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4.1
Examples of the work of a cell include cell division, biochemical reactions (such as
dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis), and membrane transport.
2. Give an example of how your body has both potential and kinetic energy.
Stored fuels such as glucose, glycogen, and fat contain potential energy. The bodys
muscle movements illustrate kinetic energy, as does the movement of substances across
membranes and within cells.
The first law of thermodynamics says that energy cannot be destroyed or created, only
changed in form. The second law of thermodynamics says that each time energy is
converted from one form to another, some energy is always lost as heat.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy in the universe always
increases because in every reaction some energy is lost as heat, and heat is a disordered
form of energy.
4.2
3. What are oxidation and reduction, and why are they always linked?
Oxidation is the loss of electrons from a molecule, atom, or ion; reduction is a gain of
electrons. Oxidation and reduction are always linked because they occur simultaneously.
If a molecule, atom, or ion loses electrons (is oxidized), then another must gain those
electrons (be reduced).
4.3
ATP is a nucleotide consisting of ribose, a nitrogenous base, and three phosphate groups.
Hydrolysis of ATP breaks the bond to the third phosphate group, releasing energy. This
reaction is coupled to cellular reactions that require energy input.
3. Describe the relationships among endergonic reactions, ATP hydrolysis, and cellular
respiration.
The ATP that is produced in cellular respiration can undergo hydrolysis, releasing energy
that can be used to drive endergonic reactions.
4.4
Enzymes bring reactants into contact with each other so that less energy is required to
start the reaction.
Negative feedback and positive feedback are ways to regulate the rates of enzyme-
catalyzed reactions. In negative feedback, the accumulation of the reactions product
causes the reaction to slow down. In positive feedback, the accumulation of the reactions
product makes the reaction go faster.
4.5
1. What is diffusion?
Solutions with high concentrations of solutes have relatively low concentrations of water.
In osmosis, water diffuses from a low concentration of solutes (high concentration of
water) to a high concentration of solutes (low concentration of water).
It costs energy for a cell to maintain a concentration gradient because random molecular
movement (diffusion) tends to dissipate gradients.
5. What are the characteristics of active transport? Give an example of active transport.
Active transport requires the expenditure of energy to move a substance against its
concentration gradient. An example of active transport is the movement of sodium ions
from an area where they are less concentrated to an area where they are more
concentrated.
6. How do exocytosis and endocytosis use vesicles to transport materials across cell
membranes?
In exocytosis, a vesicle carries materials to be transported out of the cell. The lipid bilayer
surrounding the vesicle merges with the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane, releasing the
substance outside the cell. Conversely, in endocytosis, a vesicle forms as the cell
membrane pinches inward, bringing substances into the cell.
4.6
1. What is the normal role of CFTR in humans, and how can faulty CFTR proteins cause
cystic fibrosis?
CFTR is a membrane protein that sends Cl- out of the cell by active transport. This
accumulation of Cl- outside the cell draws water by osmosis. A faulty CFTR protein leads
to less Cl- movement and, consequently, less water movement. The resulting thick mucus
causes severe problems in the lungs and digestive system.
2. Summarize the question Gabriel and his colleagues asked, and explain how their
experiment helped answer the question.
The researchers were interested in understanding why such a harmful mutation to CFTR
has not been removed by natural selection from the population. They hypothesized that
faulty CFTR proteins give increased resistance to cholera. Their experiment showed that
mice with just one faulty copy of the CFTR gene had some resistance to cholera. In the
human population, individuals with cholera resistance are more likely to survive to
reproduce, so natural selection does not remove the faulty copy of the gene.
3. How do you think the results in figure 4.22 would have been different if, before adding
cholera toxin, the researcher had added a chemical that blocked the site at which the toxin
binds to CFTR?
The toxin overstimulates CFTR, causing extreme water loss. Blocking the toxin would
prevent this effect. The graph would therefore show equally low water loss for all three
groups.
Write It Out
1. Cite everyday illustrations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. How do the
laws of thermodynamics underlie every organisms ability to function?
The first law of thermodynamics says that energy changes from one form to another, but
it is never created or destroyed. An illustration of the first law of thermodynamics would
be a plant cell using light energy to assemble glucose molecules (a form of chemical
energy). The second law of thermodynamics says that in any energy transformation, some
energy is always lost as heat. An illustration of the second law of thermodynamics would
be the loss of heat energy from vigorously exercising muscles. Taken together, the laws
of thermodynamics describe the limits of how organisms can acquire and use energy and
explain why every ecosystem requires continuous energy input.
2. Some people claim that lifes high degree of organization defies the second law of
thermodynamics. What makes this statement false?
The second law of thermodynamics states that all reactions result in the loss of energy as
heat. Lifes high degree of organization defies this statement only if life is considered as
a closed system. In fact, life is not a closed system; energy in sunlight powers most life
on Earth. The sun is constantly decreasing in complexity as it releases energy, and
entropy overall increases even as life remains highly organized.
3. List some examples of endergonic and exergonic reactions that have been introduced
in previous chapters.
4. Describe where oxidation and reduction occur along an electron transport chain.
The initial electron donor molecule is oxidized when it donates electrons to protein #1 in
the chain; this first protein therefore becomes reduced. But protein #1 is oxidized when it
passes the electrons to protein #2, which is reduced. Similar oxidation-reduction reactions
occur between each pair of proteins in the chain until the electrons reach the end of the
chain. At that point, the final electron acceptor molecule is reduced.
In a coupled reaction, energy released in one process is used to fuel some other process.
The burner of a gas stove, for example, releases heat that is harnessed for cooking food.
Many answers are possible, but here are four examples. A cell uses ATP to move muscles,
to move some substances across membranes, to move vesicles along the cytoskeleton,
and to build critical molecules such as proteins and DNA.
9. Considering that enzymes are essential to all cells, including microbes, why might
refrigeration and freezing help preserve food?
The warmer the temperature, the faster a chemical reaction proceeds (unless the
temperature is so high that the enzyme is denatured). Food spoilage reactions happen
rapidly at room temperature, but if food is refrigerated or frozen, the same chemical
reactions occur much more slowly or not at all.
10. When a person eats a fatty diet, excess cholesterol accumulates in the bloodstream.
Cells then temporarily stop producing cholesterol. What phenomenon described in the
chapter does this control illustrate?
11. Explain the differences among diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, and
endocytosis.
12. Diffusion is an efficient means of transport only over small distances. How does this
relate to a cells surface-area-to-volume ratio (see chapter 3)?
Cells acquire nutrients and dispose of wastes by diffusion. Diffusion is efficient only
over small distances, but that is sufficient as long as all parts of the cells interior are
close to the surface of the cell (which they will be if the surface area is high relative to
the cells volume).
13. Liver cells are packed with glucose. If the concentration of glucose in a liver cell is
higher than in the surrounding fluid, what mechanism could the cell use to import even
more glucose? Why would only this mode of transport work?
The cell would use active transport to move the glucose against its concentration
gradient. A concentration gradient is a form of potential energy, so the liver cell would
need to expend some type of energy in order to import more glucose molecules.
14. List three ways the content in this chapter relates to an organisms ability to maintain
homeostasis.
Both Competitive inhibitor and Noncompetitive inhibitor could connect with the
phrase are substances that reduce the activity of an to Enzyme
3. Add the terms substrate, active site, and activation energy to this concept map.
Enzymes could connect with the phrase act on to Substrate. In turn, Substrate
could connect with the phrase binds to the to Active site. Enzymes could connect
with the phrase speed chemical reactions by lowering the to Activation energy.