Biomass consultants, researchers and engineers

BTG Biomass Technology Group BV is a private firm of consultants,

researchers and engineers, operating worldwide in fields of
sustainable energy production from biomass and waste

P.O. Box 217 > 7500 AE Enschede > The Netherlands > Tel +31 53 486 1186 > Fax +31 53 486 1180 > Email office@btgworld.com > Site www.btgworld.com

BTG Biomass Gasification

Date April 2008

 BTG Biomass Gasification

Colophon

BTG biomass technology group BV

P.O.Box 217
7500 AE Enschede
The Netherlands
Tel. +31-53-4861186
Fax +31-53-4861180
www.btgworld.com
office@btgworld.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________ 1
2 BTGS INVOLVEMENT __________________________________________ 2
2.1 Handbook Biomass Gasification ________________________________ 2
3 PROCESS ______________________________________________________ 4
3.1 Chemistry __________________________________________________ 4
3.2 Reactions ___________________________________________________ 4
3.3 Gasification parameters_______________________________________ 6
3.3.1 Equivalence ratio _________________________________________ 6
3.3.2 Superficial velocity and hearth load ___________________________ 7
3.3.3 Turn-down ratio __________________________________________ 7
3.3.4 Gas heating value _________________________________________ 7
3.3.5 Gas flow rate and gas production _____________________________ 7
3.3.6 Efficiency _______________________________________________ 7
3.3.7 Fuel consumption _________________________________________ 7
3.3.8 Tar and entrained particles __________________________________ 7
3.3.9 Important biomass characteristics related to gasification ___________ 8
4 REACTOR DESIGNS _____________________________________________ 9
5 GAS CONDITIONING ___________________________________________ 11
5.1 Tar removal / conversion _____________________________________ 11
6 STATUS _______________________________________________________ 12
7 ECONOMICS __________________________________________________ 14

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

1 INTRODUCTION

Biomass gasification is an endothermic thermal conversion technology where a solid fuel

is converted into a combustible gas. A limited supply of oxygen, air, steam or a
combination serves as the oxidizing agent. The product gas consists of carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, trace amounts of higher hydrocarbons (ethene,
ethane), water, nitrogen (with air as oxidant) and various contaminants, such as small char
particles, ash, tars, higher hydrocarbons, alkalies, ammonia, acids, alkalies, and the like.

When undertaken with air as the oxidizing agent, the produced gas has a net calorific
value (NCV) of 4 6 MJ/Nm3. The heating value of this gas makes it suitable for boiler and
engine use, and for turbine use with burner modifications (for turbine use, the gas must be
partially cooled to protect valve control materials and cleaned to protect turbine blades).
When oxygen is used, the produced gas has a NCV of 10-15 MJ/Nm3, sufficient for
limited pipeline transport and synthesis gas conversion.

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

2 BTGS INVOLVEMENT

BTGs activities on the research, development, implementation and evaluation of small to

medium scale fixed bed biomass gasifiers and gasifier/generator systems started more
than 25 years ago. In the early eighties, BTG established its reputation as a world-leading
entity in the field of demonstration, dissemination and monitoring of small-to-medium
scale biomass-fuelled power and heat gasifiers. The scope of BTGs activities widened
over the years with assignments worldwide in more than 80 countries. The focus of BTG
activities gradually shifted from consulting and R&D to project engineering/
implementation and business development. AD 2007 BTG increasingly works for private
partners from the energy sector, including multi-utilities and world-wide operating
multinationals. A large share of our assignments for these companies concern the (semi)
commercial implementation of small/medium scale biomass gasification projects in
Europe and developing countries alike. A main part of BTGs activities is dedicated to
research and technology development. Innovative concepts are explored and investigated
like catalytic tar removal, supercritical gasification for hydrogen production from wet
biomass residues, and staged gas reforming for syngas production. This work is closely
linked to BTGs core business on pyrolysis technology, (see also Test Facilities on BTGs
website www.btgworld.com).

2.1 Handbook Biomass Gasification

Figure 1 Cover Handbook Biomass Gasification

The Handbook on Biomass Gasification is meant to disseminate the results of the

European Gasification Network (GasNet) to a wider audience, which started in 2001 with
funding of DG TREN. The Handbook describes specific topics discussed thoroughly

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

within GasNet and additional chapters on more general aspects of biomass gasification
including gasification of pyrolysis oil, market assessments, economics, legislative
impacts, health and safety, tar standardisation and incentives for bio-energy through
gasification. The handbook is edited by Harrie Knoef (BTG), 25 authors contributed to
this highly informative book. These authors are all international biomass experts on
gasification or related topics.

The handbook can be ordered on the BTG website (www.btgworld.com).

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

3 PROCESS

3.1 Chemistry
The substance of a solid fuel is usually composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. In the gasifiers considered, the biomass is heated by combustion. Four different
processes can be distinguished in gasification: drying, pyrolysis, oxidation and reduction.
From a chemical point of view, the process of biomass gasification is quite complex. It
includes a number of steps like
thermal decomposition to non-condensable gas, vapors and char (pyrolysis);
subsequent thermal cracking of vapors to gas and char;
gasification of char by steam or carbon dioxide;
partial oxidation of combustible gas, vapors and char.

A schematic presentation of these processes is shown below.

Combustion

Gasification

Pyrolysis
Char
Ash CO2
Biomass
CO H2O
Permanent gases CO2
H2

Heat Tars
Tar

Heat Oxidant Catalyst

Oxidant

Figure 2 The biomass gasification process

3.2 Reactions
In complete combustion, carbon dioxide is obtained from the carbon and water from the
hydrogen. Oxygen from the fuel will be of course incorporated in the combustion
products, thereby decreasing the amount of combustion air needed.

Combustion, occurring in the oxidation zone, is described by the following chemical

formulae:
C + 02 = C02 + 401.9 kJ/mol (1)
H + 02 = H20 + 241.1 kJ/mol (2)

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

The most important reactions that take place in the reduction zone of a gasifier between
the different gaseous and solid reactants are:

C + C02 + 164.9 kJ/mol = 2C0 (3)

C + H20 + 122.6 kJ/mol = CO + H2 (4)
C02 + H2 + 42.3 kJ/mol = CO + H20 (5)
C + 2H2 = CH4 (6)
CO + 3H2 = CH4 + H20 + 205.9 kJ/mol (7)

Equation (3) and (4) are the main reactions of the reduction stage and require heat. As a
result the temperature will decrease during the reduction. Equation (5) describes the so-
called water-gas equilibrium. For each temperature, in theory, the ratio between the
product of the concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) and water vapor (H20) and the
product of the concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO,) and hydrogen (H,) is fixed by the
value of the water gas equilibrium constant (Kw). Kw is given in the next formula:

Kw = ([CO] * [H20]) / ([C02] * [H2]) (8)

In practice, the equilibrium composition of the gas will only be reached in cases where
the reaction rate and the time for reaction are sufficient.

The reaction rate decreases with failing temperature. In the case of the water-gas
equilibrium, the reaction rate becomes so low below 700 'C that the equilibrium is said to
be 'frozen'. The gas composition then remains unchanged.

Figure 3: Equilibrium of various reactions versus temperature

Introduction of the water-gas equilibrium concept provides the opportunity to calculate

the gas composition theoretically from a gasifier, which has reached equilibrium at a
given temperature.

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

The next table presents typical gas composition data as obtained from wood and charcoal
co-current gasifiers operated on low to medium moisture content fuels (wood 20%,
charcoal 7%).

Table 3-1 Typical gas composition

Component Wood gas (vol%) Charcoal gas (vol%)
Nitrogen 50 54 55 65
Carbon monoxide 17 22 28 32
Carbon dioxide 9 15 13
Hydrogen 12 20 4 10
Methane 2 -3 02
Heating value (MJ/m3) 5 5.9 4.5 5.6

3.3 Gasification parameters

3.3.1 Equivalence ratio

The water gas, water gas shift, Boudouard and methane reactions provides the
opportunity to calculate the product gas composition of a gasifier, but only in case this
equilibrium can really be reached. Models can be used to calculate the gas composition as
function of the temperature and/or the equivalence ratio (ER), which is the oxygen used
relative to the amount required for complete combustion. This dimensionless parameter
shows that curves of several parameters like chemical energy in the gas and the gas
composition change significantly at ER = 0,25.

Figure 4: Equivalence ratio

A value of zero (left side) corresponds to pyrolysis while combustion is shown at the right
hand side. At ER = 0.25 all the char is converted into gas giving the highest energy
density of the gas; at lower values char is remaining and at higher values some gas is
burned and the temperature will increase.

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

3.3.2 Superficial velocity and hearth load

The superficial velocity is one of the most important parameters determining the
performance of a gasifier reactor, controlling gas production rate, gas energy content, fuel
consumption rate, power output, and tar/char production rate. The superficial velocity is
defined as the gas flow rate (m3/s) divided by the cross sectional area (m2). A low
superficial velocity causes relatively slow pyrolysis conditions and results in high
charcoal yields and a gas with high tar content.

3.3.3 Turn-down ratio

For every gasifier there is an optimum range of operating conditions corresponding to a
certain turn-down ratio, i.e. the ratio under which gas is produced of sufficient quality for
its application. This quality criterion is in particular related to the tar production level. For
gasifiers the turn-down ratio is typically 2-3, although some technology developers claim
higher values.

3.3.4 Gas heating value

The gas heating value is usually expressed in MJ/Nm3. A normal cubic meter is referring
to the gas volume at 1 atmosphere and 0 C.

3.3.5 Gas flow rate and gas production

The gas flow rate can be calculated from the primary air flow if the nitrogen content in
the producer gas is known, or measured by orifice plates, venturies, pitot tubes or
rotameters.

3.3.6 Efficiency
The efficiency of a gasifier reactor can be expressed on cold or hot gas basis.

3.3.7 Fuel consumption

The fuel consumption is needed to determine the gasifier and overall efficiency. The fuel
consumption can be measured by a balance or automatically by metering bins.

3.3.8 Tar and entrained particles

The amount of tar and entrained particles depends on the gasifier design and operating
conditions, in particularly the load level (actual power output to the maximum rated
power output)

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

3.3.9 Important biomass characteristics related to gasification

Each type of biomass has its own specific properties, which determines its performance as
a fuel in gasification plants. The most important properties for gasification are:
moisture content
ash content and ash composition
elemental composition
heating value
bulk density and morphology
volatile matter content
other fuel related contaminants like N, S, Cl, alkalies, heavy metals, etc.

Figure 5 Relation moisture content versus heating value biomass

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

4 REACTOR DESIGNS

Reactor designs have been investigated for more than a century, which resulted in the
availability of several designs at small- and large-scale. Gasifiers can be classified in
different ways.

According to:
the gasification agent o Air-blown gasifiers
o Oxygen gasifiers
o Steam gasifiers
heat for gasification o Autothermal or direct gasifiers: heat is provided by partial
combustion of the biomass
o Allothermal or indirect gasifiers: heat is supplied from an
external source through heat exchanger or indirect process,
i.e. separation of gasification and combustion zone
pressure in the gasifier o Atmospheric
o Pressurised
the design the reactor o Fixed bed
o Fluidized bed
o Entrained flow
o Twin-bed

Within each category, a further distinguish between designs can be made. This figure
shows a typical V-shaped throat design of a downdraft (co-current) fixed bed gasifier.

Figure 6 Three dimensional illustration of a typical downdraft type gasifier

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

The following figure summarises the main gasifier designs and their typical operating
window.

Figure 7 Characteristics of different gasification configurations

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

5 GAS CONDITIONING

Dependent on the application, type of gasifier and contaminants in the fuel, a certain level
of gas conditioning (cleaning/cooling) is required. Cleaning is in particularly needed for
combustion of producer gas in gas engines or gas turbines and synthesis gas production.
Wet and dry cleaning devices have been developed. With wet gas cleaning most of the
impurities can be removed, but in turn, a contaminated waste water is produced which
needs to be treated before disposal. With dry gas cleaning, usually only particulates are
trapped.
Heat (kilns)
Co-firing mg/m3
Gas engines
Gas turbines ppm
Stirling engines
Fuel cells
Syngas
ppb
Figure 8 Gas cleaning requirements for different application

Cooling is required for (i) combustion in gas engines, (ii) when filters are applied with a
maximum allowable temperature or (iii) when compressors are incorporated like with
atmospheric IGCC.

The most frequent impurities are hydrocarbons (tar), dust (particulates), ammonia,
sulphur, chloride, alkalies, etc. which need to be removed or converted. Dust is usually
removed by cyclones and fabric filters. Ammonia, sulphur and chloride can be removed
by scrubbers or by using additives. The most critical component to be handled however is
tar.

5.1 Tar removal / conversion

Special gasifier designs have been developed to reduce the tar concentration in the
product gas. However, a tar-free gasifier does not exist. Therefore, tar removal and
conversion is required in most cases. The latter is preferred because tar has a relatively
high energy content which should preferably be utilised. Different concepts developed to
reduce the tar content include a.o.:
Specific reactor designs: downdraft gasifiers with a V-shaped throat
construction
Staged gasification were the pyrolysis, gasification and/or combustion zones are
separated
Adding catalyst in the reactor
Separate catalytic conversion of tar downstream the gasifier reactor
Physical removal by scrubbing, or absorption
Physical removal and recycling of tar into the gasifier reactor.

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

6 STATUS

Gasification of biomass converts a solid renewable fuel to a gas that can be used in a
modern conversion device, such as a gas turbine or engine, for electricity and heat
production. This opens the possibility of moving from the traditional, small-scale, low-
efficiency steam cycle to the efficient gas turbine. Recently, other applications became of
interest like syngas production, methane, hydrogen (for fuel cells), etc.

The following applications can be distinguished:

Gasification for heat production
Usually, the heat is used for district heating, industrial drying applications or low
pressure saturated steam for an industrial process. Both fixed bed and fluid bed
gasifiers are commercially in operation.

Fixed bed gasifiers for power or CHP production from biomass

De-central power production at a relatively small-scale is still practised in many
countries because of favourable policy measures.

Co-firing gas from biomass in existing power plants

Co-firing is seen as one of the most interesting applications because of the relatively
low investment, the available flue gas cleaning, and the available infrastructure.
Three plants are implemented so far.

Fluid bed gasification for power production (IGCC)

Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) technology is being demonstrated at
both atmospheric and pressurized gasifiers.

Syntheses gas production for liquid (transportation) fuels. Synthesis gas differs from
producer gas as it contains only CO and H2.

The technology is close to commercialization and therefore BTG has informed the
international community in detail about the status for many years, i.e. about the current
installations and the current manufacturers. Details can be found on www.gasifiers.org
and other websites maintained by BTG, see Links. Over 90 installations and over 60
manufacturers are listed now indicating the large interest in biomass gasification.

Despite many R,D&D efforts for the last decades, commercial status is still not achieved
for several technical and non-technical reasons. To promote the technology in general and
to contribute to the Kyoto protocol, BTG initiated in 2000 a European wide Network on
Gasification, GasNet, in which 20 members from all European countries participate.

Information on different aspects are exchanged and distributed through internet at

www.gasnet.uk.net and bi-annual newsletters. GasNet operates within the ThermalNet
network www.thermalnet.co.uk together with PyNe (Pyrolysis Network) and CombNet,
the combustion Network).

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 Ir. H.A.M. Knoef Phone: +31 53 486 1190 Mobile: +31 6 52560040 knoef@btgworld.com

Links are also established with the IEA Bioenergy Agreement, Task 33 on Thermal
Biomass Gasification.

Liquid fuels via Syngas from Biomass

Fischer Tropsch
N2O diluted Separator
air Or Methanol liquid fuels
syngas
H2O Gasifier N2
biomass N2
Fischer
liquid fuels
Tropsch

steam O2 Fischer
Secondary
Gasifier
biomass Converter syngas Tropsch liquid fuels
MCV gas

Heat input from external combustion

(e.g. part of the biomass)

oxygen
Fischer Tropsch
(steam) Gasifier liquid fuels
syngas Or Methanol
biomass

Figure 9 Liquid fuels from biomass

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7 ECONOMICS

Several economic studies have been made on biomass gasification regarding the
feasibility and long-term prospects. The first demonstration projects are mostly far too
expensive to become profitable. Investment figures can be more than 5,000 /kW electric,
which is far more than competitive technologies. However, it is expected that due to the
learning curve, the investment costs can be reduced to approximately 2,000 /kW electric
within the coming decade. Operational experience, success stories and value engineering
is needed to achieve this goal.

Another aspect is the operational costs, in particularly the price of the feedstock. These
can be expensive like short rotation coppice (SRC) or cheap (negative) like waste
residues. Transportation, fuel handling and processing adds to the cost of the feedstock.
Furthermore, labour costs must be minimised through process control and automation.
Practical experience is needed to determine the maintenance costs. Remuneration of
electricity and heat can also be decisive in the overall economics.

For the short to medium term, biomass gasification can not compete with fossil fuel
produced power. Therefore, comparison must be made to alternative renewable energy
sources. Studies showed that biomass gasification can compete with other RES when
capital costs can be reduced and favourable conditions are created. Both conditions are
likely to happen.

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