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Tourism Management 23 (2002) 541549

Research note
Destination image analysisa review of 142 papers from
1973 to 2000
Steve Pike*
Tourism Management Programme, Waiariki Institute of Technology, Private Bag, Rotorua, New Zealand

Abstract

The analysis of destination image is relatively recent. However, in almost three decades since the first studies emerged, the topic
has become one of the most popular in the tourism research literature. A review of 142 destination image papers, published in the
literature during the period 19732000, was undertaken to provide destination image researchers with a reference guide to the
context, method and focus of previous studies. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Destination image; Travel context

1. Introduction role in an individuals travel purchase related decision


making and that the individual travelers satisfaction/
At the 2000 Travel and Tourism Research Associa- dissatisfaction with a travel purchase largely depends
tion (TTRA) conference in Los Angeles, John Hunt on a comparison of his expectation about the
used the analogy of three peasants breaking in a new destination, or a previously held destination image,
field, to describe the 1970s destination image research and his perceived performance of the destination
undertaken by himself, Edward Mayo and Clare Gunn. (p. 3).
In almost three decades since this early work, the topic
has become one of the most prevalent in the tourism Echtner and Ritchie (1991) examined the conceptua-
literature. lisation and operationalisation of 15 previous studies.
Researchers now have a wealth of destination image Their review concluded that researchers had not yet
literature at their disposal. A review of 142 destination been successful in operationalising destination image.
image papers, published in the literature during the They also found that researchers held a strong
period 19732000, was undertaken to produce a preference for quantitative techniques, with few invol-
synthesis of key characteristics. It was felt that such ving consumers in unstructured methods.
a summary would provide destination marketers with a The current review was limited to the following
useful reference guide. issues:
Two significant reviews of the destination image
literature have previously been reported, both of which
were a decade ago. Chons (1990) review of 23 * How many studies examined destination image in an
frequently cited destination image studies found that explicit travel context?
the most popular themes were the role and influence of * How many studies used a structured approach?
destination image in traveller buyer behaviour and * How many studies utilised qualitative methods in
satisfaction: either the measurement of destination image or in the
development of attribute lists?
The central postulates of the destination image
* What range of methods was used in the data analysis?
studies are that a destination image has a crucial
* Apart from measuring destination image, position-
ing, satisfaction or attribute importance, what other
*Tel.: +64-7-346-8655; fax: +64-7-346-8680. research foci or moderating variables have been of
E-mail address: steve.pike@waiariki.ac.nz (S. Pike). interest?

0261-5177/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 2 6 1 - 5 1 7 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 0 5 - 5
542 S. Pike / Tourism Management 23 (2002) 541549

2. Literature review * A total of 59 papers targeted visitors at destinations,


while 55 papers included consumers at their place
A review of 142 papers in the destination image of residence. The latter approach enables the
literature from the period 19732000 was undertaken. potential capture of previous visitors to the
Table 1 presents a summary of the findings, where destination(s) of interest, as well as non-visitors. A
studies have been presented in chronological order. Due number of papers sought the views of travel trade/
to the way the data have been summarised, the following experts (20), student samples (15), Destination
explanatory notes are provided. Marketing Organisation (DMO) staff (3) and local
Column A lists the number of destinations of interest. residents (2).
Column B lists the number of attributes used as * The papers covered a wide range of interests. These
independent variables in those papers that used were: the effect of visitation (15), segmentation (12),
structured methods. Column C uses U to denote image differences between different groups (8), affect
that unstructured methods were used, either to (6), the effect of distance from the destination (6),
measure destination image or in the design of an intermediaries (6), induced images (5), top of mind
attribute list. Column D lists the number of respon- awareness (ToMA)/decision sets (5), culture (4),
dents/subjects. Column E lists the main techniques temporal image change (3), negative images (3), the
used to analyse data, which were coded as: analysis effect of familiarity with the destination (3), less
of means (A), ranking/preferences (R), repertory developed destinations (3), length of stay (LOS) (3),
grid (G), mapping (M), importance-performance event impact (2), scale validity (2), value (2), image
analysis (I), conjoint analysis (Q), constant sum (S), formation (2), and single papers interested in primary
factor analysis (F), t-tests (T), perceptual mapping/ image, rural tourism, weather, traveller confidence,
multi-dimensional scaling (P), cluster/discriminant impulse decision-making, travel context, barriers to
analysis (C), and other (O). positioning, personal holiday photos, motivation,
experience, stereotypes, budget travellers, intent
to visit and Destination Marketing Organisation
3. Findings (DMO) policy.

* Relatively few papers attempted to measure the


destination image for any specific travel context. In
fact, travel context was explicit in only 23 of the 142
papers.
* The most popular region for study was North 4. Summary
America, which was included in 58 papers. This was
followed by UK/Europe (45), Asia (25), Australasia A total of 142 destination image papers from
(19), Africa (14), Central America/Caribbean (9), the literature during the period 19732000 was
South Pacific (5) and South America (1). reviewed. It was felt that a summary of key
* Over half of the papers (75) measured the perceptions characteristics would provide researchers with a useful
of only one destination, without a frame of reference reference guide to previous studies. For example, if a
to any competing destinations. researcher was interested in applying a specific technique
* The most popular type of destination of interest was such as repertory grid, the table provides eight
countries, which were analysed in 56 papers. This was references to its application in destination image
followed by states (27), cities (26), resort areas (23) research.
and provinces (11). In terms of operationalising destination image,
* The majority of papers (114) used structured there has been recurring criticism of the use of attribute
techniques to operationalise the destination image lists (Dann, 1996). It was apparent from the review,
construct. however, that there is not yet an accepted theory to
* Less than half of the papers (63) reported the use of replace the multi-attribute models. While the destination
qualitative methods, involving consumers, at any image construct has proven difficult to measure,
stage of the research. consumers overall perceptions of a destination may be
* The most popular data analysis technique was factor either favourable or unfavourable (Milman & Pizam,
analysis, which was reported in 41 papers. This was 1995). Clearly, the volume of work in this field
followed by t-tests (21), perceptual mapping (21), emphasises the need for destinations to develop favour-
analysis of means (20), cluster analysis (14), impor- able images. The summary provides references to an
tance-performance analysis (9), repertory grid (8), array of techniques that destination marketers may use
mapping techniques (3), constant sum (2) and to measure whether they have been successful in this
conjoint analysis (1). regard.
S. Pike / Tourism Management 23 (2002) 541549 543

Table 1
Summary of destination image studies 19732000

Author (date) Context Region A Type B C D E Sample Other focus

Mayo (1973) Self-drive Nth America 8 State 1 670 P Visitors Impulse


Anderssen and Colberg (1973) Winter UK/Europe 9 Resort 8 50 FP Students Segmentation
Matejka (1973) Nth America 1 State 20 82 O Consumers
Gearing, Swart, and Var UK/Europe 65 Other 17 1 O Trade/experts
(1974)
Hunt (1975) Nth America 4 State 20 1262 A Consumers
Riley and Palmer (1975) UK/Europe 25 Resort U 60 GFC Consumers
Ehemann (1977) UK/Europe 1 Country 0 O N/A Negative
media
Var, Beck, and Loftus (1977) Nth America 19 Other 17 60 O Trade/experts
Pearce (1977) UK/Europe 1 City U 72 M Visitors LOS,
differences
Goodrich (1977, 1978a, b, Nth America, 9 State, 10 U 230 PCF Consumers Segmentation
1979) Central America country
Ritchie and Zins (1978) N/A 1 Other 20 U 135 F Trade/experts Culture
Scott, Schewe, and Frederick Nth America 4 State 18 313 C Visitors Distance
(1978)
Pizam, Neumann, and Reichel Nth America 1 City 32 U 685 F Visitors
(1978)
Palmer (1978) UK/Europe 10 Other U 60 GP Consumers
Crompton (1979) Central America 1 Country 30 U 617 A Students Distance
Ferrario (1979) Africa 1 Country 21 5053 A Visitors
Pearce (1982) UK/Europe, 2 Country 13 U 97 G Visitors, Visitation
Africa consumers
McLellan and Foushee (1983) Nth America 1 Country 12 221 A Trade/experts Negatives
Haahti and Yavas (1983) UK/Europe 12 Country 10 U 681 A Visitors
Morello (1983) Nth America, 8 Country 12 66 O Students Affect
UK/Europe
Jaffe and Nebenzahl (1984) Nth America, 5 Country 13 200 O Consumers Scale validity
Asia, UK/
Europe, Africa
Crompton and Duray (1985) Nth America 1 State 28 U 544 I Consumers
Silberman (1985) Nth America 1 Resort 7 621 O Visitors LOS
Wee, Hakam, and Ong (1985) Asia 1 Country 14 218 T Visitors Visitation
Witter (1985) Nth America 1 Resort 10 375 TF Visitors, local Differences
Kale and Weir (1986) Asia 1 Country 26 90 A Students Negatives
Dillon, Domzal, and Madden Spring break Nth America, 7 Country, 20 U 80 P Students
(1986) Central America Resort
Perdue (1986) Boating Nth America 3 Other 12 U 430 O Consumers
Gartner (1986) Nth America 4 State 13 1917 T Consumers Temporal
Shih (1986) Nth America 1 State 37 1591 A Consumers Segmentation
Phelps (1986) UK/Europe 1 Resort 32 97 C Visitors Visitation
Gartner and Hunt (1987) Nth America 4 State 11 1917 T Consumers Temporal
Botterill and Crompton (1987) Central America 1 Country U 1 G Visitors Personal
photos
Fridgen (1987) Nth America 9 Province U N/A M Visitors Familiarity
Davis and Sternquist (1987) Nth America 1 Resort 10 306 C Visitors Segmentation
Woodside and Carr (1988) Convention N/A 3 Country U 30 S Consumers Decision sets
Richardson and Crompton Nth America 2 Country 10 624 O Consumers Culture
(1988)
Gartner (1989) Nth America 4 State 15 N/A P Consumers
Woodside and Lysonski Foreign Australasia O Country U 92 S Students Decision sets
(1989) travel
Teye (1989) Nth America 1 State 12 U 326 A Trade/experts Intermediaries
Botterill (1989) Asia 1 Country U 1 G Visitors Visitation
Calantone, Di Benedetto, Asia, Sth Pacific 8 Country 13 363 P Visitors
Hakam, and Bojanic (1989)
Embacher and Buttle (1989) Summer UK/Europe 2 Country U 25 GC Consumers
Yau and Chan (1990) Asia 7 City 31 600 PF Visitors
Roehl (1990) Asia 1 Country 80 O Trade/experts Event impact.
Intermediaries

(continued on next page)


544 S. Pike / Tourism Management 23 (2002) 541549

Table 1 (continued)

Author (date) Context Region A Type B C D E Sample Other focus

Stabler (1990) UK/Europe 9 Resort 13 964 O Visitors Induced


Tang and Rochananond Asia 32 Country 8 339 A Visitors, trade/
(1990) experts
Reilly (1990) Nth America 1 State U 1224 A Consumers
Driscoll and Lawson (1990) Nth America, Sth 12 Country 18 U 1099 P Consumers Segmentation
Pacific, UK/
Europe, Asia,
Australasia
Chon (1990, 1991) Asia 1 Country 26 444 T Visitors Visitation
Chon, Weaver, and Kim Short break Nth America 1 City 15 U 401 I Consumers
(1991)
Pizam, Jafari, and Milman UK/Europe 1 Country 33 62 T Students, Visitation
(1991) Visitors
Bojanic (1991) UK/Europe 1 Country 20 2000 A Consumers Induced
Ahmed (1991) Nth America 1 State 22 1782 FT Consumers
Fakeye and Crompton (1991) Nth America 1 Province 32 568 FT Consumers, Visitation,
visitors LOS, distance
Echtner and Ritchie (1991, UK/Europe, 4 Country 35 U 600 F Students
1993) Central America,
Africa, Asia
Crompton, Fakeye, and Lue Winter Nth America 1 Province 32 U 568 F Consumers,
(1992) longstay visitors
Dadgostar and Isotalo (1992, Nth America 4 City 11 U 260 O Consumers Distance
1995)
Gartner and Shen (1992) Asia 1 Country 32 299 Consumers Event impact
Walmsley and Jenkins (1992) Australasia 1 Resort 115 M Visitors
Javalgi, Thomas, and Rao Self-drive UK/Europe 4 Other 27 9000 F Consumers
(1992)
Gronhaug and Heide (1992) UK/Europe 1 Country 22 88 A Students Stereotypes
Hu and Ritchie (1993) Education Nth America, 5 Country 16 400 T Consumers Context.
travel UK/Europe, Visitation
Asia, Australasia
Ross (1993) Australasia 1 Province 400 O Visitors Budget
travellers
Walmsley and Jenkins (1993) Australasia 8 Resort 6 U 96 GF Visitors, trade/ Affect
experts
Manrai and Manrai (1993) UK/Europe 10 Country 30 U 211 FPT Consumers Experience,
ToMA
Gartner and Bachri (1994) Asia 1 Country 19 51 AO Trade/experts Intermediaries
Husbands (1994) Africa 1 Country 10 135 P Visitors
Driscoll, Lawson, and Niven Nth America, Sth 12 Country 18 U 1099 T Consumers Scale reliability
(1994) Pacific, UK/
Europe, Asia,
Australasia
Amor, Calabug, Abellan, and Sun/beach UK/Europe 1 Province U N/A O Visitors, trade/ Barriers
Montford (1994) experts
King (1994) Sun/beach Australasia, Sth 2 Resort U 60 O Consumers, Distance
Pacific trade/experts
Young (1995) Australasia 10 City, resort, 7 U 180 GF Consumers Affect
state,
province
Weber and Mikacic (1995) UK/Europe 6 City 26 I Visitors
Milman and Pizam (1995) Nth America 1 Province 18 U 750 A Consumers Familiarity
Mazanec (1995) UK/Europe 26 City 6 P Consumers Temporal
Illum and Schaefer (1995) Nth America Other 33 U 375 A DMO staff, Differences
trade/experts
Oppermann (1996) Convention Nth America 30 City 15 123 IF Trade/experts
Ahmed (1996) Nth America 1 State 20 1917 F Consumers Familiarity
Dann (1996) Central America 1 Country U 535 O Visitors Visitation
Bramwell and Rawding (1996) UK/Europe 5 City O DMO staff Induced
Waitt (1996) Australasia 1 Country 25 U 864 F Students
Selby and Morgan (1996) UK/Europe 1 Resort O Consumers, DMO policy
visitors
S. Pike / Tourism Management 23 (2002) 541549 545

Table 1 (continued)

Author (date) Context Region A Type B C D E Sample Other focus

Mazanec (1997) UK/Europe City 23 O Visitors Segmentation


Andersen, Prentice, and UK/Europe 1 Country U 780 O Consumers Culture
Guerin (1997)
Court and Lupton (1997) Nth America 1 State 24 903 FT Consumers Intent
Murphy and Pritchard (1997) Nth America 1 City 4 10531 A Visitors Price-value
Baloglu (1997) Nth America 1 Country 34 330 F Visitors Demographics
Baloglu and Brinberg (1997) UK/Europe 11 Country 4 60 FP Students Affect
Grabler (1997a) UK/Europe 6 City 12 282 FP Consumers
Grabler (1997b) UK/Europe 77 City 40 O DMO staff
Go and Zhang (1997) Convention Asia 1 City 22 U 61 F Trade/experts
Lawton and Page (1997) Australasia 1 City 170 O Visitors Differences
Pritchard (1997) Australasia 1 State 13 U 200 I Visitors
Mackay and Fesenmaier Nth America 1 Other 34 U 257 TF Consumers, Induced
(1997) visitors
Bignon, Hammitt, and Nth America 1 Country 34 639 FC
Norman (1998)
Illiewich (1998) UK/Europe 6 City 35 282 F Consumers
Hudson and Shephard (1998) Skiing UK/Europe 1 Resort 97 U 151 I Visitors
Lubbe (1998) Africa 1 Country U 29 Trade/experts Primary image
Walmsley and Young (1998) Nth America, Sth 16 Country, 6 82 F Consumers Affect
Pacific, UK/ other
Europe, Asia,
Australasia
Dimanche and Moody (1998) Nth America 1 City 30 107 AT Trade/experts Differences
McClennan (1998) Short break UK/Europe 1 Province N/A 911 O Consumers, Visitation
visitors
van Limburg (1998) UK/Europe 1 City 4 45 Q Consumers
Kozak and Nield (1998) UK/Europe 1 Resort 11 U 268 I Visitors Less developed
destinations
Santos (1998) Asia 1 Country 36 O Trade/experts Induced.
Intermediaries
Brown (1998) Central America, 3 Other 53 2469 F Consumers Differences
Africa, Sth
America
Tribe and Snaith (1998) Central America 1 Resort 56 102 T Visitors
Ritchie (1998) Bicycling Australasia 1 Other 13 U 321 FIT Visitors
Yannopoulos and Rotenberg Nth America 1 Province 13 201 F Visitors Distance
(1999)
Chen and Kerstetter (1999) Nth America 1 State 48 U 329 F Students Rural
Nickerson and Moisey (1999) Nth America 1 State 20 U 5783 C Visitors
Schneider and Sonmez (1999) Africa 1 Country 12 65 T Visitors Less developed
destinations
Shanka and Frost (1999) Africa 1 Country U 536 O Students, trade/ Less developed
experts destinations
Vaughan and Edwards (1999) Winter UK/Europe 2 Resort, 17 438 T Visitors Affect
country
Lohmann and Kaim (1999) UK/Europe 6 Province 10 7543 O Consumers Weather
Baloglu and McCleary Summer UK/Europe, 4 Country 14 356 FO Consumers Image
(1999a, b) Africa formation
4 14 448 A Visitation
Mohsin and Ryan (1999) Australasia 1 State 6 U 38 P Trade/experts Intermediaries
Murphy (1999) Backpacking Australasia 1 Country 8 U 383 P Visitors
Young (1999) Australasia 1 Province U 879 FC Visitors Motivation
Dolnicar, Grabler, and UK/Europe 3 City 20 632 P Visitors
Mazanec (1999)
Botha, Crompton, and Kim Africa 1 Resort 20 U 302 TF, Visitors Decision sets,
(1999), Kim, Cromton, and CF target markets
Botha (2000)
Chaudhary (2000) Asia 1 Country 20 U 152 T Visitors Visitation
Murphy, Pritchard, and Smith Nth America 1 City 16 610 O Visitors Value/quality
(2000)

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546 S. Pike / Tourism Management 23 (2002) 541549

Table 1 (continued)

Author (date) Context Region A Type B C D E Sample Other focus

Uysal, Chen, and Williams Nth America 10 State 48 1318 I Consumers


(2000)
Lee (2000) Nth America 3 Resort, 14 458 A Consumers
country
Heung and Qu (2000) Asia 1 City 31 522 F Visitors
Chen and Hsu (2000) Asia Other 17 265 AO Consumers
Mackay and Fesenmaier Nth America 1 State 9 10 P Students Cross-culture
(2000)
Tapachai and Waryszak Nth America, 2 Country 16 U 247 O Students
(2000) Asia
Reisenger and Turner (2000) Nth America, 2 State, resort 27 663 FT Visitors Differences
Australasia
Perdue (2000) Nth America Resort U 2869 O Consumers Confidence
Jutla (2000) Asia 1 City U 100 O Visitors, local Differences
Andreu, Bigne, and Cooper UK/Europe 9 Resort, city 6 U 120 C Visitors Visitation
(2000)
Chacko and Fenich (2000) Convention Nth America 7 City 12 U 291 O Trade/experts Intermediaries
Pritchard and Walkup (2000) Australasia 1 State U 1284 O Visitors

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