DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

SOLAR LIGHTING SYSTEM

 SPECIFICATION FOR 105W CFL STREET LIGHT
Solar PV Module 40Wp
General
Battery Charging, Solar Home Lighting
Application
System, Solar Street Light etc.
Use Outdoor
Mono crystalline silicon / Polycrystalline
Material type
silicon
Encapsulation Toughened glass E.V.A - TPT
Frame Anodized Aluminum
Electrical
2
Rated Power (Pld) (at 1000W/m , 25C, 75 0.5W
1.5AM, 16.4V)
Battery
Application Storage device for Solar Street Light
Battery capacity 12V, 60Ah (VRLA Gel)
Battery ratings @ C/10
Depth of discharge Max 75%
LED Street Light luminary -12W
General
Application Solar powered street lighting
Use Outdoor
Storage Temperature -10C to85C
Operation DUSK TO DAWN
Lamp Wattage 12W
Rated Light output (Lumens) 1200 5%
Lamp colour temperature 6500K
Light coverage > 120 Deg
Rated Lamp life (Average) 50,000 Hrs
Electrical
Nominal working voltage 12V DC
Converter efficiency > 85%
Charge Controller
Charge controller type Series pulse two step
Charging current (max) 6A
Solar module size (max) 75Wp
Charge controller efficiency(min) >97%
Idle current consumption <3mA
Low battery warning voltage 11.60 0.15V
Low battery load cut off voltage 11.40 0.15V
Low battery reconnect voltage 12.60 0.15V
Gassing voltage @ 25C 14.40 0.15V
Floating voltage@ 25C 13.60 0.15V
Gassing reconnect voltage @ 25C 12.30 0.15V
Module sense voltage @ lamp ON 2.5 0.15V
Module sense voltage @ lamp OFF 4.0 0.15V
Over voltage, Under & over
temperature protection (LEDs Should be Provided
alternative protection)
Under voltage (simultaneous blinking) Should be Provided
Mechanical
Pole ACC-ERP-14,GI NB65,6M AL Painted
ACC -MBT-08,SLS,NB65/NB80,1MTR ,
Luminary Mounting Structure
1Pcs
Module Mounting Structure Pole mounting type, 1 Pcs
Battery Enclosure GI ground mound
 Abstract:

With the existing push in the direction of sustainable, clean sources of power, it is no
surprise that solar power has become one of the most popular alternative energy sources. Free
and available everywhere, the power of the sun can be employed to power everything like cel
phones and MP3 player. The sun's energy is usually harvested through solar panels that are made
up of photovoltaic cells. These cells can convert the sun's power into electricity that can be used
for a number of purposes. For private use, a handheld solar hybrid charger can be employed to
recharge little device for instance a MP3 player, a cell phone, or a camera.

A normal PN junction diode is used for unidirectional flow of charge current. The output
of the solar panel depends on the intensity of the solar light. To regulate this voltage, LM317 is
used. LM317 is an adjustable voltage regulator. The regulator circuit is designed to get a fixed
voltage of 5V.

An alternative charger circuit is also provided to charge the mobile by house hold general
purpose 230V in the absence of the sun light. This charge circuit uses regulated 5V, 750mA
power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type
full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/18V step down
transformer.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

AT89C51
Solar panel

T
Power Supply
T
Section
E

7 AH
Battery with
reverse
chargeable
protection

RELAY
LIGHT
12V
1. Introduction

A Solar lantern is a simple application of solar photovoltaic technology, which has found good
acceptance in rural regions where the power supply is irregular and scarce. Even in the urban
areas people prefer a solar lantern as an alternative during power cuts because of its simple
mechanism.

Home lighting System is powered by solar energy using solar cells that convert solar energy
(sunlight) directly to electricity. The electricity is stored in batteries and used for the purpose of
lighting whenever required. These systems are useful in non-electrified rural areas and as reliable
emergency lighting system for important domestic, commercial and industrial applications. The
SPV systems have found important application in the dairy industry for lighting milk collection/
chilling centers mostly located in rural areas.

Solar Street Light system is designed for outdoor application in un-electrified remote rural areas.
This system is an ideal application for campus and village street lighting. The system is provided
with battery storage backup sufficient to operate the light for 10-11 hours daily. The system is
provided with automatic ON/OFF time switch for dusk to down operation and overcharge / deep
discharge prevention cut-off with LED indicators.

2. Market Potential

The demand of Solar Light Systems is day by day increasing due to it works on consumption of
NATURAL SOURCE OF ENERGY i.e. SUN LIGHT. Use of Electric Power in decreasing and
people are shifting towards use of Solar Power. Many subsidies are also being given by Indian
Government on use of Solar Power.

3. Basis and presumptions

 i) The basis for calculation of production capacity has been taken on

single shift basis on 75% efficiency.

ii) The maximum capacity utilization on single sift basis for 300 days a year.
During first year and second year of operations the capacity utilization is 60%
and 80% respectively. The unit is expected to achieve full capacity utilization
from the third year onward.

iii) The salary and wages, cost of raw materials, utilities, rent, etc. are base on the
prevailing rates in and around Agra. These cost factors are likely to vary with
time and location.

iv) Interest on term loan and working capital loan must be preferably current rate.
Otherwise, the rate of interest on an average may be taken as 13%. This rate
may vary depending upon the policy of the financial institutions/agencies
from time to time.

v) The cost of machinery and equipments refer to a particular make / model and
prices are approximate.

vi) The break even point percentage indicated is of full capacity utilization.

vii) The project preparation cost etc. whenever required could be considered under
pre-operative expenses.

viii) The essential production machinery and equipment required for the project
have been indicated. The unit may also utilize common test facilities available
at MNES, Solar Energy Centre

4. Implementation schedule
The major activity in the implementation of the project has been listed and the average time for
implementation of the project is estimated at 12 months

TECHNICAL ASPECTS

I. Process of Manufacture

MAJOR COMPONENTS:

1. SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE.

2. BATTERY.
3. BATTERY BOX.
4. CHARGE CONTROLLER.
5. ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT & CONNECTING WIRES.
6. DC FAN.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ASSEMBLY PROCESS:

ALL THE MAJOR COMPONENTS ARE CONNECTED AS PER BELOW GIVEN

DIAGRAM. After Assembly all products are tested as per MNES Specifications.
SOLAR STREET LIGHT SYSTEM
 VI. Energy conservation

With the growing energy needs and shortage coupled with rising energy cost, a greater
thrust in energy efficiency in industrial sector has been given by the Govt. of India since
1980s. The energy conservation Act 2001 has been enacted on 18 th August 2001, which
provides for efficient use of energy, its conservation & capacity building of Bureau of
Energy Efficiency created under the Act.

The following steps may help for conservation of electrical energy:

i) Adoption of energy conserving technologies, production

Aids and testing facilities.

ii) Efficient management of process/manufacturing machineries and

system, QC and testing equipment for yielding maximum energy
conservation.

iii) Optimum use of electrical energy for heating during soldering

process can be obtained by using efficient temperature controlled
soldering and disordering station.

iv) Periodical maintenance of LIGHTs compressors etc.

Use of power factor correction capacitors. Proper selection and layout of lighting system;
timely switching on-off of the lights; use of compact fluorescent
Introduction to Embedded Systems:

Embedded systems are electronic devices that incorporate microprocessors with in Their
implementations. The main purposes of the microprocessors are to simplify the system design and
provide flexibility. Having a microprocessor in the device means that removing the bugs, making
modifications, or adding new features are only matters of rewriting the software that controls the
device. Or in other words embedded computer systems are electronic systems that include a
microcomputer to perform a specific dedicated application. The computer is hidden inside these
products. Embedded systems are ubiquitous. Every week millions of tiny computer chips come
pouring out of factories finding their way into our everyday products.

Embedded systems are self-contained programs that are embedded within a piece of hardware.
Whereas a regular computer has many different applications and software that can be applied to
various tasks, embedded systems are usually set to a specific task that cannot be altered without
physically manipulating the circuitry. Another way to think of an embedded system is as a computer
system that is created with optimal efficiency, thereby allowing it to complete specific functions as
quickly as possible.

Embedded systems designers usually have a significant grasp of hardware technologies. They
used specific programming languages and software to develop embedded systems and manipulate the
equipment. When searching online, companies offer embedded systems development kits and other
embedded systems tools for use by engineers and businesses.

Embedded systems technologies are usually fairly expensive due to the necessary development
time and built in efficiencies, but they are also highly valued in specific industries. Smaller businesses
may wish to hire a consultant to determine what sort of embedded systems will add value to your
organization.

An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is the embedded
system and is even defined as combination of both software and hardware. A general-purpose definition of
embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment,
machinery or plant. "Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. At the other
extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large complex processing plant,
and its presence will be obvious.

All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are however
very simple systems as compared with a personal computer.
The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only a single function or set of functions to
meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application program that enables the
embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific application determines the functioning of the
embedded system. The ability to have programs means that the same embedded system can be used for a
variety of different purposes. In some cases a microprocessor may be designed in such a way that application
software for a particular purpose can be added to the basic software in a second process, after which it is not
possible to make further changes. The applications software on such processors is sometimes referred to as
firmware.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip), which may itself be packaged
with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a
detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or activator which (for example) may start or stop the
operation of a machine or, by operating a valve, may control the flow of fuel to an engine.

As the embedded system is the combination of both software and hardware

Embedded

System

Software Hardware

ALP Processor
C Peripherals
VB memory
Etc.,

Figure: Block diagram of Embedded System

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals with Processors, Peripherals,
and Memory.

Memory: It is used to store data or address.

Peripherals: These are the external devices connected
Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task

Applications of embedded systems

Manufacturing and process control
Construction industry

Transport

Buildings and premises

Domestic service

Communications
Office systems and mobile equipment
Banking, finance and commercial
Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support
Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems

Processors are classified into four types like:

Micro Processor (p)
Micro controller (c)
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)

Micro Processor (p)

A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are
used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a microprocessor.
Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems
for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors

Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock speed : Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per
second the processor can execute.
In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that
runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz. In addition to bandwidth
and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or
CISC (complex instruction set computer).

A microprocessor has three basic elements, as shown above. The ALU performs all arithmetic computations,
such as addition, subtraction and logic operations (AND, OR, etc). It is controlled by the Control Unit and
receives its data from the Register Array. The Register Array is a set of registers used for storing data. These
registers can be accessed by the ALU very quickly. Some registers have specific functions - we will deal with
these later. The Control Unit controls the entire process. It provides the timing and a control signal for getting
data into and out of the registers and the ALU and it synchronizes the execution of instructions (we will deal
with instruction execution at a later date).

Three Basic Elements of a Microprocessor

Micro Controller (c):
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory,
and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is
also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for
embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.

ALU

CU

Memory

Timer, Counter, serial

communication ROM,
ADC, DAC, Timers,
USART, Oscillators
Figure: Block Diagram of Micro Controller (c)
Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Etc.,
Digital Signal Processors is one which performs scientific and mathematical operation. Digital Signal
Processor chips - specialized microprocessors with architectures designed specifically for the types of
operations required in digital signal processing. Like a general-purpose microprocessor, a DSP is a
programmable device, with its own native instruction code. DSP chips are capable of carrying out millions of
floating point operations per second, and like their better-known general-purpose cousins, faster and more
powerful versions are continually being introduced. DSPs can also be embedded within complex "system-on-
chip" devices, often containing both analog and digital circuitry.
Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
ASIC is a combination of digital and analog circuits packed into an IC to achieve the desired
control/computation function

ASIC typically contains

CPU cores for computation and control

Peripherals to control timing critical functions
 Memories to store data and program
Analog circuits to provide clocks and interface to the real world which is analog in nature
I/Os to connect to external components like LEDs, memories, monitors etc.
Computer Instruction Set

There are two different types of computer instruction set there are:

1. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) and

2. CISC (Complex Instruction Set computer)

Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)

A RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is a microprocessor that is designed to perform a smaller number
of types of computer instruction so that it can operate at a higher speed (perform more million instructions per
second, or millions of instructions per second). Since each instruction type that a computer must perform
requires additional transistors and circuitry, a larger list or set of computer instructions tends to make the
microprocessor more complicated and slower in operation.

Besides performance improvement, some advantages of RISC and related design improvements are:

A new microprocessor can be developed and tested more quickly if one of its aims is to be less
complicated.
Operating system and application programmers who use the microprocessor's instructions will find it
easier to develop code with a smaller instruction set.
The simplicity of RISC allows more freedom to choose how to use the space on a microprocessor.
Higher-level language compilers produce more efficient code than formerly because they have always tended
to use the smaller set of instructions to be found in a RISC computer.

RISC characteristics

Simpleinstructionset:
In a RISC machine, the instruction set contains simple, basic instructions, from which more complex
instructions can be composed.
 Samelengthinstructions.
Each instruction is the same length, so that it may be fetched in a single operation.
1machine-cycleinstructions.
Most instructions complete in one machine cycle, which allows the processor to handle several instructions at
the same time. This pipelining is a key technique used to speed up RISC machines.
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

CISC, which stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer, is a philosophy for designing chips that are
easy to program and which make efficient use of memory. Each instruction in a CISC instruction set might
perform a series of operations inside the processor. This reduces the number of instructions required to
implement a given program, and allows the programmer to learn a small but flexible set of instructions.

The advantages of CISC

At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to optimize computer
performance.

Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less expensive than
hardwiring a control unit.
The ease of micro-coding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines upwardly
compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier computers because the new computer
would contain a superset of the instructions of the earlier computers.
As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to implement a given task.
This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main memory.
Because micro program instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-level languages,
the compiler does not have to be as complicated.

Disadvantages of CISC

Still, designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including:
 Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every new version ---
so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each generation of computers.
So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least possible wasted
space, individual instructions could be of almost any length---this means that different instructions will take
different amounts of clock time to execute, slowing down the overall performance of the machine.
Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence --- approximately
20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program.
CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction. Not only does
setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to remember to examine the condition code bits
before a subsequent instruction changes them.

Memory Architecture

There two different types memory architectures there are:

Harvard Architecture
Von-Neumann Architecture
Harvard Architecture

Computers have separate memory areas for program instructions and data. There are two or more internal data
buses, which allow simultaneous access to both instructions and data. The CPU fetches program instructions
on the program memory bus.

The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate storage and signal
pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the Harvard Mark I relay-based computer,
which stored instructions on punched tape (24 bits wide) and data in electro-mechanical counters. These
early machines had limited data storage, entirely contained within the central processing unit, and provided
no access to the instruction storage as data. Programs needed to be loaded by an operator, the processor could
not boot itself.
Figure: Harvard Architecture

Modern uses of the Harvard architecture:

The principal advantage of the pure Harvard architecture - simultaneous access to more than one memory
system - has been reduced by modified Harvard processors using modern CPU cache systems. Relatively pure
Harvard architecture machines are used mostly in applications where tradeoffs, such as the cost and power
savings from omitting caches, outweigh the programming penalties from having distinct code and data address
spaces.
Digital signal processors (DSPs) generally execute small, highly-optimized audio or video
processing algorithms. They avoid caches because their behavior must be extremely reproducible. The
difficulties of coping with multiple address spaces are of secondary concern to speed of execution. As a result,
some DSPs have multiple data memories in distinct address spaces to facilitate SIMD and VLIW processing.
Texas Instruments TMS320 C55x processors, as one example, have multiple parallel data busses (two
write, three read) and one instruction bus.
Microcontrollers are characterized by having small amounts of program (flash memory) and data
(SRAM) memory, with no cache, and take advantage of the Harvard architecture to speed processing by
concurrent instruction and data access. The separate storage means the program and data memories can have
different bit depths, for example using 16-bit wide instructions and 8-bit wide data. They also mean that
instruction pre-fetch can be performed in parallel with other activities. Examples include, the AVR by
Atmel Corp, the PIC by Microchip Technology, Inc. and the ARM Cortex-M3 processor (not all ARM chips
have Harvard architecture).
Even in these cases, it is common to have special instructions to access program memory as data for read-only
tables, or for reprogramming.
Von-Neumann Architecture

A computer has a single, common memory space in which both program instructions and data are stored.
There is a single internal data bus that fetches both instructions and data. They cannot be performed at the
same time

The von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer that uses a central
processing unit (CPU) and a single separate storage structure ("memory") to hold both instructions and data. It
is named after the mathematician and early computer scientist John von Neumann. Such computers implement
a universal Turing machine and have a sequential architecture.

A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as its data, in read-
write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were advancement over the program-
controlled computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and the ENIAC, which were programmed by setting
switches and inserting patch leads to route data and to control signals between various functional units. In the
vast majority of modern computers, the same memory is used for both data and program instructions. The
mechanisms for transferring the data and instructions between the CPU and memory are, however,
considerably more complex than the original von Neumann architecture.

The terms "von Neumann architecture" and "stored-program computer" are generally used interchangeably,
and that usage is followed in this article.

Figure: Schematic of the Von-Neumann Architecture.

Basic Difference between Harvard and Von-Neumann Architecture

 The primary difference between Harvard architecture and the Von Neumann architecture is in the Von
Neumann architecture data and programs are stored in the same memory and managed by the same
information handling system.
Whereas the Harvard architecture stores data and programs in separate memory devices and they are
handled by different subsystems.
In a computer using the Von-Neumann architecture without cache; the central processing unit (CPU)
can either be reading and instruction or writing/reading data to/from the memory. Both of these operations
cannot occur simultaneously as the data and instructions use the same system bus.
In a computer using the Harvard architecture the CPU can both read an instruction and access data
memory at the same time without cache. This means that a computer with Harvard architecture can potentially
be faster for a given circuit complexity because data access and instruction fetches do not contend for use of a
single memory pathway.
Today, the vast majority of computers are designed and built using the Von Neumann architecture
template primarily because of the dynamic capabilities and efficiencies gained in designing, implementing,
operating one memory system as opposed to two. Von Neumann architecture may be somewhat slower than
the contrasting Harvard Architecture for certain specific tasks, but it is much more flexible and allows for
many concepts unavailable to Harvard architecture such as self programming, word processing and so on.
Harvard architectures are typically only used in either specialized systems or for very specific uses. It
is used in specialized digital signal processing (DSP), typically for video and audio processing products. It is
also used in many small microcontrollers used in electronics applications such as Advanced RISK Machine
(ARM) based products for many vendors.

Characteristics
Two major areas of differences are cost and power consumption. Since many embedded systems are
produced in the tens of thousands to millions of units range, reducing cost is a major concern. Embedded
systems often use a (relatively) slow processor and small memory size to minimize costs.The slowness is not
just clock speed. The whole architecture of the computer is often intentionally simplified to lower costs. For
example, embedded systems often use peripherals controlled by synchronous serial interfaces, which are ten to
hundreds of times slower than comparable peripherals used in PCs.Programs on an embedded system often
must run with real-time constraints with limited hardware resources: often there is no disk drive, operating
system, keyboard or screen. A flash drive may replace rotating media, and a small keypad and LCD screen
may be used instead of a PC's keyboard and screen.Firmware is the name for software that is embedded in
hardware devices, e.g. in one or more ROM/Flash memory IC chips.

Embedded systems are routinely expected to maintain 100% reliability while running continuously for
long periods, sometimes measured in years. Firmware is usually developed and tested too much stricter
requirements than is general-purpose software, which can usually be easily restarted if a problem occurs.

Platform
There are many different CPU architectures used in embedded designs. This in contrast to the
desktop computer market, which as of this writing (2003) is limited to just a few competing
architectures, mainly the Intel/AMD x86, and the Apple/Motorola/IBM PowerPC, used in the Apple
Macintosh.One common configuration for embedded systems is the system on a chip, an application-
specific integrated circuit, for which the CPU was purchased as intellectual property to add to the IC's
design.

Tools
Like a typical computer programmer, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers
and debuggers to develop an embedded system.

Those software tools can come from several sources:

Software companies that specialize in the embedded market Ported from the GNU software
development tools. Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the
embedded processor is a close relative to a common PC processor. Embedded system designers also
use a few software tools rarely used by typical computer programmers.Some designers keep a utility
program to turn data files into code, so that they can include any kind of data in a program. Most
designers also have utility programs to add a checksum or CRC to a program, so it can check its
program data before executing it.
Operating system
They often have no operating system, or a specialized embedded operating system (often a real-
time operating system), or the programmer is assigned to port one of these to the new system.

Debugging
Debugging is usually performed with an in-circuit emulator, or some type of debugger that can
interrupt the micro controllers internal microcode.

The microcode interrupt lets the debugger operate in hardware in which only the CPU works. The CPU-based
debugger can be used to test and debug the electronics of the computer from the viewpoint of the CPU. This
feature was pioneered on the PDP-11.

Developers should insist on debugging which shows the high-level language, with breakpoints and single
stepping, because these features are widely available. Also, developers should write and use simple logging
facilities to debug sequences of real-time events.PC or mainframe programmers first encountering this sort of
programming often become confused about design priorities and acceptable methods. Mentoring, code-
reviews and ego less programming are recommended.

Design of embedded systems

The electronics usually uses either a microprocessor or a micro controller. Some large or old
systems use general-purpose mainframes computers or minicomputers.

Start-up
All embedded systems have start-up code. Usually it disables interrupts, sets up the
electronics, tests the computer (RAM, CPU and software), and then starts the application code. Many
embedded systems recover from short-term power failures by restarting (without recent self-tests).
Restart times under a tenth of a second are common.

Many designers have found one of more hardware plus software-controlled LEDs useful to indicate
errors during development (and in some instances, after product release, to produce troubleshooting
diagnostics). A common scheme is to have the electronics turn off the LED(s) at reset, whereupon the
software turns it on at the first opportunity, to prove that the hardware and start-up software have
performed their job so far. After that, the software blinks the LED(s) or sets up light patterns during
 normal operation, to indicate program execution progress and/or errors. This serves to reassure most
technicians/engineers and some users.

The control loop

In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines. Each subroutine
manages a part of the hardware or software. Interrupts generally set flags, or update counters that are
read by the rest of the software.A simple API disables and enables interrupts. Done right, it handles
nested calls in nested subroutines, and restores the preceding interrupt state in the outermost enable.
This is one of the simplest methods of creating an exokernel.Typically, there's some sort of subroutine
in the loop to manage a list of software timers, using a periodic real time interrupt. When a timer
expires, an associated subroutine is run, or flag is set.Any expected hardware event should be backed-
up with a software timer. Hardware events fail about once in a trillion times. That's about once a year
with modern hardware. With a million mass-produced devices, leaving out a software timer is a
business disaster State machines may be implemented with a function-pointer per state-machine (in C+
+, C or assembly, anyway). A change of state stores a different function into the pointer. The function
pointer is executed every time the loop runs. Many designers recommend reading each IO device once
per loop, and storing the result so the logic acts on consistent values.

Many designers prefer to design their state machines to check only one or two things per state.
Usually this is a hardware event, and a software timer.

Designers recommend that hierarchical state machines should run the lower-level state
machines before the higher, so the higher run with accurate information. Complex functions like
internal combustion controls are often handled with multi-dimensional tables. Instead of complex
calculations, the code looks up the values. The software can interpolate between entries, to keep the
tables small and cheap One major weakness of this system is that it does not guarantee a time to
respond to any particular hardware event. Careful coding can easily assure that nothing disables
interrupts for long. Thus interrupt code can run at very precise timings. Another major weakness of this
system is that it can become complex to add new features. Algorithms that take a long time to run must
be carefully broken down so only a little piece gets done each time through the main loop.This
system's strength is its simplicity, and on small pieces of software the loop is usually so fast that
nobody cares that it is not predictable. Another advantage is that this system guarantees that the
software will run. There is no mysterious operating system to blame for bad behavior.
User interfaces
User interfaces for embedded systems vary wildly, and thus deserve some special comment.
Designers recommend testing the user interface for usability at the earliest possible instant. A quick,
dirty test is to ask an executive secretary to use cardboard models drawn with magic markers, and
manipulated by an engineer. The videotaped result is likely to be both humorous and very educational.
In the tapes, every time the engineer talk, the interface has failed: It would cause a service call.

Exactly one person should approve the user interface. Ideally, this should be a customer, the major
distributor or someone directly responsible for selling the system. The decision maker should be able to
decide. The problem is that a committee will never make up its mind, and neither will some people. Not doing
this causes avoidable, expensive delays. A usability test is more important than any number of opinions.
Interface designers at PARC, Apple Computer, Boeing and HP minimize the number of types of user actions.
For example, use two buttons (the absolute minimum) to control a menu system (just to be clear, one button
should be "next menu entry" the other button should be "select this menu entry"). A touch-screen or screen-
edge buttons also minimize the types of user actions.

Another basic trick is to minimize and simplify the type of output. Designs should consider
using a status light for each interface plug, or failure condition, to tell what failed. A cheap variation is
to have two light bars with a printed matrix of errors that they select- the user can glue on the labels for
the language that she speaks. For example, Boeing's standard test interface is a button and some lights.
When you press the button, all the lights turn on. When you release the button, the lights with failures
stay on. The labels are in Basic English. For another example, look at a small computer printer. You
might have one next to your computer. Notice that the lights are labeled with stick-on labels that can be
printed in any language. Really look at it.

Designers use colors. Red means the users can get hurt- think of blood. Yellow means
something might be wrong. Green means everything's OK. Another essential trick is to make any
modes absolutely clear on the user's display.

If an interface has modes, they must be reversible in an obvious way.

Most designers prefer the display to respond to the user. The display should change
immediately after a user action. If the machine is going to do anything, it should start within 7 seconds,
or give progress reports. If a design needs a screen, many designers use plain text. It can be sold as a
temporary expedient. Why is it better than pictures? Users have been reading signs for years. A GUI is
pretty and can do anything, but typically adds a year from artist, approval and translator delays and one
or two programmers to a project's cost, without adding any value. Often, a clever GUI actually
confuses users. If a design needs to point to parts of the machine (as in copiers), these are labeled with
numbers on the actual machine, that are visible with the doors closed. A network interface is just a
remote screen. It needs the same caution as any other user interface. One of the most successful
general-purpose screen-based interfaces is the two menu buttons and a line of text in the user's native
language. It's used in pagers, medium-priced printers, network switches, and other medium-priced
situations that require complex behavior from users When there's text, there are languages. The default
language should be the one most widely understood. Right now this is English. French and Spanish
follow.

Most designers recommend that one use the native character sets, no matter how painful.
People with peculiar character sets feel coddled and loved when their language shows up on machinery
they use. Text should be translated by professional translators, even if native speakers are on staff.
Marketing staff have to be able to tell foreign distributors that the translations are professional.

A foreign organization should give the highest-volume distributor the duty to review and
correct any translations in his native language. This stops critiques by other native speakers, who tend
to believe that no foreign organization will ever know their language as well as they.
AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER

FEATURES
80C51 based architecture
4-Kbytes of on-chip Reprogrammable Flash Memory
128 x 8 RAM
Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
Full duplex serial channel
Boolean processor
Four 8-bit I/O ports, 32 I/O lines
Memory addressing capability
64K ROM and 64K RAM
Power save modes:
Idle and power-down
Six interrupt sources
Most instructions execute in 0.3 us
CMOS and TTL compatible
Maximum speed: 40 MHz @ Vcc = 5V
Industrial temperature available
Packages available:
40-pin DIP

44-pin PLCC

44-pin PQFP
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
THE MICROCONTROLLER:

A microcontroller is a general purpose device, but that is meant to read data, perform limited
calculations on that data and control its environment based on those calculations. The prime use of a
microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine using a fixed program that is stored in ROM and that
does not change over the lifetime of the system. The microcontroller design uses a much more limited set of
single and double byte instructions that are used to move data and code from internal memory to the ALU. The
microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins; the architecture and instruction set are
optimized to handle data in bit and byte size.

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 4k bytes of Flash
Programmable and erasable read only memory (EROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-
density nonvolatile memory technology and is functionally compatible with the industry-standard 80C51
microcontroller instruction set and pin out. By combining versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmels AT89c51 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a high flexible and cost- effective solution
to many embedded control applications.
Pin configuration of AT89c51 Microcontroller
AT89C51 Block Diagram
PIN DESCRIPTION:
VCC

Supply voltage

GND

Ground

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs.

Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during access to
external program and data memory. In this mode, P 0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes
during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are
required during program verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 1output buffers can sink/source
four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups can be used
as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (1) because of the
internal pull-ups.

Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of
the internal pull-ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during
access to DPTR. In this application Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to
external data memory that use 8-bit data address (MOVX@R1), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special
Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.

Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current because of
the internal pull-ups.

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash Programming and verification

Port pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD(serial input port)

P3.1 TXD(serial input port)

P3.2 INT0(external interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1(external interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0(timer 0 external input)

P3.5 T1(timer 1 external input)

P3.6 WR(external data memory write strobe)

P3.7 RD(external data memory read strobe)

RST

Rest input A on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.
ALE/PROG:

Address Latch Enable is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during access to
external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.

In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/16 the oscillator frequency and may be used
for external timing or clocking purpose. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to
external Data memory.

_____

PSEN

Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory when the AT89c51 is executing
code from external program memory PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN
activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.

__

EA /VPP

External Access Enable (EA) must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code
from external program memory locations starting at 0000h up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is
programmed EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to Vcc for internal program
executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (Vpp) during Flash programming
when 12-volt programming is selected.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL 2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

OPERATING DESCRIPTION
The detail description of the AT89C51 included in this description is:

Memory Map and Registers

Timer/Counters

Interrupt System

MEMORY MAP AND REGISTERS

Memory

The AT89C51 has separate address spaces for program and data memory. The program and data
memory can be up to 64K bytes long. The lower 4K program memory can reside on-chip. The AT89C51 has
128 bytes of on-chip RAM. The lower 128 bytes can be accessed either by direct addressing or by indirect
addressing. The lower 128 bytes of RAM can be divided into 3 segments as listed below

1. Register Banks 0-3: locations 00H through 1FH (32 bytes). The device after reset defaults to register bank
0. To use the other register banks, the user must select them in software. Each register bank contains eight 1-
byte registers R0-R7. Reset initializes the stack point to location 07H, and is incremented once to start from
08H, which is the first register of the second register bank.

2. Bit Addressable Area: 16 bytes have been assigned for this segment 20H-2FH. Each one of the 128 bits of
this segment can be directly addressed (0-7FH). Each of the 16 bytes in this segment can also be addressed as
a byte.

3. Scratch Pad Area: 30H-7FH are available to the user as data RAM. However, if the data pointer has been
initialized to this area, enough bytes should be left aside to prevent SP data destruction.
SPECIAL FUNCTION REGISTERS
The Special Function Registers (SFR's) are located in upper 128 Bytes direct addressing area. The SFR
Memory Map in shows that. Not all of the addresses are occupied. Unoccupied addresses are not implemented
on the chip. Read accesses to these addresses in general return random data, and write accesses have no effect.
User software should not write 1s to these unimplemented locations, since they may be used in future
microcontrollers to invoke new features. In that case, the reset or inactive values of the new bits will always be
0, and their active values will be 1.

The functions of the SFRs are outlined in the following sections.

Accumulator (ACC)

ACC is the Accumulator register. The mnemonics for Accumulator-specific instructions, however, refer to the
Accumulator simply as A.

B Register (B)
The B register is used during multiply and divide operations. For other instructions it can be treated as another
scratch pad register.

Program Status Word (PSW)

The PSW register contains program status information.

Stack Pointer (SP)

The Stack Pointer Register is eight bits wide. It is incremented before data is stored during PUSH and CALL
executions. While the stack may reside anywhere in on chip RAM, the Stack Pointer is initialized to 07H after
a reset. This causes the stack to begin at location 08H.

Data Pointer (DPTR)

The Data Pointer consists of a high byte (DPH) and a low byte (DPL). Its function is to hold a 16-bit address.
It may be manipulated as a 16-bit register or as two independent 8-bit registers.

Serial Data Buffer (SBUF)

The Serial Data Buffer is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a receive buffer register. When
data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer, where it is held for serial transmission. (Moving a byte
to SBUF initiates the transmission.) When data is moved from SBUF, it comes from the receive buffer.

Timer Registers

Register pairs (TH0, TL0) and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counter registers for Timer/Counters 0 and 1,
respectively.

Control Registers

Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON contain control and status bits for the
interrupt system, the Timer/Counters, and the serial port.

TIMER/COUNTERS
 The IS89C51 has two 16-bit Timer/Counter registers: Timer 0 and Timer 1. All two can be configured
to operate either as Timers or event counters. As a Timer, the register is incremented every machine cycle.
Thus, the register counts machine cycles. Since a machine cycle consists of 12 oscillator periods, the count
rate is 1/12 of the oscillator frequency.

As a Counter, the register is incremented in response to a 1-to-0 transition at its corresponding external
input pin, T0 and T1. The external input is sampled during S5P2 of every machine cycle. When the samples
show a high in one cycle and a low in the next

cycle, the count is incremented. The new count value appears in the register during S3P1 of the cycle
following the one in which the transition was detected. Since two machine cycles (24 oscillator periods) are
required to recognize a 1-to-0 transition, the maximum count rate is 1/24 of the oscillator frequency. There are
no restrictions on the duty cycle of the external input signal, but it should be held for at least one full machine
cycle to ensure that a given level is sampled at least once before it changes.In addition to the Timer or Counter
functions, Timer 0 and Timer 1 have four operating modes: 13-bit timer, 16-bit timer, 8-bit auto-reload, split
timer.

TIMERS:

OSCILLATOR
FREQUENCY 12D

TLX THX TFX

TR

SFRS USED IN TIMERS

The special function registers used in timers are,

TMOD Register
TCON Register
Timer(T0) & timer(T1) Registers
(i) TMOD Register:

TMOD is dedicated solely to the two timers (T0 & T1).

The timer mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this
SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, or 13 bit timer, 8-bit auto reload
timer, or two separate timers. Additionally you may configure the timers to only count when an
external pin is activated or to count events that are indicated on an external pin.
It can consider as two duplicate 4-bit registers, each of which controls the action of one of the timers.
(ii) TCON Register

The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051s two timers
operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to
indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are located in
TCON SFR.
These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupt flags are activated, which are
set when an external interrupt occurs.

(iii) TIMER 0 (T0):

TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h)

These two SFRs taken together represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how the
timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is
how and when they increment in value.

T H0 T L0

(iv) TIMER 1 (T1):

T1 (Timer 1 Low/High, address 8B/ 8D h)

These two SFRs, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is
configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is Configurable is how and when
they increment in value.

The Timer or Counter function is selected by control bits C/T in the Special Function Register TMOD. These
two Timer/Counters have four operating modes, which are selected by bit pairs (M1, M0) in TMOD. Modes 0,
1, and 2 are the same for both Timer/Counters, but Mode 3 is different.

The four modes are described in the following sections.

Mode 0:

Both Timers in Mode 0 are 8-bit Counters with a divide-by-32 pre scalar. Figure 8 shows the Mode 0
operation as it applies to Timer 1. In this mode, the Timer register is configured as a 13-bit register. As the
count rolls over from all 1s to all 0s, it sets the Timer interrupt flag TF1. The counted input is enabled to the
Timer when TR1 = 1 and either GATE = 0 or INT1 = 1. Setting GATE = 1 allows the Timer to be controlled
by external input INT1, to facilitate pulse width measurements. TR1 is a control bit in the Special Function
Register TCON. Gate is in TMOD.

The 13-bit register consists of all eight bits of TH1 and the lower five bits of TL1. The upper three bits
of TL1 are indeterminate and should be ignored. Setting the run flag (TR1) does not clear the registers.

Mode 0 operation is the same for Timer 0 as for Timer 1, except that TR0, TF0 and INT0 replace the
corresponding Timer 1 signals. There are two different GATE bits, one for Timer 1 (TMOD.7) and one for
Timer 0 (TMOD.3).

Mode 1

Mode 1 is the same as Mode 0, except that the Timer register is run with all 16 bits. The clock is
applied to the combined high and low timer registers (TL1/TH1). As clock pulses are received, the timer
counts up: 0000H, 0001H, 0002H, etc. An overflow occurs on the FFFFH-to-0000H overflow flag. The timer
continues to count. The overflow flag is the TF1 bit in TCON that is read or written by software

Mode 2

Mode 2 configures the Timer register as an 8-bit Counter (TL1) with automatic reload, as shown in
Figure 10. Overflow from TL1 not only sets TF1, but also reloads TL1 with the contents of TH1, which is
preset by software. The reload leaves the TH1 unchanged. Mode 2 operation is the same for Timer/Counter 0.

Mode 3

Timer 1 in Mode 3 simply holds its count. The effect is the same as setting TR1 = 0. Timer 0 in Mode
3 establishes TL0and TH0 as two separate counters. The logic for Mode 3 on Timer 0 is shown in Figure 11.
TL0 uses the Timer 0 control bits: C/T, GATE, TR0, INT0, and TF0. TH0 is locked into a timer function
(counting machine cycles) and over the use of TR1 and TF1 from Timer 1. Thus, TH0 now controls the Timer
1 interrupt.

Mode 3 is for applications requiring an extra 8-bit timer or counter. With Timer 0 in Mode 3, the
AT89C51 can appear to have three Timer/Counters. When Timer 0 is in Mode 3, Timer 1 can be turned on and
off by switching it out of and into its own Mode 3. In this case, Timer 1 can still be used by the serial port as a
baud rate generator or in any application not requiring an interrupt.

INTERRUPT SYSTEM

An interrupt is an external or internal event that suspends the operation of micro controller to inform it
that a device needs its service. In interrupt method, whenever any device needs its service, the device notifies
the micro controller by sending it an interrupt signal. Upon receiving an interrupt signal, the micro controller
interrupts whatever it is doing and serves the device. The program associated with interrupt is called as
interrupt service subroutine (ISR).Main advantage with interrupts is that the micro controller can serve many
devices.

Baud Rate
 The baud rate in Mode 0 is fixed as shown in the following equation. Mode 0 Baud Rate = Oscillator
Frequency /12 the baud rate in Mode 2 depends on the value of the SMOD bit in Special Function Register
PCON. If SMOD = 0 the baud rate is 1/64 of the oscillator frequency. If SMOD = 1, the baud rate is 1/32 of
the oscillator frequency.

Mode 2 Baud Rate = 2SMODx (Oscillator Frequency)/64.

In the IS89C51, the Timer 1 overflow rate determines the baud rates in Modes 1 and 3.

NUMBER OF INTERRUPTS IN 89C51:

There are basically five interrupts available to the user. Reset is also considered as an interrupt. There
are two interrupts for timer, two interrupts for external hardware interrupt and one interrupt for serial
communication.

Memory location Interrupt name

0000H Reset

0003H External interrupt 0

000BH Timer interrupt 0

0013H External interrupt 1

001BH Timer interrupt 1

0023H Serial COM interrupt

Lower the vector, higher the priority. The External Interrupts INT0 and INT1 can each be either level-
activated or transition-activated, depending on bits IT0 and IT1 in Register TCON. The flags that actually
generate these interrupts are the IE0 and IE1 bits in TCON. When the service routine is vectored, hardware
clears the flag that generated an external interrupt only if the interrupt was transition-activated. If the interrupt
was level-activated, then the external requesting source (rather than the on-chip hardware) controls the request
flag.
 The Timer 0 and Timer 1 Interrupts are generated by TF0and TF1, which are set by a rollover in their
respective Timer/Counter registers (except for Timer 0 in Mode 3).When a timer interrupt is generated, the on-
chip hardware clears the flag that is generated.

The Serial Port Interrupt is generated by the logical OR of RI and TI. The service routine normally
must determine whether RI or TI generated the interrupt, and the bit must be cleared in software. All of the
bits that generate interrupts can be set or cleared by software, with the same result as though they had been set
or cleared by hardware. That is, interrupts can be generated and pending interrupts can be canceled in
software.

Each of these interrupt sources can be individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing a bit in
Special Function Register IE (interrupt enable) at address 0A8H. There is a global enable/disable bit that is
cleared to disable all interrupts or to set the interrupts.

IE (Interrupt enable register)

Steps in enabling an interrupt

Bit D7 of the IE register must be set to high to allow the rest of register to take effect. If EA=1,
interrupts are enabled and will be responded to if their corresponding bits in IE are high. If EA=0, no interrupt
will be responded to even if the associated bit in the IE register is high.

Description of each bit in IE register

D7 bit: Disables all interrupts. If EA =0, no interrupt is acknowledged, if EA=1 each interrupt source is
individually enabled or disabled by setting or clearing its enable bit.

D6 bit: Reserved.

D5 bit: Enables or disables timer 2 over flow interrupt (in 8052).

D4 bit: Enables or disables serial port interrupt.

D3 bit: Enables or disables timer 1 over flow interrupt.

D2 bit: Enables or disables external interrupt 1.

D1 bit: Enables or disables timer 0 over flow interrupt.

D0 bit: Enables or disables external interrupt 0.

Interrupt priority in 89C51

There is one more SRF to assign priority to the interrupts which is named as interrupt priority (IP).
User has given the provision to assign priority to one interrupt. Writing one to that particular bit in the IP
register fulfils the task of assigning the priority.

Description of each bit in IP register

D7 bit: Reserved.

D6 bit: Reserved.

D5 bit: Timer 2 interrupt priority bit (in 8052).

D4 bit: Serial port interrupt priority bit.

D3 bit: Timer 1 interrupt priority bit.

D2 bit: External interrupt 1 priority bit.

D1 bit: Timer 0 interrupt priority bit.

D0 bit: External interrupt 0 priority bit.

SOLAR CELL DESCRIPTION

The solar cell is composed of the semiconductors of the P-N junctions [10-11]. It can convert light into electric
energy. Therefore we can assume that electricity produced using sunlight shining on the solar cell can be used
like common electricity. The equivalent circuit of the solar cell is shown in Fig. 1. The current supply I ph
represents the electric current generated from the sun beaming on the solar cell. Rj is the non-linear impedance
of the P-N junction. Dj is a P-N junction diode, Rsh and Rs represent the equivalent lineup with the interior of
the materials and connecting resistances in series. Usually in general analysis, Rsh is large, and the value of Rs
is small. Therefore in order to simplify the process of analysis, one can ignore Rsh and Rs . The symbol Ro
represents the external load. I and V represent the output current and the voltage of the solar cell, respectively.
From the equivalent circuit, and based on the characteristics of the P-N junction, (1) presents the connection
between the output current I and the output voltage V :

Where np represents the parallel integer of the solar cell; ns represents the series connected integer of the solar
cell; q represents the contained electricity in an electro (1.61019 Columbic); k is the Boltzmann constant
(1.381023 J / K ); T is the temperature of the solar cell (absolute temperature K ); and A is the ideal factor
of the solar cell ( A = 1 ~ 5 ). The current sat I in (1) represents the reversion saturation current of the solar
power. Further, sat I can be determined by using the following formula:
 MCU

Where Tr represents the reference temperature of the solar cell; Irr is the reversion saturation current at the
time when the solar cell reaches its temperature Tr ; and EGap is the energy needed for crossing the energy
band gap for the semiconductor materials. (the crystalline EGap 1.1eV ). From the study we are able to
know that when the temperature is fixed, the stronger the sunlight is, and the higher the open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current are. Here we can see the obvious effects of illumination on the short-circuit current,
rather than the open-circuit current. Therefore the solar cell can provide higher output rate as the sunlight
becomes stronger, i.e. solar cell facing the sun.
 Operation

This 30Amp charge controller is designed to protect your 12Volt Lead-acid or Gel-cell battery from
being overcharge by solar panel, which prevents discharge of battery during nighttime. This controller
reduces overall system maintenance and prolongs your battery life. It will continuously display the
charging current or battery voltage in charging proceeding from LCD digital meter; also automatically
indicate your battery condition from LED bar-graph. This controller is design to work with all kinds of
12 Volt solar panels for indoor use.

Features
2. Digital Voltage and Current Continuous display for battery and solar panels

3. Protect and Maintain battery Protect batteries from solar overcharge and maintains batteries in
fully

3charged state
3. Battery Type selected Selected the Gel-cell or Lead-acid battery by selector switch

4. Safety circuit protection Short circuit and reverse polarity protection

5. Reverse leakage protection Protect batteries from solar power discharge

6. Status Lights Colored Battery condition bar-graph

7. Temperature Protection Over temperature protection and auto-resume

Terminal Block for easy wire connections

iii) Mounting Options Can mount any surface or onto a wall

Installation and Operation

WARNING: Follow all safety precautions of the battery manufacturer. Proper ventilation
must be provided for the batteries. Most batteries produce hydrogen gas when charging,
which is extremely explosive. Provide adequate battery ventilation.

DO NOT Expose the battery to open flame, matches, cigarettes or sparks.

CAUTION: DO NOT EXCEED THE UNITS VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RATINGS:

ix) Do not exceed the maximum solar array voltage rating of 26 volts.

x) Do not exceed the maximum current rating of 30 amps.

CAUTION: DO NOT DEVIATE FROM THE RECOMMENDED WIRING

INSTRUCTIONS:
5. Do not reverse Battery (+) and Battery (-) connections to the controller.

6. Do not reverse the Battery and Solar Array connections to the controller.

7. Unplug the controller from the solar array and battery before attempting any
maintenance or cleaning.

8. Do not disassemble the controller. Take it to a qualified service center when service
or repair is required. Incorrect reassembly may result in a risk of damage the unit.

9. Installation should be made by a qualified person.

10. Save these instructions for future reference.
PERSONAL PRECAUTION:

1. If battery acid contacts skin or clothing, wash immediately with soap and water. If
acid enters eye, immediately flush eye with running cold water for at least 10 minutes and
get medical attention immediately.
2. Never smoke or allow a spark or flame in vicinity of battery.

3. Be extra cautious to reduce risk of dropping a metal tool onto battery. It might
spark or short-circuit battery or other electrical part that may cause explosion.

1. Mounting

7. Mounting Consideration: - The solar controller is designed to be flush mounting or wall

mounting.

8. Flush mounting: The flush mounted unit requires a rectangular cutout in the mounting
surface with sufficient space (2-3 inches) behind to accommodate the controller.

9. Wall mounting: The wall-mounted unit is installed onto a wall surface using two mounting
screws. Electrical connections are made to the back of the controller. Wiring can be run down the
wall or through a hole in the wall directly below the controller.

10. Recommended Battery Capacity : 12V 45AH minimum.

2. Connection Procedures (refer to Connection diagram)

II. Fix the mounting of the solar controller panel.
JJ. Select Lead-Acid or Gel-cell Battery modes.

KK. Connect the solar panel positive side to the solar controller ARRAY POSITIVE + by a
suitable wire (Be careful not to short circuit the solar array.)
LL. Connect the solar panel negative side to the solar controller ARRAY NEGATIVE by a
suitable wire

2.6 Connect the Lead-Acid or Gel-cell battery negative side to the solar controller BATTERY
NEGATIVE by a suitable wire.

Any wiring variation of size or length can affect the LCD meter performance

3. Wire size: - Refer to the WIRE SIZE chart below to determine the minimum size wire
needed for each connection. Note that the bigger the wire, the lower the AWG. When using large
stranded wire, you may need to divide the ends into two groups and straddle the screw on the
terminal block. (Based on maximum current)

Battery Connection Solar Array Connection

Distance round trip (meter) Distance round trip (meter)
Length of Wire < 0.6m 6m 9m 12m
AWG 6 or 8 10 8 6

4. Wire type: - When possible, use stranded wire instead of solid wire. Stranded wire does not
fatigue and cause loose connections over time as easily as solid wire. Use red wire for (+) and
black for (). Accept one wire at 6 AWG (stranded) or two wires at 8 AWG. Use crimp
connectors or connect the larger wire to a short, thinner wire using a wire nut (solder these
connections).
5. Connection diagram

and Float mode. During charging period, you can change the select switch to read the battery
voltage or charging current from LCD meter at any time. Battery condition detect by LED bar-
graph. The controller can indicate the battery condition with three states: GOOD, FAIR, LOW.
PWM constant-voltage regulation to prevent heating and excessive battery gassing. Pulse
charging to restore full battery capacity. Float: After battery is fully competed charged, the
battery voltage will reduce to a lower regulated voltage in which safety maintains the battery at
full charge.
LEAD ACID BATTERY
Lead-acid batteries are the most common in PV systems because their initial cost is lower and because
they are readily available nearly everywhere in the world. There are many different sizes and designs of
lead-acid batteries, but the most important designation is that they are deep cycle batteries. Lead-acid
batteries are available in both wet-cell (requires maintenance) and sealed no-maintenance versions. AGM
and Gel-cell deep-cycle batteries are also popular because they are maintenance free and they last a lot
longer.

Lead acid batteries are reliable and cost effective with an exceptionally long life. The
Lead acid batteries have high reliability because of their ability to withstand overcharge, over
discharge vibration and shock. The use of special sealing techniques ensures that our batteries are
leak proof and non-spillable. Other critical features include the ability to withstand relatively
deeper discharge, faster recovery and more chances of survival if subjected to overcharge. The
batteries have exceptional charge acceptance, large electrolyte volume and low self-discharge,
which make them ideal as zero-maintenance batteries.

Lead acid batteries are manufactured/ tested using CAD (Computer Aided Design). These
batteries are used in Inverter & UPS Systems and have the proven ability to perform under
extreme conditions. The batteries have electrolyte volume, use PE Separators and are sealed in
sturdy containers, which give them excellent protection against leakage and corrosion.

Features

Manufactured/tested using CAD

Electrolyte volume

PE Separators

Protection against leakage

Number of batteries needed:

If you use the numbers from the sample load numbers link at the end of the page, you turn out
needing 6310W peak and a total of 20950Wh/day. This comes out at 51 Amps peak and a total of 174
Amp Hours in a day at 120 Volts. To handle these peak loads, it is important to use electrical wiring of the
correct gauge to carry the current. 51 Amps @ 120 Volts (or 526 Amps@12vDC) is hazardous. One
should not forget that batteries have a limited life span. Any system should be designed such that you can
easily replace batteries without disrupting much of your load. You may need to diagnose to determine
what batteries have lost their ability to retain a charge.

Battery connections:

Lead-acid batteries are normally available in blocks of 2V, 6V or 12V. In most cases, to generate
the necessary operating voltage and the capacity of the batteries for the Solar Inverter, many batteries
have to be connected together in parallel and/or in series. Following three examples are shown:

Parallel Connection:
Series Connection:
Parallel-Series Connection:
LED

Introduction:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased, electrons are
able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and
assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster
switching, and greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED
products for general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.

Working: Charge-carrierselectrons and holes

flow into the junction from electrodes with
different voltages. When an electron meets a
hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and
releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and
therefore its color, depends on the band
gap energy of the materials forming the p-n
junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the
electrons and holes recombine by a non-
radiative transition which produces no optical
emission, because these are indirect band
gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies
corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
Colors and materials

Color Wavelength (nm) Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material

Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Infrared > 760 V < 1.9
Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

1.63 < V < Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Red 610 < < 760
2.03 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

2.03 < V <
Orange 590 < < 610 Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
2.10
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Yellow 570 < < 590 2.10 < V < Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
2.18
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)

nitride (GaN)
1.9[42] < V <
Green 500 < < 570 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
4.0
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

2.48 < V < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 450 < < 500
3.7 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development)

2.76 < V <

Violet 400 < < 450 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
4.0

Dual blue/red LEDs,

2.48 < V <
Purple multiple types blue with red phosphor,
3.7
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)

Boron nitride (215 nm)
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)
Ultraviolet < 400 3.1 < V < 4.4
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
(down to 210 nm)

White Broad spectrum V = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

CONCLUSION

With the knowledge of new techniques in Electronics, we are able to make

our life more comfortable. One such application of electronics.

 Solar powered automatic street light controller is one of the applications of

electronics to increase the facilities of life. The use of new electronic theories

has been put down by expertise to increase the facilities given by the existing

appliance. Here the facility of ordinary street light is increased by the making

it controlled automatically

This circuit is simple to use and efficient. It can be assembled with ease. It is

cheap and hence very economic. It is small in size and can be fixing inside

the street light.

It saves around 40% of electricity from per street light. So throughout the

world if we use this concept then it will eliminate the energy crisis to a larger

extent.

It is ecofriendly and utilizes the renewable source of energy very well.

REFERENCES
Website:

www.howstuffworks.com

www.answers.com

www.TLCindia.in

Magazines:

Electronics for you

Electrikindia