory
A voltage transformer theory or potential transformer theory is
just like a theory of general purpose step down transformer. Primary of
this transformer is connected across the phase and ground. Just like the

transformer used for stepping down purpose, potential transformer i.e.
PT has lower turns winding at its secondary.
The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of
that transformer, and then proportionate secondary voltage appears
across the secondary terminals of the PT.
The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an ideal potential

transformer or voltage transformer, when rated burden gets
connected across the secondary; the ratio of primary and secondary
voltages of transformer is equal to the turns ratio and furthermore, the
two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in
actual transformer, there must be an error in the voltage ratio as well as
in the phase angle between primary and secondary voltages. The errors
in potential transformer or voltage transformer can be best explained by
phasor diagram, and this is the main part of potential transformer
theory.

Error in PT or Potential Transformer or VT or
Voltage Transformer
Where
Is - Secondary current. Xp - Primary winding reactance.
Es - Secondary induced emf. KT - Turns ratio = Numbers of
Vs - Secondary terminal voltage. primary turns/number of secondary
Rs - Secondary winding resistance. turns.
Xs - Secondary winding reactance. I0 - Excitation current.
Ip - Primary current. Im - Magnetizing component of I0.
Ep - Primary induced emf. Iw - Core loss component of I0.
Vp - Primary terminal voltage. m - Main flux.
Rp - Primary winding resistance. - Phase angle error.
As in the case of current transformer and other purpose electrical power

transformer, total primary current Ip is the vector sum of excitation
current and the current equal to reversal of secondary current multiplied
by the ratio 1/KT. Hence,Ip = I0 + Is/KT. If Vp is the system voltage
applied to the primary of the PT, then voltage drops due to resistance
and reactance of primary winding due to primary current Ip will come into
picture. After subtracting this voltage drop from Vp, Ep will appear across
the primary terminals. This Ep is equal to primary induced emf. This
primary emf will transform to the secondary winding by mutual induction
and transformed emf is Es. Again this Es will be dropped by secondary

winding resistance and reactance, and resultant will actually appear
across the burden terminals and it is denoted as Vs.
So, if system voltage is Vp, ideally Vp/KT should be the secondary voltage
of PT, but in reality; actual secondary voltage of PT is Vs.
Voltage Error or Ratio Error in Potential Transformer (PT) or Voltage
Transformer (VT)
The difference between the ideal value Vp/KT and actual value Vs is the
voltage error or ratio error in a potential transformer, it can be expressed
as,
Phase Error or Phase Angle Error in Potential or Voltage Transformer

The angle between the primary system voltage Vp and the reversed
secondary voltage vectors KT.Vs is the phase error.
Cause of Error in Potential Transformer
The voltage applied to the primary of the potential transformer first drops
due to the internal impedance of the primary. Then it appears across the
primary winding and then transformed proportionally to its turns ratio, to
the secondary winding. This transformed voltage across the secondary
winding will again drop due to the internal impedance of the secondary,
before appearing across burden terminals. This is the reason of errors in
potential transformer.
Knee Point Voltage of Current

Transformer PS Class
Current Transformer PS Class
Before understanding Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer
and current transformer PS class we should recall the terms
instrument security factor of CT and accuracy limit factor.

Instrument Security Factor or ISF of Current
Transformer
Instrument security factor is the ratio of instrument limit primary
current to the rated primary current. Instrument limit current of a
metering current transformer is the maximum value of primary current
beyond which current transformer core becomes saturated. Instrument
security factor of CT is the significant factor for choosing the metering
instruments which to be connected to the secondary of the CT. Security
or Safety of the measuring unit is better, if ISF is low. If we go through
the example below it would be clear to us.
Suppose one current transformer has rating 100/1 A and ISF is 1.5 and
another current transformer has same rating with ISF 2. That means, in
first CT, the metering core would be saturated at 1.5 100 or 150 A,
whereas is second CT, core will be saturated at 2 100 or 200 A. That
means whatever may be the primary current of both CTs, secondary
current will not increase further after 150 and 200 A of primary current of
the CTs respectively. Hence maximum secondary current of the CTs
would be 1.5 and 2.0 A.
As the maximum current can flow through the instrument connected to

the first CT is 1.5 A which is less than the maximum value of current can
flow through the instrument connected to the second CT i.e. 2 A. Hence
security or safety of the instruments of first CT is better than later.
Another significance of ISF is during huge electrical fault, the short circuit
current, flows through primary of the CT does not affect destructively,
the measuring instrument attached to it as because, the secondary
current of the CT will not rise above the value of rated secondary current
multiplied by ISF.
Accuracy Limit Factor or ALF of Current

Transformer
For protection current transformer, we need to understand the ratio of
accuracy limit primary current to the rated primary current. First we will
explain, what is rated accuracy limit primary current?
Broadly, this is the maximum value of primary current, beyond which
core of the protection CT or simply protection core of a CT starts

saturated. The value of rated accuracy limit primary current is always
many times more than the value of instrument limit primary current.
Actually CT transforms the fault current of the electrical power system for
operation of the protection relays connected to the secondary of that CT.
If the core of the CT becomes saturated at lower value of primary
current, as in the case of metering CT, the system fault will not reflect
properly to the secondary, which may cause, the relays remain
inoperative even the fault level of the system is large enough. That is
why the core of the protection CT is made such a way that saturation
level of that core must be high enough. But still there is a limit as
because, it is impossible to make one magnetic core with infinitely high
saturation level and secondly most important reason is that although the
protection care should have high saturation level but that must be limited
up to certain level otherwise total transformation of primary current
during huge fault may badly damage the protection relays. So it is clear
from above explanation, rated accuracy limit primary current, should not
be so less, that it will not at all help the relays to be operated on the
other hand this value must not be so high that it can damage the relays.
So, accuracy limit factor or ALF should not have the value nearer to
unit and at the same time it should not be as high as 100. The standard
values of ALF as per IS-2705 are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer

This is the significance of saturation level of a CT core mainly used for
protection purposes. The sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency applied to
the secondary terminals of current transformer, with other winding being
open circuited, which when increased by 10% cause the exiting current
to increase 50%. The CT core is made of CRGO steel. It has its won
saturation level. The EMF induced in the CT secondary windings is
E2 = 4.44fT2
Where, f is the system frequency, is the maximum magnetic flux in
Wb. T2 is the number of turns of the secondary winding. The flux in the
core, is produced by excitation current Ie. We have a non-liner
relationship between excitation current and magnetizing flux. After
certain value of excitation current, flux will not further increase so rapidly
with increase in excitation current. This non-liner relation curve is also

called B - H curve. Again from the equation above, it is found that,
secondary voltage of acurrent transformer is directly proportional to flux
. Hence one typical curve can be drawn from this relation between
secondary voltage and excitation current as shown below. It is clear from
the curve that, linear relation between V and Ie is maintained from point
A and K. The point A is known as ankle point and point K is known
as Knee Point.
In differential and restricted earth fault (REF) protection scheme,

accuracy class and ALF of the CT may not ensure the reliability of the
operation. It is desired that, differential and REF relays should not be
operated when fault occurs outside the protected transformer. When any
fault occurs outside the differential protection zone, the faulty current
flows through the CTs of both sides of electrical power transformer. The
both LV and HV CTs have magnetizing characteristics. Beyond the knee
point, for slight increase in secondary emf a large increasing in excitation
current is required. So after this knee point excitation current of both
current transformers will be extremely high, which may cause mismatch
between secondary current of LV & HV current transformers. This
phenomena may cause unexpected tripping of power transformer. So the
magnetizing characteristics of both LV & HV sides CTs, should be same
that means they have same knee point voltage Vk as well as same
excitation current Ie at Vk/2. It can be again said that, if both knee point
voltage of current transformer and magnetizing characteristic of CTs of
both sides of power transformer differ, there must be a mismatch in high
excitation currents of the CTs during fault which ultimately causes the

unbalancing between secondary current of both groups of CTs and
transformer trips.
So for choosing CT for differential protection of transformer, one should
consider current transformer PS class rather than its convectional
protection class. PS stands for protection special which is defined by
knee point voltage of current transformer Vk and excitation current
Ie at Vk/2.
Why CT Secondary Should Not Be Kept Open?

The electrical power system load current always flows through current
transformer primary; irrespective of whether the current transformer is
open circuited or connected to burden at its secondary.
If CT secondary is open circuited, all the primary current will behave as

excitation current, which ultimately produce huge voltage. Every current
transformer has its won non-linear magnetizing curve, because of which
secondary open circuit voltage should be limited by saturation of the
core. If one can measure the rms voltage across the secondary terminals,
he or she will get the value which may not appear to be dangerous. As
the CT primary current is sinusoidal in nature, it zero 100 times per
second.(As frequency of the current is 50 Hz). The rate of change of flux
at every current zero is not limited by saturation and is high indeed. This
develops extremely high peaks or pulses of voltage. This high peaks of
voltage may not be measured by conventional voltmeter. But these high
peaks of induced voltage may breakdown the CT insulation, and may

case accident to personnel. The actual open-circuit voltage peak is
difficult to measure accurately because of its very short peaks. That is
why CT secondary should not be kept open.
Accuracy Limit Factor and

Instrument Security Factor of
Current Transformer
Before understanding accuracy limit factor and instrument security
factor of CT or current transformer we must try to understand different
technical parameters of instrument transformer i.e. of current
transformer and voltage transformer.
Technical Parameters of Instrument Transformer
Following are some of the normally used terms associated with
instrument transformer, that is, both for current transformer and voltage
transformer.
Rated Primary Current of Current Transformer
This is the value of rated primary current of current transformer on which
the CT is designed to perform best. Hence rated primary current of
current transformer is an optimum value of primary current at which,
error of the CT are minimum and losses in the CT are also less, that
means in few words, performance of the CT is best; with optimum
heating of the transformer.
Rated Secondary Current of Current Transformer
Like rated primary current, this is the value of secondary current due to
which errors in the CT are minimum. In other words, rated secondary
current of current transformer is the value of secondary current on which
the best performance of the CT is based.
Rated Burden of Current Transformer
Whatever is connected externally with the secondary of a current
transformer is called burden of current transformer. In electrical
power transformer the secondary is connected with load, but in case of
current transformer, electrical consumer load is not connected to the
secondary. In electrical power transformer we loaded the secondary of

the transformer by connecting consumer's one by one to the secondary
side. But in case of current transformer or other instrument transformer,
we connect, metering instrument and protection relays to the secondary,
which obviously behave like load of the instrument transformer but do
not have any direct relation with the load of the electrical power system.
That is why, all the instruments, wires etc connected with the secondary
of the instrument transformer or IT is called burden rather load. In this
way, we distinguish the secondary circuit of a current transformer or
voltage transformer from other purpose electrical transformer.Although
literally, load and burden carry nearly same meaning in english language.
Rated burden of current transformer is the value of the burden to be
connected with the secondary of CT including connecting load resistance
expressed in VA or ohms on which accuracy requirement is based.
Similarly rated burden of resistance expressed in VA or ohms on which
accuracy requirement is based.
Rated Frequency of Current Transformer
The value of the system frequency on which the instrument
transformer operates.
Accuracy Class of Current Transformer
There is always some difference in expected value and actual value of
output of an instrument transformer current error and phase angle error
count in CT, as because primary current of current transformer has to
contribute the excitation component of CT core. Accuracy class of
current transformer is the highest permissible percentage composite
error at rated current. The standard accuracy classes of current
transformer as per IS-2705 are 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 3 & 5 for metering CT.
The accuracy class or simply class of measuring current transformer is
0.1, means the maximum permissible limit of error is 0.1%, more clearly,
if we try to measure 100 A with a 0.1 class CT, the measured value may
be either 100.1 or 99.9 A or anything in between these range. The
standard accuracy class for the protection current transformer, as per IS-
2705 are 5 P, 10 P, 15 P. Here in the protection current transformer, 5 P
means 5%, 10 P means 10 %, and 15 P means 15 % error and P stands
for protection.

Limits of Error in Current Transformers
Class 0.1 to 1.0 : The Current Error and phase displacement Error at the
rated frequency shall not exceed the values given below when the
secondary burden is any value from 25 % to 100 % of the rated burden.
Limit of % current error at % of rated Limit of phase angle error at % of
current rated current
Class 10 20 100 120 10 20 100 120
0.1 0.25 0.2 0.1 0.1 10 8 5 5
0.2 0.50 0.35 0.2 0.2 20 15 10 10
0.5 1 0.75 0.75 0.5 60 45 30 30
1.0 2 1.5 1.5 1.0 120 90 60 60
Application of CT Core According to Their Class

Application Accuracy Class
As per IS As per BS
Precession Metering 0.1 or 0.2 BL
Commertial Metering 0.5 or 1.0 AM, BM, CM
Ammeters 1 or 3 CD
Protection Relays 5P10 or 5P20 STU
Special Protection PS
Rated Short Circuit Current of a Current Transformer

In some abnormal condition like huge short circuit fault, the current
transformer faces a huge current, flows through the CT primary.
Although this fault current will not continue for long lime as because
every fault in the system is cleared by electrical protection system within
very short time. So current transformer should be designed in such a way
that it can withstand this huge fault current at least for certain amount of
time. It is unnecessary to design any equipment for withstanding short

circuit current for long period of time since the short circuit fault is
cleared by protection switch gear within fraction of second. For CT rated
short circuit current of currenttransformer is defined as the rms value of
primary current which the CT will withstand for a rated time with its
secondary winding short circuited without suffering harmful effects.
Rated Voltage for Current Transformer(CT)
The RMS value of the voltage used to designate the CT for a particular
highest system voltage is rated Voltage for current transformer. The
voltage of electrical power system is increased if load of the system is
reduced. As per standard, the system voltage can be raised up to 10%
above the normal voltage during no load condition. So every electrical
equipment is such designed so that it can withstand this highest voltage.
As current transformer is an electrical equipment, it should also be
designed to withstand highest system voltage.
Instrument Security Factor
ISF or instrument security factor of current transformer is defined as
the ratio of instrument limit primary current to the rated primary current.
The instrument limit primary current of metering CT is the value primary
current beyond which CT core becomes saturated.
Accuracy Limit Factor
For protection current transformer, the ratio of accuracy limit primary
current to the rated primary current is called accuracy limit factor
of>current transformer.
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer
Knee point voltage of current transformer is significance of
saturation level of a current transformer core mainly used for protection
purposes. The sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency is applied to the
secondary terminals of CT, with other winding being open circuited which
increased by 10 %, cause the exiting current to increase by 50 %.
See the details here.
This material is intended as a quick access to basic knowledge of transformers with no commercial implication. The content was compiled from this
website with minor editing

Introduction To Transformers

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Introduction To Transformers

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What is transformer?

Watch a video presentation Introduction to Transformer in this link

Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical

Working Principle of Transformer

The above mentioned form of transformer is theoretically possible but not

1. Primary Winding of Transformer- which produces magnetic flux

EMF Equation & Turns Voltage

Let's say, T is number of turns in a winding, m is the maximum flux in

Where is the instantaneous alternating flux and represented as,

As the maximum value of cos2ft is 1, the maximum value of induced

This is EMF equation of transformer. If E1 & E2 are primary and secondary

Transformation Ratio of Transformer

Ideal Transformer Model

For developing counter emf E1 across the primary winding, it draws

Theory of Transformer on Load and

Theory of Transformer on No-Load

This mmf or magneto motive force in the secondary winding produces

Where, 2 is the angle between Secondary Voltage and Secondary

Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage Reactance

Let leakage reactances of primary and secondary windings of the

We have already established the voltage equation of a transformer on

Therefore, the voltage equations are,

Resistance and Leakage Reactance

The Impedance of transformer plays a vital role during parallel operation

Voltage drops in the windings occur due to impedance of transformer.

Similarly for secondary leakage reactance, the voltage equation of

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to

Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

The load component I2 flows through the primary winding of transformer

From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to

So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to

Copper Loss in Transformer

Core Losses in Transformer

Where, Kh = Hysteresis constant. Ke = Eddy current constant. Kf = form

Hysteresis Loss in Transformer

Determination of Hysteresis Loss

Consider a ring of ferromagnetic specimen of circumference L meter,

Therefore, Energy consumed per cycle = volume of the ring X area of

What is Eddy Current Loss ?

Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging Power Factor

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and

Voltage regulation of transformer at lagging power factor,

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading Power Factor

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and

Voltage regulation of transformer at leading power factor,

Single Three Phase Transformer vs A

It is found that generation, transmission and distribution of electrical

Star-star transformer is formed in a 3 phase transformer by

If primary is HV side, then A1 will be connected to B2, B1 will be

But in LV side of transformer, if, a2 is connected to b1, b2 is connected to

The delta connection in LV side is formed by connecting 1 suffixed

Delta-star transformer connection of three phase transformer is similar

Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,

Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,

Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,

For 132/33KV Transformer K = 4

Case 2 Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,

Case 3 Voltage difference between HV & LV winding,

In case 2 voltage difference between HV and LV winding is minimum