Sexual Reproduction in Flowering

Plants
Structure of a Flower
Male Reproductive Organs
 Male Reproductive Organs
Stamen anther and filament
Anther four pollen sacs which produce
pollen
Filament vascular bundle supplying food and
water to anther.
The Anther
 The Anther
The anther is a bilobed tetragonal
structure.

The lobes each contain two

chambers called microsporangia
or pollen sacs.
 Each microsporangium is surrounded by 4 wall layers. 1. a single
celled layer, the epidermis, beneath which lie 2. the endothecium,
3. middle layers and 4. tapetum. Layers 1-3 offer protection while
the tapetum nourishes the PMCs pollen mother cells.
Microsporangia
The Anther
 Inside the pollen sac is sporogenous tissue (large cells with
abundant cytoplasm and prominent nuclei) which undergo mitotic
divisions to form microspore mother cells or microsporocytes
(PMCs).
The microsporocytes are diploid and undergo meiosis to form 4
microspores or pollen grains microsporogenesis.
 Microsporogenesis
Each of the 4 pollen sacs contain spore mother cells or PMCs.
Each PMC undergoes meiosis to form 4 pollen grains (tetrads).
A thick wall develops around each grain; the outer wall, exine, is
made of sporopollenin. It is very resistant to varying temperatures,
strong acid and alkali and allows grain coats to survive over a long
period of time (millions of years). No known enzyme to digest it.
The thin inner wall is called the intine.
The nucleus in the pollen grain divides by mitosis to form two
nuclei a generative nucleus and a pollen tube nucleus. The
generative nucleus will divide again to produce the male gametes.
 A Mature 2 celled Pollen Grain

Generative nucleus
Pollen Grains
 The pollen grain
Male gametophyte. Consists of male gametes and a
pollen tube nucleus.
Spherical, 25 50 m in diameter.
Vary in size and pattern on the exine.
Exine, made of fatty sporopollenin, contains gaps
known as germ pores. In some grains - germ furrows.
Function?
Intine consists of cellulose and pectin. Beneath is a
plasma membrane.
The cytoplasm is rich in starch and unsaturated oils.
Just before dispersal, when the grain is mature it
consists of two cells a generative cell and a vegetative
cell. Functions? In some grains 3 cells may be present.
Maturation of pollen grain
Pollen Grain
 When the pollen grains are mature the anther
dries out and splits along the lines of
dehiscence and pollen grains are released.

A mature anther showing dehiscence (release of pollen).

 Dehiscence
Dehiscence occurs at the stomium.
Stomium cells degenerate. In addition, the
walls of the endothecial cells are uneven due
to lignification. As these cells lose water, the
thinner walls stretch causing a tension which
results in the anther splitting along its line of
weakness and releasing the pollen grains.
Anther Dehiscence
 Viability of Pollen Grains
Pollen grains retain the ability to germinate for
different lengths of time after dehiscence.
In some plants, a few hours after release. In
others, months. In rice 30 mins.
Pollen can be stored in liquid nitrogen (-
196oC) for later use.
Female Reproductive Organ
 Pistil / Carpel
Stigma receives pollen during pollination
Style bears up the stigma in a suitable position
to receive pollen during pollination. Pollen tube
grows down style.
Ovary swollen, hollow base of carpel containing
one or more ovules
Ovules attached to ovary wall by funicle which
allows transport of food and water to ovule. Point
of attachment is placenta. Embryo sacs develop
here. After fertilization they become seeds.
 Structure of ovule
The outer layer - made of two sheaths or
integuments.
Within these - main body of the ovule, the
nucellus.
Small pore, micropyle, at one end.
At other end where funicle joins to nucellus
and integuments chalaza.
 Development of embryo sac and
female gamete
Within the nucellus near the micropyle a 2n spore mother cell divides
meiotically to give rise to a 1n megaspore or embryo sac. (3 nuclei
degenerate)
The nucleus of the embryo sac divides mitotically 3x until 8 nuclei are
produced. One of these is the female gamete.
Two polar nuclei migrate to center of sac and fuse to become diploid.
3 nuclei orient at each end of the sac: Three antipodal cells at one end;
two synergids and the egg / the female gamete at the other end.
synergid
 Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower
of the same species.
Self pollination from anther to stigma of the same flower or flower
on the same plant.
Cross pollination from anther to stigma of different flower of same
species.
Advantages and disadvantages? We will take a deeper look at this
later.
Under what conditions would self pollination be possible? Cross
pollination? What would occur in Dioeious plants? What is
dichogamy? Self-incompatibility?
Wind pollination and insect pollination do on your own. What are
the features of wind and insect pollinated plants?
Cross Pollination
Self Pollination
 Fertilization
When pollen lands on the stigma, a sucrose solution is secreted
which stimulates germination of the pollen grain. Germination
requires certain chemical signals and so compatibility determines
whether the grain germinates or not.
A pollen tube emerges from a pore/furrow and grows down style
to ovary.
The tube nucleus controls this growth.
Growth is chemotropic i.e. directed to ovary by chemicals secreted
by synergids in embryo sac e.g. auxins. Direction of growth may
be due to negative aerotropism.
 As pollen tube grows the generative nucleus divides mitotically
into two male gametes.
Pollen tube eventually reaches ovary and enters ovule via
micropyle.
Tube nucleus degenerates and tube tip bursts to release male
gametes in vicinity of embryo sac.
Male nuclei enter embryo sac and one fuses with the polar nuclei
to form a triploid nucleus which will later develop into endosperm
tissue while the other fuses with the female gamete to form a
diploid gamete. this process is known as double fertilization.
If more than one ovule is present then each is fertilized by a
different pollen grain.
 Development of Seed and Fruit
The fertilised female gamete develops into the
seed while the rest of the ovary becomes the
fruit.
The zygote, fertilized egg, divides mitotically
to form two cells; a terminal and basal cell.
The basal cell divides to form a suspensor
which connects with maternal tissue providing
a route for nutrition from mother plant to
embryo. The terminal cell divides to give rise
to the embryo.
 The embryo consists of a radicle and plumule as well as 1 or 2
cotyledons (leaf like structures).
Radicle grows into root upon germination of seed.
Plumule grows into shoot. Consists of a stem, pair of foliage
leaves, terminal bud.
Cotyledons swollen with food to act as storage tissue.
Hypocotyl connects cotyledons with radicle. May take place of
cotyledons in acting as food store in a few species.
 The triploid primary endosperm divides mitotically to form
endosperm. It becomes rich in carbs, proteins, fats and growth
hormones. It may or may not remain as a food store in the seed.

In some seeds, the cotyledons develop at the expense of the

endosperm which disappears. The embryo may feed off the
endosperm during later development of the seed resulting in the
disappearance of the endosperm. In others, the endosperm is still
present at seed maturation.

Some seeds may store both endosperm and cotyledons.

Longitudinal sections through ripe seeds of:- (A) Paulownia tomentosa showing
conspicuous endosperm. (B) Tectona grandis. Endosperm has disappeared and
cotyledons occupy almost the entire seed cavity.
 The nucellus disintegrates and supplies nutrients for the growing
embryo. In some species it may persist as a thin layer called the
perisperm.
Further nutrients are provided by the vascular bundle in the
funicle.
The micropyle of the ovule remains and later is the site where
water enters the seed during germination.
In the final stages of development, the seed reduces its water
content from 90% to 10-15%. This reduces metabolic activity and
leads to seed dormancy.
 The integuments around the ovule develop into the testa or seed
coat which protects the seed from mechanical injury, drying out,
attacks from fungi and bacteria. Beneath the seed coat may lie the
tegmen.
Meanwhile the ovary becomes a fruit. Its wall is the pericarp.
In some flowers the swollen receptacle may be part of the fruit. It
becomes enlarged and fleshy while the pericarp of the ovary forms
the core e.g. apples and pears.
The remainder of the flower withers and dies.