CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Define psychology, and state how the definition has changed over time.
- Psychology--the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
- Philosophers have tried to explain many psychological processes, such as
consciousness, perception, and motivation. The great philosophers also laid the
groundwork for another issue that would become central to psychologythe nature-
nurture issue. That is, which is more important: the inborn nature of the individual or
the impact of environmental influences that nurture the individual. Today, psychology
use the terms heredity vs. environment.
- Key differencephilosophers relied heavily on logical reasoning and intuition; modern
psychologists base their conclusion on the systematic gathering of evidence to test and
support ideas.
What are the major schools of thought?
- Structuralism, Functionalism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic Psychology.
Describe the major schools of thought and perspectives in psychology
(biological, behaviorism, psychoanalysis, humanistic, cognitive).
- Behaviorism-- Emphasizes the study of overt behavior--observable behaviors that could
be objectively measured and verified. Goal was to discover the fundamental principles
of learning--how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental
influences
- Psychoanalysis-- Believed that human behavior was motivated by unconscious conflicts
that were almost always sexual or aggressive in nature. Past experiences, especially
childhood experiences, were thought to be critical in the formation of adult personality
and behavior. Past experiences, especially childhood experiences, were thought to be
critical in the formation of adult personality and behavior. Glimpses of these
unconscious impulses are revealed in everyday life in dreams, memory blocks, slips of
the tongue, and spontaneous humor. Believed that when unconscious conflicts became
extreme, psychological disorders could result
- Structuralism (Edward B. Titchener) -- Emphasized studying the most basic
components, or structures, of conscious experiences. Introspection--reconstructing
one's sensation and feelings immediately after viewing a stimulus
- Functionalism (William James) -- Stressed the importance of how behavior functions to
allow people and animals to adapt to their environments. Examined how psychology
could be applied to education, child rearing, and the work environment. Research
includes direct observation of living creatures in natural settings.
- Humanistic Psychology-- Emphasized the importance of self-determination, free will,
and choice
conscious experiences, including each person's unique potential for psychological
growth and self-direction. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
- Major Perspective: Biological-- emphasizes studying the physical bases of human and
animal behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system,
and genetics
- Major Perspective: Behavioral-- focus on observable behaviors and the fundamental
laws of learning. Study how behavior is acquired or modified by environmental
consequences
- Major Perspective: Cognitive-- focuses on the important role of mental processes in how
people process information, develop language, solve problem and think
- Major Perspective: Cross-cultural-- how cultural factors influence patterns of behavior.
Studying the diversity of human behavior in different cultural settings and countries.
- Major Perspective: Evolutionary-- refers to the application of the principles of evolution
to explain psychological processes and phenomena. Proposes that individual compete
for survival. Because of inherited differences, some are better adapted to their
environment than others
 - Major Perspective: Psychodynamic-- emphasizes the importance of unconscious
influences, early life experiences, and interpersonal relationships in explaining the
underlying dynamics of behavior or in treating people with psychological problems
- Major Perspective: Humanistic-- focuses on the motivation of people to grow
psychologically, the influence of interpersonal relationships on a person's self-concept,
and the importance of choice and self-direction in striving to reach one's potential
Explain the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist.
- Psychology: Research in psyc, Teaching, Practice, Counseling, Testing
- Psychiatry: Practice, Medication, Hospitalization, Counseling
Define and describe the scientific method, including the four steps.
1. Formulate a hypothesis that can be tested empirically
2. Design the study and collect the data
3. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
4. Report the results
Describe naturalistic observation, and state its advantages and limitations.
- When psychologists systematically observe and record behaviors as they occur in their
natural settings. Examples: how do gorillas mate? How do people in elevators behave?
- Advantage-allow researchers to study human behaviors that could not ethically be
manipulated in an experiment
- Limits-cannot be generalized
Explain how case studies are used, and specify the benefits and limits of case
study research.
- A case study is an intensive, in-depth investigation of an individual. Researcher report
of analyze the behavior, emotions, beliefs or life history of a single individual in more
depth. Sometimes a case study is the only option available for one reason or another. It
is impossible for a psychologist to conduct an experiment or observe a correlation in
order to gather data. It would not be ethically proper, for example, to remove part of
healthy individual's brain just to see what would happen afterward.
Explain the use of surveys, and list their advantages and disadvantages.
- Survey--a questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics of a particular group. Use surveys for personality, intelligence, attitudes
or aptitudes. Example of survey: US Census.
- Advantages: Allows researchers to reach a much larger group of people, Allows for the
rapid collection of info
- Disadvantages: Survey participants may be drawn from only one limited source; also
may be self-selected, People do not always answer honestly
Define representative sample, and explain its importance in a survey.
- A representative sample is a small quantity of something that accurately reflects the
larger entity. An example is when a small number of people accurately reflect the
members of an entire population.
- Important because a representative sample allows the collected results to be
generalized to a larger population.
Correlational researchdefinition
- Correlational study-examines how strongly two variables are related to each other (the
relationship between the variables). The number in a correlation coefficient indicates
the strength of the relationship. The sign indicates the direction of the relationship
between the two variables
Correlation research: Correlation coefficientdefinition
- Correlation coefficient-a numerical indicator of how strongly related two factors seem
to be. Its range from -1.00 to +1.00
Correlation research--the difference between positive and negative correlations
- Positive correlation--one in which the two factors vary in the same direction. The two
factors increase or decrease together.
- Negative correlation--One in which the two variables move in opposite directions: as
one factor increases, the other factor decreases.
 Correlational researchlimitations
- Limitations: Even if two factors are very strongly correlated, correlation does not
necessarily indicate causality. It cannot demonstrate a true cause-and-effect
relationship
Experimental methoddefinition
- The experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships.
In the experimental method, researchers identify and define key variables, formulate a
hypothesis, manipulate the variables and collect data on the results
- Process: Hypothesis, Design the Study, Collect and Analyze Data, Report Findings
Experimental method--basic terms and concepts
- Basic Terms and Concepts:
- Independent Variable (IV)- that which the experimenter manipulates
- Dependent Variable (DV)- that which the experimenter observes / measures
- Control Group - the group that is exposed to all conditions of the experiment, except for
the IV.
- Experimental Group - the group that is exposed to all conditions of the experiment,
including the IV.
- A random sample is a subset of a larger population in which every member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected
- With random assignment, all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to
either group.
- Selection bias is the selection of individuals, groups or data for analysis in such a way
that proper randomization is not achieved
Experimental method--advantages and disadvantages
- Generalization: The artificial conditions of some experiments may produce results that
do not generalize well or apply to real situations or populations beyond the participants
in the study.
- Ethics: While it may be possible to create the conditions that the researchers want to
study, it would be unethical to do so. If participants would be harmed by being exposed
to a variable or experimental condition, the experiment could not ethically be
conducted
Explain the placebo effect and how researchers control for it.
- Placebo control group--subjects are exposed to a fake IV. This is important to check for
expectancy effects, which are changes that may occur simply because subjects expect
change to occur.
- Double-blind study--one in which neither the participants nor the researcher who
interacts with the participants is aware of the experimental condition to which the
participants have been assigned. The purpose is to guard against the possibility that
the researcher will inadvertently display demand characteristics, which are subtle cues
or signals that communicate what is expected of certain subjects.
- Single-blind study--one in which the researchers, but not the subjects, are aware of
critical information
Describe the major provisions of the APAs code of ethics for research with
human and animal subjects.
1. In reasonably understandable language, the psychologist must inform the participants
of the nature of the research, including significant factors that might influence a
person's willingness to participate in the study, such as physical risks, discomfort, or
unpleasant emotional experiences. The psychologist must also explain to the
participants that they are free to decline to participate or to w/draw from the research
at any time.
2. When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit,
the student must be given the choice of an alternative activity to fulfill the course
requirement or earn extra credit.
 3. Psychologists can use deceptive techniques only if two conditions have been met: it is
not feasible to use alternatives that do not involve deception and the potential findings
justify the use of deception because of their scientific, educational, or applied value.
4. Psychologists may not publicly disclose personally identifiable information about
research participants.
5. All participants must be provided w/ the opportunity to obtain information about the
nature, results, and conclusions of the research. Psychologists are also obligated to
debrief the participants, and to correct any misconceptions that participants may have
had about the research.
Identify the THREE main imaging techniques used to study the brain, and
discuss their different uses.
- PET scan (positron emission tomography) -- scans create pictures of the living, active
brain (Figure). An individual receiving a PET scan drinks or is injected with a mildly
radioactive substance, called a tracer. Once in the bloodstream, the amount of tracer in
any given region of the brain can be monitored. As brain areas become more active,
more blood flows to that area. A computer monitors the movement of the tracer and
creates a rough map of active and inactive areas of the brain during a given behavior.
PET scans show little detail, are unable to pinpoint events precisely in time, and require
that the brain be exposed to radiation; therefore, this technique has been replaced by
the fMRI as an alternative diagnostic tool. However, combined with CT, PET technology
is still being used in certain contexts. For example, CT/PET scans allow better imaging
of the activity of neurotransmitter receptors and open new avenues in schizophrenia
research. In this hybrid CT/PET technology, CT contributes clear images of brain
structures, while PET shows the brains activity.
- CT scan (computed tomography) -- involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular
section of a persons body or brain (Figure). The x-rays pass through tissues of different
densities at different rates, allowing a computer to construct an overall image of the
area of the body being scanned. A CT scan is often used to determine whether
someone has a tumor, or significant brain atrophy.
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)--a person is placed inside a machine that generates
a strong magnetic field. The magnetic field causes the hydrogen atoms in the bodys
cells to move. When the magnetic field is turned off, the hydrogen atoms emit
electromagnetic signals as they return to their original positions. Tissues of different
densities give off different signals, which a computer interprets and displays on a
monitor.
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)--operates on the same principles, but it
shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels.
The fMRI provides more detailed images of the brains structure, as well as better
accuracy in time, than is possible in PET scans (Figure). With their high level of detail,
MRI and fMRI are often used to compare the brains of healthy individuals to the brains
of individuals diagnosed with psychological disorders. This comparison helps determine
what structural and functional differences exist between these populations.

CHAPTER 2: THE BIOLOGY OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR

Define neuron.
- Neurons-highly specialized cells that receive and send info in electrical and chemical
form
Identify the basic components of the neuron
- Cell body (soma) - contains the nucleus, which provides energy for the neuron to carry
out its functions
- Dendrites (branches) - receives information from other neurons or sensory receptor
cells
- glial cell - nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons,
including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport
- Axon major extension from the soma, which ends at multiple terminal buttons
 - The terminal buttons contain: synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters the
chemical messengers of the nervous system.
- Receptors - proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape,
with different shapes matching different neurotransmitters.
- Myelin Sheath - fatty substance that insulates axon, increases the neurons'
communication speed which surrounds the axons
Explain the processes that take place within the neuron when it is activated.
- When sufficiently stimulated by other neurons or sensory receptorsthat is, when the
neuron reaches its stimulus thresholdthe axon depolarizes, beginning the action
potential.
Define action potential, synapse, and neurotransmitter.
- Action potential-a brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the
neuron's axon
- Synapse-the point of communication between two neurons
- Neurotransmitters - a special chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron that
communicate info to other neurons and to the muscles, into the synaptic gap
- Other definitions:
- resting potential - the state of readiness of a neuron membranes potential between
signals
- reuptake - neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it
Explain how neurotransmitters affect behavior, and identify the major
neurotransmitters.
- Acetylcholine - Acetylcholine stimulates muscles to contract and is important in
memory, learning, and general intellectual functioning. Levels of acetylcholine are
severely reduced in people with Alzheimer's disease.
- Dopamine - Dopamine is involved in movement, attention, learning, and pleasurable or
rewarding sensations. Degeneration of neurons that produce dopamine in one brain
area causes Parkinson's disease. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease can be alleviated by
a drug called L-dopa, which converts to dopamine in the brain. Excessive brain levels of
dopamine are sometimes involved in the hallucinations and perceptual distortions that
characterize schizophrenia. Some antipsychotic drugs work by blocking dopamine
receptors and reducing dopamine activity in the brain.
- Serotonin - Serotonin is involved in sleep, moods, and emotional states, including
depression. Antidepressant drugs such as Prozac increase the availability of serotonin
in certain brain regions.
- Norepinephrine - Norepinephrine activates neurons throughout the brain, assists in the
body's response to danger or threat, and is involved in learning and memory retrieval.
Norepinephrine dysfunction is also involved in some mental disorders, especially
depression.
- GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) - GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) usually
communicates an inhibitory message to other neurons, reducing brain activity.
Antianxiety medications work by increasing GABA activity.
- Endorphins - Endorphins Regulating the Perception of Pain. Endorphins are chemicals
released by the brain in response to stress or trauma.
Explain the difference between the central and the peripheral nervous systems.
- The nervous system is the complex, organized communication network of nerves. It is
divided into the CNS (central nervous system) and PNS (peripheral nervous system).
Nerves are large bundles of neuron axons, located in the PNS.
- The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord. It is so critical to your ability to function
that it is entirely protected by bone--the brain by your skull, and the spinal cord by your
spinal column. As an added measure of protection, the brain and spinal cord are
suspended in cerebrospinal fluid to protect them from being jarred.
- CNS = central to all your behaviors and mental processes
Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
 - Somatic nervous system- Controls voluntary muscles and transmits sensory info to the
CNS.
- Autonomic nervous system- Controls involuntary body functions such as heart beat,
blood pressure, and breathing.
Explain the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the
autonomic nervous system.
- Sympathetic- arouses body to expand energy; fight or flight response.
- Parasympathetic- calms body to conserve and maintain energy.
What are the functions associated with the various endocrine glands?
- Made up of glands located throughout the body. Involves the use of chemical
messengers to transmit info from one part of the body to another. Endocrine glands
communicate info from one part of the body to another by secreting messenger
chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream.
Define structural plasticity and functional plasticity.
- Structural--The brain's ability to shift functions from one part of the brain to another
(from a damaged to an undamaged area)
- Functional--The brain's ability to change its physical structure in response to learning,
active practice, or environmental influences.
Identify the structures of the brain stem, and describe their functions.
- Hindbrain: connects the spinal cord with the rest of the brain and contains several
structures that regulate basic life functions
- Midbrain: involved in processing visual and auditory information
Name the parts of the Hindbrain.
- Medulla - controls vital life functions such as breathing heartbeat, and circulation
- Pons - connects the medulla to the two sides of the cerebellum; it helps coordinate and
integrate movements on each side of the body
- Cerebellum - coordinates movement, balance, and posture
- Reticular formation - processes sensory info and helps regulate the level of attention,
arousal, and sleep
Name the part of the Midbrain
- Substantia nigra - involved in motor control and contains a large concentration of
dopamine-producing neurons
Describe the structures and functions of the limbic system.
- A group of important forebrain structures that form a border around the brain stem and
form complex neural circuits that play critical roles in learning, memory, and emotional
control
What are the functions of the Thalamus
- Processes and integrates info from all the senses except smell, and relays info to higher
brain centers. Regulates levels of awareness, attention, motivation, and emotional
aspects of sensation.
List the processes regulated by the hypothalamus
- Regulates behaviors of survival, such as eating, drinking and fear.
What are the functions of the Hippocampus
- Involved in learning new memories.
What are the functions of the Amygdala
- Involved in emotional expression, aggressive behavior, and processing emotional
memories.
Describe the components of the cerebrum and their function, especially right
and left hemispheres.
- Cerebrum
- corpus callosum
- cerebral hemispheres
- cerebral cortex
CHAPTER 3: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
 What are the parts and functions of a neuron?
- Cell Body (contains nucleus)
- Dendrites (Projections from the cell body that carry messages TO the cell body)
- Axons (One large projection that carry messages AWAY from the cell body)
What are the parts of the ear and function?
- Pinna (Outer Ear)--Outer fleshy part, gathers sound waves.
- Ear Canal (Outer Ear)--Canal that funnels sound to the eardrum.
- Eardrum (Outer Ear)--Membrane vibrated by compressions and rarefactions.
- Eustachian Tube (Middle Ear)--Regulates pressure on the eardrum in the middle ear.
- Hammer (Middle Ear)--Tiny hammer-shaped bone that is vibrated by the eardrum.
- Anvil (Middle Ear)--Tiny anvil-shaped bone, vibrated by the hammer
- Stirrup (Middle Ear)--Tiny stirrup-shaped bone, vibrated by the anvil, vibrates the
cochlea.
- Semicircular Canals (Inner Ear)--Functions in balance and motion sickness in the inner
ear.
- Cochlea (Inner Ear)--Snail-shaped fluid- filled structure that contains auditory receptor
hairs. Sends messages via hairs to the auditory nerve.
- Auditory Nerve (Inner Ear)--Nerve that sends sound messages to the brain.
What are the smallest bones in your body?
- States, Malleus, and incus are found in your ear.
What are the parts of the eye?
- Cornea, Pupil, Iris, Lens and Retina
How do we show and deal with pain?
Why do we need the olfactory?

CHAPTER 4: LEARNING
Define learning, and name the two forms of learning.
- Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to
experience. In associative learning, we learn to associate two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). In
observational learning, we learn by watching others' experiences and examples.
Define conditioning, and name the two forms of conditioning
- Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate
stimuli. Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the
view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without
reference to mental processes. In classical conditioning, a UR (unlearned response) is
an event that occurs naturally such as salivation, in response to stimulus. A US
(unconditioned stimulus) is something that naturally and automatically without learning
triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS
(conditioned stimulus) in classical conditioning is an originally neutral stimulus (such as
a bell) that, through learning, comes to be associated with some unlearned response
(salivating). A CR (conditioned response) is the learned response (salivating) to the
originally neutral but now conditioned stimulus.
- The other form is operant conditioning - In operant conditioning, the organism learns
associations between its own behaviors and resulting events; this form of conditioning
involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing
consequences).

Explain the processes of generalization and discrimination, extinction, and

spontaneous recovery as they occur in classical conditioning.
- In classical conditioning, extinction is diminished responding when the CS is no longer
signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly
extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to
respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to
distinguish between a CS and the other irrelevant stimuli.
 Describe the procedures used in operant conditioning as demonstrated by
Skinner's experiments, and identify the types of reinforcers.
- Operant conditioning-- a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened it followed
by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punishment.
- Positive reinforcement-- increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli such as food
a positive reinforcer is anything that when resented after a response strengthens a
response.
- Negative reinforcement-- increases behavior by stopping and reducing negative stimuli
such as shock or anything that when removed after a response strengthens a response.
Describe the shaping procedure used in operant conditioning.
- Shaping-- an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer
and closer to the desired behavior-- a method of training by which successive
approximations toward a target behavior are reinforced
- Shaping involves a calculated reinforcement of a "target behavior": it uses operant
conditioning principles to train a subject by rewarding proper behavior and
discouraging improper behavior.
- The method requires that the subject perform behaviors that at first merely resemble
the target behavior; through reinforcement, these behaviors are gradually changed or
"shaped" to encourage the target behavior itself.
Describe how extinction occurs in operant conditioning.
- In operant conditioning extinction occurs when reinforcers are withheld.
Explain the schedules of reinforcement (fixed and variable ratios and intervals).
- Continuous reinforcement receives a reinforcer each time a behavior is displayed
- Partial reinforcement - or intermittent reinforcement, the organism does not get
reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior
- Fixed interval - Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5,
10, 15, and 20 minutes). Results: Moderate response rate with significant pauses after
reinforcement. Hospital with patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief.
- Variable interval - Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after
5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes). Results: Moderate yet steady response rate. Checking
Facebook.
- Fixed ratio Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g.,
after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses). Results: High response rate with pauses after
reinforcement. Piecework worker being paid for every x number of items produced.
- Variable ratio Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses
(e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses). Results: High and steady response rate. Gambling.
Describe learned helplessness.
- Learned helplessness: When an organism begins to believe that they are powerless to
do anything about the negative stimulation they are receiving, so they do nothing to
try and escape it.
Explain the role of observational learning/modeling in children's learning, and
describe how modeling applies to adult behaviors.
- In observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling,
what they do or say.
CHAPTER 5: MEMORY
1. Define the three processes of memory
- Encoding:
- Storage:
- Retrieval:
2. Describe the function, duration, and capacity of the three stages of memory:
sensory memory, short-term (or working memory), and long-term memory.
- Sensory - store incoming sensory information, instant duration, unlimited capacity
- Short term (working) - working memory, 20sec duration, 7 (+/-2) pieces of information
- Long term - organize information for retrieval, lifetime duration, almost infinite capacity
3. Describe the function of long-term memory, and specify the factors that increase
the efficiency of long-term encoding.
- Function: organize information
- Factors that increase efficiency of long term encoding - rehearsal, chunking, elaborative
rehearsal, mnemonic devices
4. Describe how retrieval is tested.
- Retrieval tested (retrieval cues) - recall, recollection, recognition, relearning
5. Explain how memories may be easily distorted and inaccurate.
- memory is flexible, when bringing up memories they can be changed or altered
6. Discuss how factors such as schemas, misinformation and source confusion
contribute to memory distortions.
- source confusion - having different accounts of same event after hearing others' account
of event
- schema- our framework for organizing information may be skewed
- misinformation - after exposure to incorrect information, person may misremember
original event
7. Discuss possible reasons for forgetting:
- encoding failure - never stored in first place
- transience - accessibility decreases over time
- absentmindedness - lapse in attention
- blocking - accessibility temporarily blocked
8. Describe the serial position effect.
- Serial position effect- the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series
best and middle worst
9. Define Alzheimer's disease and list its symptoms.
- Alzheimers disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys
memory and thinking skills
- Symptoms - memory problems, word-finding , imparted reasoning , movement difficulty
10. Describe ten techniques to enhance your memory.
- focus
- chunking
- personalize list
- create visual images
- create acronym
- use all senses
- write it down
- create rhyme
- make it manageable
- be positive

CHAPTER 6: LANGUAGE, THINKING, AND INTELLIGENCE

1. What is an IQ test? A psychological measure of a persons

intelligent quotient.
2. Who are the creators of IQ test? Lewis Terman and Alfred Binet
3. What does the WAIS and WICS measure? Intellectual performance
4. What is a bell curve? A frequency curve where most occurrences
take place in the middle of the distribution and taper off on either side.
5. What is the score of an average IQ? 85-114
6. What is the formula to figure IQ? IQ=100xMA/CA
7. What is the IQ of a mentally retarded person? Below 70-75

CHAPTER 7: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

1. What are the different types of Motivation? Extrinsic motivation and
intrinsic motivation
2. What is a set point? Set point is a theory that states that
everyones body has a genetically determined range of weight and temperature that their body
will try to maintain to stay at optimal health.
3. What are the different needs? Psychological, Safety, Love/Belonging,
Esteem, Self-actualization
4. What is the difference between a need and a want? A need is something you need or
survival, a want is something you desire to have.
5. What are the stages of the sexual experience? Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, and
resolution.

CHAPTER 8: PERSONALITY
1. Define personality: individual's unique patterns of thought, feelings, and behavior that
persist over time; unique, stable, enduring
2. Describe Freud's view of the three levels of consciousness. According to Freud the id,
ego, and superego all operate across three levels of awareness in the human mind. They are the
conscious, unconscious, and preconscious.
3. Identify the functions of the three structures of personality, the id, the ego and
the superego.
- Id: The unconscious system of the personality, which contains the life and death instincts
and operates on the pleasure principle; source of the libido.
- Ego: In Freud's theory, the logical, rational, largely conscious system of personality, which
operates according to the reality principle.
- Super ego: The moral system of the personality, which consists of the conscience and the
ego ideal.
4. List the main defense mechanisms, and specify the role played by each:
Repression: Involuntarily removing an unpleasant memory, thought, or perception from
consciousness or barring disturbing sexual and aggressive impulses from consciousness. Jill
forgets a traumatic incident from childhood.
- Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable traits, thoughts. A very lonely divorced
woman accuses all men of having only one thing on their minds.
- Denial: Refusing to acknowledge consciously the existence of danger or a threatening
situation. Amy fails to take a tornado warning seriously and is severely injured.
- Rationalization: Supplying a logical, rational, or socially acceptable reason rather than
the real reason for an action or event. Fred tells his friend that he didn't get the job
because he didn't have connections.
- Regression: Reverting to a behavior that might have reduced anxiety at an earlier stage
of development. Susan bursts into tears whenever she is criticized.
- Reaction Formation: Expressing exaggerated ideas and emotions that are the opposite
of disturbing, unconscious impulses and desires. A former purchaser of pornography, Bob
is now a tireless crusader against it.
- Displacement: Substituting a less threatening object or person for the original object of a
sexual or aggressive impulse. After being spanked by his father, Bill hits his baby brother.
- Sublimation: Rechanneling sexual and aggressive energy into pursuits or
accomplishments that society considers acceptable or even admirable. Tim goes to a gym
to work out when he feels hostile and frustrated.
5. Describe Freuds psychosexual stages of development, focusing on the core
conflict at each stage, and explain the consequence of fixation. A series of stages
through which the sexual instinct develops; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone around
which conflict arises. The oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, latency stage and genital
stage.
- Oral stage: Freud's first stage of psychosexual development where primary sexual focus
is on the mouth through sucking, tasting, and verbalizing. Birth to one year. Freud said
difficulties in this stage can cause excessive dependence, optimism and gullibility or
extreme pessimism, sarcasm, hostility and aggression.
 - Anal Stage: Freud's psychosexual period during which pleasure is focused on bowel and
bladder elimination; child learns to cope with demands for control - 1 to 3.
- Phallic stage: the third stage in a child's development when awareness of and
manipulation of the genitals is supposed to be a primary source of pleasure - Freud (3 to 5
or 6).
- Latency Stage: the fourth period (from about age 5 or 6 until puberty) during which
sexual interests are supposed to be sublimated into other activities - like same sex friends.
- Genital Stage: Freud's final stage of psychosexual development where healthy sexual
development is defined as attraction to same aged, opposite sexed peer. equated with the
ability to love and work
6. Explain Bandura's concepts of reciprocal determinism and self-efficacy as they
relate to personality. Reciprocal determinism: Bandura's concept of mutually influential
relationship among behavior, cognitive factors, and environment.
- Self-efficacy: The perception a person has of his or her ability to perform competently
whatever is attempted.
7. Describe the focus of the humanistic perspective, and identify the two best-known
humanistic theorists. The perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and
the idea that humans have free will. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
8. Identify the levels in Maslows hierarchy of needs, and describe the self-
actualized person. a method of classifying human needs and motivations into five categories
in ascending order of importance: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
- Self-actualization is in humanistic theory, the final level of psychological development,
in which one strives to realize one's uniquely human potential-to achieve everything one is
capable of achieving.
9. Explain the roles of the self-concept, the actualizing tendency, unconditional
positive regard, and fully functioning person in Rogers' personality theory. Self-
concept based largely on the expectations of others
We have a strong need for positive regard and want to please others. Actualizing tendency is the
basic human motivation to actualize, maintain, and enhance the self; not automatic or effortless
(process involved difficult growth). Unconditional positive regard is the need for approval
regardless of ones behavior. A fully functioning person is desired result of psychological
development (aware of all experience, live richly & fully in every moment, trust in own organism,
feel free to make choices, are creative & live constructively, may face difficulties).
10. Describe the focus of trait theories of personality. A perspective on human personality
that emphasizes the description of human patterns in thinking and behaving, often through the
development of personality tests
11. What are the big five personality traits?
1. Extraversion-introversion
2. Agreeableness-- warm, trusting sympathetic
3. Conscientiousness-- dependable, responsible
4. Neuroticism-- anxious, self-conscious, felling guilty
5. Openness to experience-- propensity to try new things, learn new things
12. Describe the focus of behavioral genetics. the study of the relative power and limits of
genetic and environmental influences on behavior (weighing the effects and interplay of heredity
and environment)
13. Discuss the respective roles of heredity and environment on personality. Research
in behavioral genetics is based on the assumption that the relative influences of heredity and
environment within a population can be measured statistically. If heredity is an important
influence on a trait, genetically closer persons will be more similar in trait. Family studies,
adoption studies, and studies of twins enable researchers to measure the heritability of traits.
14. Identify the basic goals of psychological tests, and describe how projective tests
and self-report inventories are used to measure personality. Psychological tests are used
for to screen applicants for employment and job training, and are used in criminal cases and
custody battles, and to assess psychological disorders. Projective tests are used to determine
unconscious motives, conflicts and psychological traits usually involve the interpretation of an
ambiguous image. Self-report inventories are psychological tests in which the individual answers
standardized questions about their behaviors and feelings the answers are then compared with
established norms.

CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY OVER THE LIFE SPAN

1. What is developmental psychology? A branch of psychology that studies physical,
cognitive, and social change throughout the life span i.e. research includes nature vs. nurture,
continuity and stages, and stability and change
2. Describe how the single zygote develops into a full-term fetus, noting the three
stages of prenatal development.
- Germinal stage 1-2 weeks: A zygote is the fertilized egg: it enters a two week period of
rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
- Embryonic stage 3-8 weeks: a zygote turns into an embryo which is the developing human
organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month then
becomes a fetus.
- Fetal stage 9-40 weeks: a fetus is the developing human organism from nine weeks after
conception to birth
3. Explain what teratogens are, and their impact on the fetus. A teratogen is any
environmental agentbiological, chemical, or physicalthat causes damage to the developing
embryo or fetus.
4. What are the two basic forms of attachment that Ainsworth found occurs between
babies and caregivers?
Secure attachment and insecure attachment
5. Describe Jean Piaget's stage theory of cognitive development, specifying the four
stages, and discuss the criticisms of Piaget's theory. Instead of approaching development
from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on childrens cognitive
growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children
are naturally inquisitive. The four stages of cognitive development are:
1. 0-2 years-sensorimotor,
2. 2-6 years -preoperational,
3. 7-11 years-concrete operational, and
4. 12+ years- formal operational.
Several of Piagets ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For
example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous
than Piagets discrete stages. Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones
earlier than Piaget describes. According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is
formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many
developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive
development, known as the post formal stage.
6. Describe Erikson's psychosocial theory of life-span development. Eriksons
psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than
its sexual nature. There are 8 stages.
1. 0-1 yrs, trust vs mistrust. 5. 12-18 yrs, identity vs confusion.
2. 1-3 yrs, autonomy vs shame/doubt. 6. 19-29 yrs, intimacy vs isolation.
3. 3-6 yrs, initiative vs guilt. 7. 30-64 yrs generativity vs
stagnation.
4. 7-11 yrs, industry vs inferiority. 8. 65+ integrity vs despair.
7. Distinguish the three parenting styles identified by Baumrind, and describe the
style she found most effective.
Permissive (too much freedom), authoritative (just enough freedom), & authoritarian (no
freedom), Baumrind found authoritative style most effective.

Chapter 11: Psychological Disorder

1.Criteria for Distinguishing between normal and abnormal behavior:

1.) Deviant from the norm, danger to self or others
2. The Purpose and Content of the DSM-IV-TR:
1.)Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition - Text
Revision
Its purpose: "to provide clear descriptions of diagnostic categories in order to
enable clinicians and investigators to diagnose, communicate about, study, and
treat people with various mental disorders"
3. Main Symptoms of Anxiety:
1.) feelings of tension
2.) apprehension
3.) worry
4.) Restlessness
5.) can be helpful...personal alarm system to tell you something isn't right
6.) has both physical and mental effects
Difference between Pathological Anxiety & Normal Anxiety:
1.) pathological anxiety is irrational. the anxiety is provoked by perceived threats
that are exaggerated or non-existent
2.) Pathological anxiety is uncontrollable. the person cant shut off the alarm
reaction, even when they know it is unrealistic.
3.) Pathological anxiety is disruptive. it interferes with relationships, job or
academic performance, or everyday activities.
4. Generalized Anxiety Disorder:
1.) GAD is acute in nature, and panic disorder is chronic.
2.) Chest pain is a common GAD symptom
3.) Hyperventilation is a common symptom in GAD
4.) Depersonalization is and absent in GAD.
Panic Disorder:
1.) Panic disorder is chronic in nature
2.) Chest pain absent in panic disorders.
3.) Hyperventilation is rare in panic disorder
4.) Depersonalization is commonly seen in panic disorder
5. Phobia:
1.) An excessive or unreasonable fear directed toward a particular object, situation
or event that causes significant distress or interferes with everyday functioning
Most Common Types of Phobias:
1) Animal type (spiders, dogs);
2) Natural environment type (heights, thunderstorms, h2o);
3) situational type (elevators, enclosed spaces);
4) Blood-injection-injury type
Four Explanations offered for the Developmental of a Phobias:
1.) Genetic and environmental factors can cause phobias.
2.) Children who have a close relative with an anxiety disorder are at risk for
developing a phobia.
3.) Distressing events such as nearly drowning can bring on a phobia.
4.) Exposure to confined spaces, extreme heights, and animal or insect bites can
all be sources of phobias.
6. PTSD--Main Characteristics:
1.) Re-experiencing the trauma through intrusive distressing recollections of the
event, flashbacks, and nightmares.
2.) Emotional numbness and avoidance of places, people, and activities that are
reminders of the trauma
 3.) Increased arousal such difficulty sleeping and concentrating, feeling jumpy, and
being easily irritated and angered.
The Cause:
1.) PTSD can develop after exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which grave
physical harm occurred or was threatened.
2.) Traumatic events that may trigger PTSD include violent personal assaults,
natural or human-caused disasters, accidents, or military combat.
7. Main Symptoms of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder:
1) occurrence of repeated obsessions, compulsions, or both
2) the obsessions or compulsions take up considerable time
3) significant distress or impairment or disruption by symptoms for more than 1
hour (total) a day
The Cause:
1.) Despite a wealth of research, the exact causes of OCD have not been identified
2.) OCD is however, considered to have a neurobiological basis with neuroimaging
studies showing that the brain functions differently in people with the disorder.
8. What is meant by Mood Disorders:
1.) your general emotional state or mood is distorted or inconsistent with your
circumstances.
Identify the symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder:
1.) Absence of happiness is more reliable symptom
2.) Feel sad and helpless every day for weeks at a time.
3.) Little energy,
4.) Feel worthless,
5.) Contemplate suicide,
6.) Have trouble sleeping,
7.) Cannot concentrate
8.) Find little pleasure,
9.) Hardly imagine being happy again
9. The characteristic of Mood Swings of Bipolar Disorder:
1.) The mood swings of bipolar disorder can be profoundly destructive
2.) Depression can make you isolate yourself from your friends and loved ones.
3.) You may find it impossible to get out of bed, let alone keep your job.
4.) During manic periods, you may be reckless and volatile.
10.) Describe the broad characteristics of personality disorders:
1.) Enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the
environment and oneself that are exhibited in a wide range of social and personal
contexts
2.) Differ markedly from expectations of cultural group
3.) Cause significant distress and/or impairment in functioning- can have
maladaptive personality traits without disorder
Differentiate among the paranoid, antisocial, and borderline personality
disorders:
1.) Paranoid: Long-standing suspiciousness and distrust of people leading to false
interpretations of motivations and actions of others.
2.) Antisocial: inability to conform to societal norms; epidemiology
3.) Borderline: Characterized by unstable inter-personal relationships, self-image,
mood, behavior.
11.) Describe the characteristics of dissociative identity disorder (DID):
1.) Two or more distinct personalities that control persons behavior
 2.) Amnesia: inability to recall personal information that is too extreme to be
ordinary forgetfulness.
12.) Describe the core symptoms & characteristics of schizophrenia:
1.) Positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations, delusions, disorganization)
2.) Negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal, apathy, anhedonia, poverty of
speech)
3.) Cognitive impairments (e.g., memory difficulties,
planning ability, abstract thinking)
4.) Problems with mood (e.g., depression, anxiety, anger)
Differentiating between Positive and Negative Symptoms
1.) Positive symptoms fluctuate and are responsive to antipsychotic meds
-Symptoms that reflect an excess or distortion of normal functioning
-Include delusions or false beliefs, hallucinations or false perceptions, and
severely disorganized thought processes, speech, and behavior
2.) Negative symptoms are stable and less responsive to antipsychotic meds
-Symptoms reflect an absence or reduction of normal functions
-Include greatly reduced motivation, emotional expressiveness, or speech
13.) The main subtypes of schizophrenia:
1.) Paranoid: Pre occupation with delusions or hallucinations, often with themes of
persecution
2.) Disorganized: Disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion
3.) Catatonic: Immobility (or excessive, purposeless movement), extreme
negativism, and/or parrot like repeating of anothers speech or movements
4.) Undifferentiated: many and varied symptoms
5.) Residual: withdrawal, after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared
The Cause:
1.) Cause: High genetic liability to mood disorders and schizophrenia. Onset is late
adolescence/early adulthood
Prevalence and Course of Schizophrenia:
1.) Onset typically occurs during young adulthood
2.) For Males, usually occurs between 16 and 20 years of age. If he does not show
any signs of schizophrenia after 25, he will not have it.
3.) For females, usually occurs from 25 to 35 years of age. If signs do not show
until after 35, it is not schizophrenia.
4.) About one out of four people who experience an episode of schizophrenia
recover completely and never experienced another episode.
5.) Another one of four experience recurrent episodes of schizophrenia but often
with only minimal impairment in the ability to function
6.) About of the total schizophrenia patients become a chronic mental illness
and the ability to function may be severely impaired
14.) Characteristics of persons at risk of suicide:
1.) Threatening suicide
2.) Excessive sadness or moodiness
3.) Hopelessness
4.) Sleep problems
5.) Withdrawal
6.) They believe that people in their lives are better off without them; they think
theyre a burden.
7.) They begin to exhibit high-risk behaviors. Theyre not afraid of dying because
theyve made the decision.
 8.) Oftentimes, you see a real upswing in their attitude and demeanor because
theyve made the decision and theyre short-termers, so theyve got a plan to escape
their suffering.
9.) You see a lift in mood because theyve got their ticket out.
10.) You see an absence of forward thinking with people who are going to kill
themselves. They dont make reference to next week, next month, next year, because
they are not going to be there, and they know that.
Key Terms:
DSM-IV (TR): Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition -
Text Revision. Its purpose: "to provide clear descriptions of diagnostic categories in order
to enable clinicians and investigators to diagnose, communicate about, study, and treat
people with various mental disorders.
Anxiety: Future-oriented emotion that is characterized by negative effect, bodily tension
and chronic apprehension
Anxiety Disorders: A mental health disorder characterized by feelings of worry,
anxiety, or fear that are strong enough to interfere with one's daily activities. EX:
Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Specific Phobia, Agoraphobia, Social
Phobia, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Acute Stress
Disorder, Adjustment Disorder with Anxiety
Panic attack: Sudden episode of fear involving distressing physical sensations and fear
of dying/losing control/going crazy
Panic disorder: Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks
Phobia: An excessive or unreasonable fear directed toward a particular object, situation
or event that causes significant distress or interferes with everyday functioning.
Social phobia: Refers to fear caused by the presence of a specific object or situation.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Intrusive and distressing thoughts/urges/images
coupled with repetitive behaviors aimed at decreasing the discomfort caused by the
thoughts
Obsessions: Thoughts/images/impulses that persistently intrude in the mind, despite
being unwelcome and causing anxiety.
Compulsions: Acts that are irresistible and carried out in a repetitive/ritualistic manner
in response to the obsession
Post-traumatic stress disorder: According to the National Institute of Mental Health,
"Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD, is an anxiety disorder that can develop after
exposure to a terrifying event or ordeal in which grave physical harm occurred or was
threatened. Traumatic events that may trigger PTSD include violent personal assaults,
natural or human-caused disasters, accidents, or military combat.
Mood disorders: Disturbance in person's mood, emotional state.
Major depressions: Mood disorder in which the individual experiences acute, but time-
limited, episodes of depressive symptoms.
Bipolar disorder: Mood disorder involving manic episodes - intense and very disruptive
experiences of heightened mood, possibly alternating with major depressive episodes.
Manic episode personality disorder: A person experiencing a manic episode is usually
engaged in significant goal-directed activity beyond their normal activities. People describe a
manic mood as feeling very euphoric
Antisocial personality disorder: is a mental condition in which a person has a long-
term pattern of manipulating, exploiting, or violating the rights of others. This behavior is
often criminal
Dissociative identity disorder: is a severe condition in which two or more
distinct identities, or personality states, are present inand alternately take control of
an individual. The person also experiences memory loss that is too extensive to be
explained by ordinary forgetfulness.
Schizophrenia: a long-term mental disorder of a type involving a breakdown in the
relation between thought, emotion, and behavior, leading to faulty perception,
inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal from reality and personal relationships
into fantasy and delusion, and a sense of mental fragmentation.
Delusion: a fixed false belief that is out of keeping with a person's cultural or religious
background and is firmly held despite incontrovertible proof to the contrary
Hallucination: is a visual, verbal or physical illusion that a person sees, hears or feels
and mistakes for reality.
Paranoid schizophrenia: characterized by an organized system of delusions and
auditory hallucinations.
Catatonic schizophrenia: characterized by psychomotor disturbance of some sort.
Disorganized schizophrenia: characterized by confusion, incoherence, and flat or
inappropriate affect
Chapter 12: Treatment
1.Psychonalysis Freud:
Psychoanalysis -- Sigmund Freud's theory of personality and system of therapy for
treating mental disorders.
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud believed that
people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and
motivations, thus gaining insight. The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release
repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious.
Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. It is
only having a cathartic (i.e. healing) experience can the person be helped and
"cured".
Freud found that dreams yielded valuable information concerning the nature of the
person's conflicts and the mechanisms by which they are concealed from
awareness.
Psychoanalysis Assumptions
Psychoanalytic psychologists see psychological problems as rooted in the
unconscious mind.
Manifest symptoms are caused by latent (hidden) disturbances.

Typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma.

Treatment focuses on bringing the repressed conflict to consciousness, where the

client can deal with it.

2. Goal of Psychoanalysis Insight:

Classical Psychoanalysis: The traditional (Freudian) approach to psychoanalysis

based on a long-term exploration of past conflicts, many of which are unconscious,
and an extensive process of working through early wounds.
One of the goals is to help the patient develop insight into his/her unconscious
processes. Psychoanalysis encourages us to search for personal truthfulness and
focuses specifically on the irrational dimensions of our mental lie as it applies
rational procedures to achieve its goals.
 The goals of psychoanalysis that covers four areas: the alleviation of symptoms
and complaints, changes in life adjustment, changes in personality structure, and
procedural goals such as the resolution of the transference neurosis.
3. Diagnosis of Patients treated by Freud:
While Freud's theories, and his treatment of patients, were controversial in 19th
century Vienna and remain debated today, he is considered to be not only one of
the major innovators in psychology but also one of the major figures in Western
thought.
His ideas are often discussed and analyzed as works of literature, philosophy, and
general culture, in addition to continuing debate about their merits as scientific
and medical treatises.
His ideas have impacted not only psychology but also philosophy, sociology,
anthropology, political science, history, literary criticism, art history, music history,
and cultural studies. He is commonly referred to as "the father of psychoanalysis."
Freud's ideas are often discussed and analyzed as works of literature and general
culture in addition to continuing debate around them as scientific and medical
treatises.
4. Therapists job interpretations; where does the material come from that
gets interpreted:
2. therapy relies on a positive relationship between therapist and client
therapy needs empathy, warmth and genuineness
accepting yourself helps you to grow and change
5. What is catharsis:
The purging of the emotions or relieving of emotional tensions, especially through
certain kinds of art, as tragedy or music.
emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that
"releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive
urges.
6. Client-Centered Therapy Carl Rogers:
used to be called patient-centered, then client-centered, not person-centered.
Change reflected the belief that the ind possess the capacity to address their
concerns. They are not patients, or clients with problems, they are people
Client-centered therapy, also known as person-centered therapy, is a non-directive
form of talk therapy that was developed by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers
during the 1940s and 1950s. Learn more about how this process was developed as
well as how client-centered therapy is utilized.

Two of the key elements of client-centered therapy are that it:

Is non-directive. Therapists allow clients to lead the discussion and do not try to
steer the client in a particular direction.
Emphasizes unconditional positive regard. Therapists show complete acceptance
and support for their clients without casting judgment.

7. What causes emotional problems:

There is no single cause for mental health disorders

They can be caused by a mixture of biological, psychological and environmental
factors.
 People who have a family history of mental health disorders may be more prone to
developing one at some point.

Changes in brain chemistry from substance abuse or changes in diet, can also
cause mental disorders.

Psychological factors and environmental factors such as upbringing and social

exposure can form foundations for harmful thought patters associated with mental
disorders.

Only certified mental health professional can provide an accurate diagnosis of the
causes of a given disorder.

8. Unconditional positive regard:

According to Carl Rogers, the development of a healthy self-concept is fostered

by Unconditional Positive Regard
is acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does
(within reason, of course).
accepting and respecting another person's feelings and self concept.
Nonjudgemental care for another person
9. Reflection of feeling:
As the patient talks to the therapist, the therapist basically restates and rephrases
what the patient is saying to help them understand their emotions.
Paraphrasing the words of the patient, to go deeper into the emotion evoked.
When a therapist "reflects" what you are saying by putting it into an objective
perspective, trying to get the emotion you are feeling into their words.
Reflection of feelings overview
1) Studying, understanding, and labeling emotions
2) Self awareness of emotions in interview context
3) Person centered approach to interviewing
4) Challenges to reflecting feelings
How to reflect feelings
identify client feelings
think about how the client would feel in the situation
articulate underlying emotions detected in client's statements
make a statement that accurately mirrors the client's emotions
must accurately express emotions in words

10. Gestalt Therapy - Focus on Here & Now, Self awareness:

The Gestalt therapist pays attention to the client's nonverbal language.
In Gestalt theory, the experiment is considered a theoretical proposition crafted to
fit the client's unique needs.
Gestalt-therapy techniques are designated to help the client both expand
awareness of the here and now and intensify feelings and experiences.
A gestalt technique that is most useful when a person attempts to deny an aspect
of his or her personality such as tenderness is the reversal exercise.
The basic goal of Gestalt therapy is attaining awareness, and with it greater choice.
 From a multicultural perspective, a limitation of Gestalt therapy is that both it
tends to produce high levels of intense feelings and it is highly focused on direct
expression of feelings.
According to Gestalt theory, people use avoidance in order to keep themselves
from facing unfinished business, keep from feeling uncomfortable emotions and
keep from having to change.
Empirical support for Gestalt therapy is becoming stronger.
According to Gestalt therapy, all of the following are true about contact except
withdrawal after a good contact experience indicates neurosis.
Without proper training, Gestalt therapists may evoke carthasis without having the
ability to work it through with their client, design faulty experiments, may use
ready made techniques inapporperately, and may damage the therapeutic
relationship with the client.
Contemporary Gestalt therapists view client resistance as an element of therapy
that needs to be respected.
Gestalt group work is action-oriented, standardized, focused on the here and now.
11. Behavior therapy based on principles of learning. Changes problem
behaviors:
Behavior Therapy on observable behavior, current determinants of behavior,
learning experiences that promote change, tailoring treatment strategies to
individual clients, and rigorous assessment and evaluation.
behavior therapies, action therapies based on the principles of classical and
operant conditioning and aimed at changing disordered behavior without concern
for the original causes of such behavior
behavior modification or applied behavior analysis the use of learning techniques
to modify or change undesirable behavior and increase desirable behavior
Goals of Behavior Therapy
To eliminate maladaptive behaviors and learn more effective behaviors. To focus on
factors influencing behavior and find what can be done about problematic
behavior. Clients have an active role in setting treatment goals and evaluating how
well these goals are being met. To increase personal choice and to create new
conditions for learning.
12. Desensitization uses classical conditioning principles to treat phobias:
used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome fears, phobias, and
other anxiety disorders
To begin the process of systematic desensitization, one must first be taught
relaxation skills in order to control fear and anxiety responses to specific phobias.
Once the individual has been taught these skills, he or she must use them to react
towards and overcome situations in an established hierarchy of fears.
The goal of this process is that an individual will learn to cope and overcome the
fear in each step of the hierarchy, which will lead to overcoming the last step of
the fear in the hierarchy. Systematic desensitization is sometimes called graduated
exposure therapy.
13. Aversive conditioning has been used for smoking cessation, and to treat
self-injurious behaviors in autistic children:
conditioning involving an unpleasant or harmful unconditioned stimulus or
reinforcer
involves a harmful stimulus such as Baby Albert
14. Operant conditioning - token economy:
 Operant Conditioning deals with operants - intentional actions that have an effect
on the surrounding environment.
Skinner set out to identify the processes which made certain operant behaviours
more or less likely to occur.
B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly
changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired
response.
15. Cognitive Therapy:
Cognitive therapy is a type of psychotherapy based on the concept of pathological
mental processing. The focus of treatment is on the modification of distorted
cognitions and maladaptive behaviors.
The foundation on which cognitive therapy is established can be identified by the
statement, "Men are disturbed not by things but by the views which they take of
them."
Cognitive -- Relating to the mental process of thinking and reasoning
Historical Background
Cognitive therapy has its roots in the early 1960s research on depression
conducted by Aaron Beck.
Beck's concepts have been expanded to include active, direct dialogues with
clients and
behavioral techniques such as reinforcement and modeling.
Lazarus's and Folkman's concept of personal appraisal of an event by an individual
has also contributed to the cognitive therapy approach.
Cognitive therapy is aimed at modifying distorted cognition about a situation.
Indications for Cognitive Therapy
Was originally developed for use with depression. Today it is used for a broad range
of emotional disorders:
- Depression
- Panic disorder
- Generalized anxiety
disorder
- Social phobia
- Obsessive-compulsive
disorder
- Posttraumatic stress disorder
- Substance abuse
- Personality disorders
- Schizophrenia
- Couple's problems
- Bipolar disorder
- Hypochondriasis
- Somatoform disorder
- Eating disorders
Goals of Therapy
The goal of cognitive therapy is for clients to learn to identify and alter the
dysfunctional beliefs that predispose them to distort experiences.
1. The client learns to monitor negative, automatic thoughts
2. Recognizes the connection between thoughts, emotions, behavior
3. Examines the evidence for and against distorted automatic thoughts
4. Substitutes more realistic interpretations for the biased thoughts
 5. Identifies the dysfunctional beliefs that predispose him or her to distort
experiences

16. Albert Ellis Rational-Emotive Therapy:

RET (Ellis and Beck) -- focus on thinking and behaving rather than on expression of
feelings; present perceptions, thoughts, assumptions, beliefs, values, attitudes,
philosophies need modification or change; distorted thinking can be unlearned
Humans are born with potential for rational thinking but also with tendencies
toward crooked thinking
People tend to fall victim to irrational beliefs and to re-indoctrinate themselves with
these beliefs
Therapy is cognitive/behavior/action oriented and stresses thinking, judging,
analyzing, doing and re-deciding
is based on the belief that people are born with the potential for rational or
irrational thoughts
People can learn irrational beliefs from significant others as children. Since these
thoughts re learned, people have the power to change their thoughts and their
behaviors, as irrational thoughts can lead to self destructive behavior.
18. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT):
A treatment approach that aims at changing cognitions that are leading to
psychological problems.
The focus of this therapy Is thoughts
Definition Feelings and behaviors are based on thinking and beliefs;
psychotherapy is based on correcting dysfunctional thinking and un-useful beliefs,
and subsequently feelings and behaviors
The goal is change your thoughts to lead to healthier behaviors and more stable
emotions and physiological states, as well as to change or substitute these
patterns with more realistic and useful thoughts and responses.
Cognitive therapy is based on the theory that individuals with depression, anxiety
and other emotional disorders have maladaptive patterns of information
processing and behavioral-related difficulties.
19. Group Therapy types and advantages:
A method of therapeutic intervention based on the exploration and analysis of both
internal (emotional) and external (environmental) conflicts and the group process;
it is an identifiable system consisting of at least three people who share a common
goal
Advantage Decreased isolation and dependence
Opportunities for helping others
Interpersonal learning and development of coping skills
Decreased transference to the therapist while developing the ability to listen to
other group members
Potential disadvantages of group therapy Members of groups may feel more
vulnerable, frightened, and at risk than clients participating in individual therapy
Transference process may be less obvious and overlooked
11 essential elements of group therapy
Instillation of hope
Universality
Imparting of information
Altruism
 Corrective recapitulation of the primary group
Development of socializing techniques
Imitative behavior
Interpersonal learning
Group cohesiveness
Catharsis
Existential factors
20. Eclectic Therapists:
Is a therapeutic approach that incorporates a variety of therapeutic principles and
philosophies in order to create the ideal treatment program to meet the specific
needs of the patient or client
therapeutic approach that draws upon principles and techniques representing
different schools of therapy
Eclectic a psychotherapy orientation that involves selecting the best treatment
for a given client based on empirical data from studies of the treatment of similar
clients
The primary benefit of electic therapy is that the therapy that is customized to
meet the unique needs of the patient.
Eclectic can treat any condition
21. Psychotherapy Outcome Research:
Is techniques and approaches used by clinical psychologists and other mental
health professionals to reduce psychological symptoms or improve some aspect of
emotional, cognitive, or behavioral functioning
how measuring the outcome of psychotherapy if choosing to request opinions of
an interested party, questionnaires or interviews are used (the content and
structure has an impact) or can use a more behavioral measure of therapy
outcome instead; how can shape the results
Two categories of psychotherapy outcome efficacy and effectiveness
Approaches to psychotherapy, eclectic and integrative
23. Biological Treatments:
Biological therapy is thus any form of treatment that uses the body's natural
abilities that constitute the immune system to fight infection and disease or to
protect the body from some of the side effects of treatment.
24. Medications:
Antidepressants Elevate mood and alleviate other symptoms associated with
moderate to severe depression
Anti-anxiety drugs - are medicines that calm and relax people with
excessive anxiety, nervousness, or tension, or for short-term control of social
phobia disorder or specific phobia disorder
Antipsychotics - A medication (or another measure) that is believed to be effective
in the treatment of psychosis.
Mood Stabilizers - is a psychiatric pharmaceutical drug used to
treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, typically
bipolar disorder type I or type II or schizophrenia.
CHAPTER 13: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Attribution theory to explain behavior of others or self.

Fundamental attribution error - the fundamental attribution error, also known as the
correspondence bias or attribution effect, is the tendency for people to place an undue emphasis
on internal characteristics of the agent (character or intention), rather than external factors, in
explaining another person's behavior in a given situation. This contrasts with interpreting one's
own behavior, where situational factors are more easily recognized and can be taken into
account.
Defensive attribution - The defensive attribution hypothesis (or bias, theory, or simply
defensive attribution) is a social psychological term from the attributional approach referring to a
set of beliefs used as a shield against the fear that one will be the victim or cause of a serious
mishap.

Self-serving bias - The self-serving bias is people's tendency to attribute positive events
to their own character but attribute negative events to external factors.
Just world hypothesis - The just-world hypothesis is the assumption that a person's
actions are inherently inclined to bring morally fair and fitting consequences to that
person, to the end of all noble actions being eventually rewarded and all evil actions
eventually punished.
Interpersonal attraction - Interpersonal attraction is the attraction between people, which
leads to friendships and to platonic or romantic relationships.
Proximity - nearness in space, time, or relationship
Physical attractiveness - Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's
physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful.
Similarity - the state or fact of being similar
Exchange two people offer rewards to the other; a fair relationship
Intimacy what causes people to be close, what is self disclosure, and what causes
relationships to last
Prejudice - preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience
Frustration - Aggression theory - the frustration aggression theory is a psychological theory
that aggression is caused by blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to achieve a goal
Discrimination - the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things,
especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex
Self-fulfilling Prophecy - A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly
causes itself to become true, by the very terms of the prophecy itself, due to positive feedback
between belief and behavior
Conformity - compliance with standards, rules, or laws
Compliance - the action or fact of complying with a wish or command
Obedience - compliance with an order, request, or law or submission to another's authority