0 ‘TWE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY Which the physics in the frame is isotropic, our above methods have termined i, since they are based on the isotropic propagation of light, sound, le bullets, or whatever. Tn clasial Kinematics, the “presiding observer" of a second frame passing through S could save himself the trouble of independent calbrating his frame by simply setting his standard latie clocks to coincide with any Seclock they happen to pass, and engraving on is clocks the x,y, ofthe ‘Scelcks the pass atone instant, say at ¢ =O. Not so in relativity: adoption ‘of $time §" would lead to anisotropic physics, among other troubles. The Foot of this diflerence can be traced to the second axiom. Consider an x,¢ (spacetime) diagram on which to plot events occuring on the x-axis of S (see Fig. 2), Let A,B be latie clocks on that axis, equidistant from the brgin-cbserver O, Now suppose the origin-observer O' of S' moves along. the waxis of §, passing O at t=O, and suppose his lattice clocks A, B’ {equidistant fom O° pass A, B, respectively, at ¢ = 0. Suppose further that the control lightsgnal of O was emitted (ay at ¢ = ,) so as to reach A and Blat t=O. (In our diagram photon tracks have slope +: we have chosen the units of time and distance so a to make c = 1.) Without loss of generality Wwe can assume that O emits his control signal atthe time f when the signal ‘of O passes him, Tes then clear from the diagram thatthe signal from ’, while reaching the coincident clocks A and A, wil not reach B' until after Fig2 "ne a te ry th wy ad he ae stn oxo he rpette dels tad & depend oa op avo bt propustin No ge sous ‘Saou be rd nce oud proses eoopcaly ene st hie its eam. ett vac hs no es fame dg. it has passed B, So A’ and B’ must read diferent times when they pass A tnd B, which shows that O° cannot adopt the time of O! In fact, we have 0 must continuoualy lead tothe identity ‘ransformation and thus to y= y, whence B= I. The argment for is similar, and so wearriveat the two" ivi members othe transformation, yen fay 66 {ns sin the Newtonian case, and forthe same reasons, Next, suppost x= y+ Fy G2 + HE + J, where for traditional reasons wedenote the fist eoeficient by By ou assumption Gv) x = et must imply 50,90 yo HF, 6, all vats and mie, on ‘An xy reversal then yields aye +40) . 6 [A his stage Newton's aziom 1’ =« would lead from (6) and (68) toy = 1 and x’ = x~ of Instead, we now (and only now) appeal to Easti’s lw ‘of light propagation. According to it, x = et and x =e’ are valid simul taneously, being descriptions ofthe same light signal in Sand 8. Substituting ‘these expresions into (67) and (68) we get the equations e' = (e— ») and etm ye +), whose product, divided By tilde r= H0= 69) 11054 ‘THE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY Since »~+ O must eed to” = x continuously, we se fom (6.7) that we must choosethe postive root in (69). This particular function of vis the famous “Lorenz factor’, which plays an important roe in the theory ‘The elimination of x’ between (6.7) and (68) finaly leads to t= ye wie, ‘Thus, collecting our resulis, we have found the standard Lorentz transforma: tion equations" vant with yas given by (69). ‘Our defivation shows these to be the unique transformation equations conneéting two inertial frames in standard configuration ifthe standard ‘configuration is achievable and fall our other assumptions are compatible, Which are not foregone conclusions. As we have seen (on. 11), there can be at most one inertial fame moving relative toa given inertial frame Sin the x-direction with velocity v, as does the frame S' determined by (6.10) ‘But we must show that Sis indeed inertial. According to (6.10) its defining particles x, y42" = constat all move uniformly through Sand are thus free, at is requte of an inertial frame. Aso, by the linearity of (6.10, Newton's first law in § goes over into 8. 1¢ only remeins to be verified that Sis Euclidean and that the x’ y,2° defined by (610) are orthonormal Car- tesian (Eudidean’) coordinates in S Both properties will follow ifthe squared distance between neighbouring defining particles in S's given by dv" + dy? + de", Now, Einstein's lw of light propagation allows us (0 ‘define distance as c times light-ravel time dt. Accordingly, the Eucidicity ‘ofS je equivalent to the validity ofthe equation aetedy? av? art in ‘along any light signal. But one can easly verify that equations (6:10) imply the very fundamental identity 2a? = dx? = dy? = de cd — dx? — dy? — de, 612) ‘And thus a light signal, since it satisfies the equation analogous to (611) in S, wil satisfy (611) in SY. This completes the proof that Sis indeed inertial with x2" a8 Euclidean coordinates. ‘Asa by-product ofthis argument we have now established that any frame {in uniform teanslatory motion relative to an inertial frame is itself inertial Importantly, (6.12) also establishes the full consisteney of Einstein's law of light propagation, namely that light can travel at constant speed c in oe), xm, yey en (610) "soca ease ey nr cially eed by Loreta(sthetrsomaton hat formal eves Maxwells egntioe fara ‘THE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 15 all direeons in all inertial frames. (In ovr deriv transformation we used ths axiom only for one special signal) ‘One last thing that still needs checking isthe fll validity of our assumed aye (or x=) reversal symmetry. Applied to the transformation (6.10), either reversal yields the inverse transformation awe bei, xane te), yey Fee, G1) which can also be obtained from (6.10) by direct algebra, thus validating these ‘ymmetrcs. And, in particular, the velocity of $ relative 0 Sis indeed —. "The advantage of the above reversal syrameries in the derivation of the Lorentz transformation is that they do not involve » when one bas no @ prion knowledge of the velocity dependence of the coefficients. But in future ive shal find another symmetry more useful: Any relativistic transformation formula relating unprimed and primed quantities (om S and respectively) remains valid when oi eplaced by — and primed and unprimed quantities fre interchanged, We cll this» reversal The reason for is validity is that the contemplated transformation must apply to any pair of inertial frames in standard configuration and for any » between —e and cso if we simply revit it with S'as the fis’ and S as the "second? frame, the vreversed transformation results. Not that this proces, 00, transforms (610) into (613) ‘We shall here also mention the trivial but sometimes usful middle-rame Jemma: Given two inertial fares Sand S, thee exists a third inertial frame "relative to which S and S’ have opposite velocities ofthe same magnitude. ‘We ean picture tin the middle’ between $ and S. Is existence is at once evident from continuity if we put § and S' in standard configuration and consider the entire set of inertial frames in standard configuration with S. "To end ths section, we note that if law of physics is invariant under 3 standard Lorentz transformation and under spatial rotations, spatial rans- Tations, and time translations the i s invariant between any two inert coordinate systems and so satisfies the relativity principe. For itis easil ‘Seen that the general transformation between two inertial frames, whose Coordinates are standard but whose configuration is not, consists of the following: @) & space rotation and translation (to make the x-axis of § coincide with te line of motion ofthe Sergi); atime tansation (to ‘make the origins coincide at r= 0) (i) a standard Lorentz transformation; ‘and, finally, Gv) another rotation and time translation to arrive at the ‘ootdinates of 8; The resultant transformation is called a general Lorentz transformation, or 8 Polaré transformation. Since each linkin this chain Of transformations i linear, 30 ie the reultant transformation. Poincaré transformations also evidently satisfy (6.12), since standard Lorentz trans formations do, as do spatial rotations (which eave de® + dy! + d:*invar- fan) and spatial and temporal translations (which leave all the difereatials tinchanged). In fac, Poincaré transformations are precisely those tht satisly of the Lorentz6 {WE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY the identity (6.12) and contin no space or time refestons 1. Properties of the Lorentz transformation () Relay o maton: The most striking new feature of the Lorentz teansformaton is the tasformation of time, which exhibits the relativity of| simultanety: erent with equal r do not necrsarly correspond to events with equal (Fora view of clocks from another frame, ee Fig. 7p. 28) (i) Symmenry in x and ce: Equations (6.10) are symmetric not only in y tnd 2 but als in x and ck. [The reader can verify this by writing Te or ¢ fand Te fr in (610) and mtiplyng the fist equation by e] Ta what follows we shall often nd ct & more convenient variable than (Gi) Nesetonian limi” The Lorent transformation replaces the older Galilean transformation, to wich it nevertheless approximates whoa sf i small. Tis accounts forthe high accuracy of Newtonian mechanics invariant under the Galilean tansformation—in describing a large domain ‘of nature. Note also that the wo transformation become identical i we let ¢ formally tend to infinity. (iv) Lovet factor: For v0 the Lorene factor y is always greater than ity, though aot much 1 when sis small For example as lng a fe 1/7 {it which speed the earth ix circled in one second 7 i less than LI; when Hie= /3/2-= 0866, 7 = % and. when t/e = 099.-.995 (2n sins), 7 i “approximately 1", Te following are useful dents aiid by the Lorentz factor wedi, tdy=yeds, dim=rde OD “The profs ar left as an exercise to the reader, {\) Only one incariat sped: any effect whose speed in vacuum i always ‘he sme could have ben ed to derive the Lorene transformation, s ight, ‘vas used in our derivation. Since only one transformation can be vali, it follows that ll such eects (weak gravitational wavs, ESP?) must propagate at the sped of igh (01) Diference ed dferental versions: Since the Standard Lorentz trans formations inear and homogeneous, the coordinate diferences A = t,t, se, between two events (yy Yu 42) and (C33. Ya.t) a8 well a8 the ‘ierenls, sais the same transformation equations as the coordinates themeabves Af = ye whale), Ax'= {x nB), Ay ay, Oa" As. (72) Ar =y(€e~ odsie), dx’ = yx 0d), ay’ =dy, de’ =dz. 3) ‘romeo aly he sonton eats em beads Ear TUT, THE FOUNDATIONS OF sreciAt. RELATIVITY 0 (i) Squared inerva: It follows fom (vi) that together with (6.12) we rust aso have a1? — ax — ay" ava cae 4 At aya 074 and see-eipie a, Under a standard Lorente transformation, while by the remarks a the end of Seton 6 equation (7.4 holds also under a Poincar transformation. The common vaiue ofthe two quadratic forms in (7.4) i defined asthe squared Imercol As between the two events fa question: Aste ae — ax? — ay? — ast 09, 1 an evidently be positive, negative, or zero [for events on light signal, (610), (i) Group properties: The standard Lorene transformation has wait cterminant, as can easily be yeried, and it possesses the two so-called {OUP properties, symmetry and tranity, as one would of eoure expect fiom its physical significance. Fist, we have already noted that ret algebraic solution of (610) yes the inverse transformation in he expected form (613). This shows that the inverse of Lorentz tranMormation 1s ‘another Lorentz transformation Csymaetey’, with parameter ~vistend of 8 (Ofcourse, (613) also olds in differential and dvfortn} Net it found ‘thatthe resultant of two Lorentz transformations with parameters and 5p respectively, is another Lorentz wansformation (transitivity) with Parameter = (o,+ua\/U + oye’) [The diet vrication of this is & lide tedious; a more traspazeat proofs ndieted in Exercie113).} Ths ‘he standard Lorentz transformations constitute a group. The same Is then evidently true of the Poincaré transforinations, as can be seen by ‘examining their consttvents—rotatons, trandations, and standard Lorentz transformations. (x) Relatistic peed lint: When o = e,7 becomes infin, ang » > c leads {o imaginary values of. This shows thatthe relative velocity of to inertial frames mast be less than the sped of light, sine Bite rel coordinates in ‘one fame must corespond to ate real coordinates in any other frame Indeed, we can show thatthe sped of particles, and more generally, fall Physica ‘signals is Timed by cf we lsat on the invariance of cate For consider any signal or proces whereby an event ? causes an event 2 (or whereby information is sent fom 9 to 2) at “superluminal” speed >> relative to some frame 8. Choose coordinates in S 20 that these vents both our on the eas and It ther time and distance separations ‘be di >0 and dx> 0. Then in the usval second ‘tame S' Me have,20 ‘THE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY Fes pdt: do x ad 9 vder otto sin th Canin ‘Stone Thar apes of he Lvs sorta can be we rtd tape dpa ie or eer Fp a wih Bone ne mst pec ips te tro tv enrdaty and Sock s Sagem feet ces on th spin ars oS Ute sh Grom a ial Chosn ohne rand he and eaters rr tone, Sette comenton wou ha sins Momet i hve th eniminn cont and eomepond fo Seon fey, whe te Non (or woe) ach fed gt on the op ans of 5 Conon oa veric az~cot Maren ve etn (eran aia i) ow Sap a Fig. thy oespond ies ni dope para tes-a(= Coon ot opin wre oe pot on the tl fave uo £~ cenan ad ty (10 =o coat In ot Aig hy ae Hes ioe ee oh arc pas, fis (220) spine fo" Tse ro sb etl fogs i cure in St wheres rons hae ses Inve th same vin Lente tantra ty ae pps ses or cling te prined ue ye ro i hyptle = by (3) ty se win ee nv hey tale he "leant at ie ort tans fm th th Theta en be teed slog ie as by Inca. The ag ob how trend of thecoordits 8) lagen srt rate Se mma po song nes Otcontant or fom te eet oh Scene dams Ie Fig 4 ae mies a ced) Mbt sigan hy sa fe xem fl and tng itn peo rev pesont Baton shoud beste ting tote ta fr THE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY a ‘verything, for their uty slimited, Analytic or algebraic arguments are ‘gznerally much more power As a simple example of the tne of uch ingrams, considera superiuminal signal along the x-axis of In Fig his 's shown asa doted line Since the and taxes may subtend any ange between 0® and 180" with ach other, there ia frame Sin which the sigal as infiite velocity (Lei coincides with the ans in the diagram), ad ‘thes in which it moves in the opposite spatial direction, ie. fom receiver {o emitter. Alternatively it can be regarded inthis later ase as tenveting With unchanged spatial sense into the pas Exereses 1 Unles otherwise indicated, two inertial frames § and $° will always be lndersiood to be in standard configuration. Hin: In working a special ‘elativty problem, expecially for he fret ough time, one ean often ont the x .eonecan workin unitsinwhiche = 1. The ef desea can be inserted later either throughout the work, or rely in the answer by dimensional arguments, For example, if one established (71) without the cht would be ‘uite obvious where to put them, since by use of es alone the dimensions ‘ust be made to balance 4, Establish all the properties of the Lorentz factor sted in) of Seton 7. Ao draw a reasonably acurate graph of y again for wbetween +e 2 Establish the group properties ofthe Lorenz and Poincar transforma: tions a8 stated in (i) of Section 7 3, Prove that the temporal order of two events sth same in all neta {eames if and only if they can be joined in one inertial fame by signal {ravellng ator below the speed of ight. Mustrate Chis esl on spacetime diagram, 4 Iftwo events our a the same pointin some inertial rame S, prove that thei temporal order isthe sme inal inertial ames, and tat the est time Separation is assigned to them in S 5 two events cccur atthe same time in some inert fame S, prove {at there is no limit onthe time separations assigned to thet events in ‘other frames, but that theie space Separation varies from infinity to 2 ‘minimum whichis measured in. 6. Inthe inerial frame S the standard lattice clocks all emit aah! at ‘noon, Prove that in S this flash occurs on a plane orthogonal tothe sas and traveling inthe postive x-direction at speed 4, Prove that a ny instant thee just one plane in on which the clocks ofS agree with the clocks ofS’, and tht this plane moves with veloity (cif0(t — 1/7). How s this plane elated tothe frame Sof the middle trae? lemma .2 {THE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 18) $a straight rod parallel to the x-axis moves inthe y-directdn with cofitantuelocty u Show that in § the fod is inclined to the xaxis at an Gage tan" "uufe), (This eff i to be expected qualitatively, since we ‘can regard the j-ooordinates of the various points of the rod 8 clocks ‘ychronized in S;and synchronous clocks in one fame are not synchronous in another frame) 9. Tt was pointed out by M. v, Laue that a eyinder rotating uniformly about the x-axis of ' will seem twisted when observed instantaneously in where not ony rotates but also travels forward. Ifthe angular speed of the elinde in Sis, prove tha in Sthe twist per unit length is pau? (As in the preceding problem, the ects o be expected, since we can regard the ‘plinder as composed of a stack ofcccular discs, each dsc by its rt seeving asa clock, with arbitrary parallel radii designated as ‘hands’ in S') 1 Two photons travel along the x-axis ofS, with a constant distance Z ‘eetween them. Prove that in S' the distance between these photons is He + 9)7I(6— 9)", {Prove that the first two equations ofthe Lorentz transformation (6.10) can be writen inthe “hyperbolic form xooshd—etsinh g, et’ = —xsinh } ct cosh, where tanh ¢ oe. (Recall the relations cosh = cos i isinh # = sini, Ivhereby any trigonometric identity can be converted into an identity inthe Fyperbolic functions) Note that formally ths is a ‘rotation’ in x and iet ‘through an angle ig; as such it preserves 22 + (ict? 12, rove the following additional relations between the hyperbole param cer (Gornetimes also called the rapidity) defined in Exercise 1 above and copay, sinh = [Regal that cosh + sinh $= exp(+6)31 1 In the notation of Exercise 1, derive the following useful form ofthe Lorentz transformation; atte ee tats), af—x =eer~2) ‘Use this to verify the group properties ofthe Lorentz transformation. “4, One can define alternative coordinates € = ct +x, n= ct ~ x, whose ‘axes ate the £45" lines indicated in Fig. 4 Prove that under a Lorente transformation the directions of these axes do not change; how do their calibrations change? 15, Ina frame Sa sighty slanting guillotine blade in the (xy) plane falls in the ediretion past a block level with the x-axis, in such a way thatthe fiterseton point of blade and Block travels ata uniform speed in excess of THE FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY 2B «in the positive x-direction. In some frame S', in standard configuration ‘wth his intersection point travels in the opposite direction along the block (Gh Fig. 4) Now suppose i S the blade evaporates instantaneously when it passes the origin, 0 that a piece of paper on the Block i et onthe negative ‘axis onl. Explain this in S. 16, Ifthe universe were filled with a very rarefied transparent fd in which light propagated at speed c'

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