PARABOLIC THROUGH SOLAR COLLECTOR IN

THERMAL STEAM ENGINE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

V.JAGADEESH KUMAR 613513114017

C.VENKATRAMAN 613513114045

K.R.GURU KRISHNA 613513114702

D.PUSHPENTHIRAN 613513114705

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DHARMAPURI

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2017
PARABOLIC THROUGH SOLAR COLLECTOR IN
THERMAL STEAM ENGINE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

V.JAGADEESH KUMAR 613513114017

C.VENKATRAMAN 613513114048

K.R.GURU KRISHNA 613513114702

D.PUSHPENTHIRAN 613513114705

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

In

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DHARMAPURI

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2017
 ANNA UNVIERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
BONAFIED CERTIFICATE
This to certified that project report titled PARABOLIC THROUGH
SOLAR COLLECTOR IN THERMAL STEAM ENGINE is the bonafied
work of the following students V.JAGADEESH KUMAR (613513114017),
C.VENKATRAMAN (613513114048), K.R.GURU KRISHNA (613513114702),
and D.PUSHPENTHIRAN (613513114705)
Those who carried out the project work under my supervision

Prof.S. NADARAJAN M.E.., M.VIJAY M.E..,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PROJECT GUIDE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DHARMAPURI - 636704. DHARMAPURI 636704.

Submitted for the university examination held at Government College of

Engineering, Dharmapuri on .

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to our beloved Principal
Mrs. Dr. P.THAMARAI M.E.., PhD, for providing us the great opportunity with all
facilities required for successful of our project work.

We express our sincere thanks to the ever active Head of the Department,
Mechanical Engineering Mr. Prof.S. NADARAJAN M.E..,M.I.S.T.E.., who with
her careful supervision has ensured us in attaining perfection of work.

Not the more formality but from the depth of our heart, we extend our
sincere thanks to our project supervisor Mr. M.VIJAY.., M.E.., for her valuable
suggestion, motivation and constant encouragement.

At the outset we express our profound thanks to our esteemed Class Advisor
Mr. M.VIJAY.., M.E.., for his dynamic role in elevating our department to greater
by providing us with all the essential facilities.

We really indebted to our parents, faculty member and our friends for their
timely help morally with the blessings of the almighty; we will continue to feel the
success.
 ABSTRACT

Solar thermal-driven heat engines for water pumping have been previously
reviewed for some authors in the past century. However, some devices have not
been treated as metal hydride-based systems or the pumping subsystems of solar
thermal-driven reverse osmosis desalination systems. Following the typical
classification given in the previous literature, in this work an update of the solar
heat engines for water pumping based in thermodynamic methods (conventional
and unconventional) is presented. Besides new designs found in the literature are
described. In general, the main characteristics of these systems is their low
efficiency, low power output and, in the case of unconventional designs, its
simplicity. This work in conjunction with previous review papers make up
reference point for the knowledge of the use of solar thermal energy for liquid
pumping purpose.

A number of attempts have been made by scientists to utilize solar energy

for irrigation water pumping. It is mainly a problem of conversion of heat energy
available from the sun\ to mechanical energy some ingenious methods have been
devised to utilize the available energy at low temperatures.

This paper reviews paste to develop solar thermal water pumping systems which
employ either conventional pumps or unconventional pumps and emphasizes how
pumping conditions and requirements.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
ABSTRACT i

LIST OF FIGURES iv

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF SYMBOLS vi

1 INTRODUCTION 01

2 METHODS OF WOKING 02

2.1 Conventional thermodynamic method 02

2.2 Unconventional thermodynamic method 03

3 SPECIFICATION 04

4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 05

5 TYPES OF SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM 06

5.1 Parabolic through system 06

5.2 Parabolic dish (Stirling engine) 07

5.3 Central receiver system 08

6 LITERATURE REVIE 10

6.1 List of materials 10

6.1.1 Polymer station stainless steel sheet 10

6.1.2 Copper tube 11

6.1.3 Heat exchanger 13

ii
6.1.4 Suction pump (DC) 20

6.1.5 AC to DC Adapter 24

6.1.6 Control valves 26

6.1.7 Battery 28

6.1.8 Thermometer 30

6.1.9 Stand setup for PTC 32

6.1.10 Single acting piston 34

6.1.11 Water tank 36

7 BLOCK DIAGRAM 37

8 WORKING PRINCIPLE 38

8.1 Vapour cycle based system 40

8.2 Liquid piston system 41

8.3 Metal hydride based system 42

8.4 Solar parabolic through performance 44

9 ADVANTAGES 52

10 APPLICATIONS 53

11 CONCLUSION 54

12 REFERENCES 56

iii
LIST OF FIGURES:

FIG NO NAME OF FIGURE PAGE NO

5.1 Parabolic through schematic 06

5.2 Parabolic dish schematic 07

5.3 Central receiver schematic 08

6.1.1 Polymer station stainless steel sheet 11

6.1.2 Copper tube 12

6.1.3 Helical coil heat exchanger 19

6.1.4 Suction pump (DC) 22

6.1.5 AC to DC adapter 25

6.1.6 Butterfly type control valve 27

6.1.7 Battery 29

6.1.8 Thermometer 31

6.1.9 Stand setup for PTC 33

6.1.10 Single acting cylinder 35

6.1.11 Water tank 36

8.4 Dimensions and parameters 50

iv
LIST OF TABLES:

NAME OF TABLES PAGE NO

1. Solar Radiation and Parabolic Through 43

2. Solar Radiation at Patna 46

3. Dimensions and Parameters 49

4. Comparison of current performance 51

v
LIST OF SYMBOLS:
The following symbols have been used in our project and its meaning is
clearly mentioned respective to it:

SYMBOLS DESCRIPTION
N mm Newton per millimeter square

m/s Meter per second

V Velocity of fluid

Impingement angle

% Percentage

MW Mega watt

K Kelvin

MPa Mega Pascal

C Degree Centigrade

Z Mass fraction of fluid flow

KW Kilo watt

Kg/s Kilogram per second

mg.kg Milligram, Kilogram

vi
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION:

adsorption desorption cycles. Solar water pumping is a process that can be

carried out with direct conversion methods or with thermodynamic methods. In the
first case, solar energy turns into electric energy so the produced electric current
drives the conventional pumps motor. As for the thermodynamic methods, its
operation principle is the conversion of thermal energy into work by means of
power cycles or hydrogen

Solar thermal heat engines based in thermodynamics methods have been

reviewed previously. In a previous paper, a review of solar thermal-driven reverse
osmosis desalination systems has been published. In these systems, a solar heat
engine that fits to a CTM is used to pressurize the feed water of the reverse
osmosis unit. Due to the similarity between the operational schemes of such
systems with the solar heat engines for irrigation or human use purpose, some
information given in the review of Delgado- Torres and Garca-Rodrguez can
be considered as an additional contribution to the knowledge of the solar heat
engines designed or proposed for liquid pumping.

As for the thermodynamic methods, its operation the solar radiation with a
solar collector is the energy source of the process.

01
 CHAPTER-2

METHODS OF WORKING:

2.1Conventional thermodynamic method (CTM)

2.2Unconventional thermodynamics method (UTM)

2.1 Conventional thermodynamic method (CTM)

In this paper the information about the outstanding CTM solar thermal heat
engines. Most designs of solar thermal heat engines for water pumping based on
the CTM scheme developed before I World War are quoted in Table 1. The
research on these systems dates from second half of the 19th century with the
works of Augustine Mouchot and Abel Pilfer.

These researchers used as solar thermal systems truncated cones with

copper tubes placed along its axis acting as boilers between 1865 and 1880.

At the beginning of 20th century the systems developed by Aubrey Eneas

and Frank Shuman stands out. A. Eneas began using parabolic collectors for the
design of solar heat engines. As a consequence of certain technical problems, this
initiative was given up later and the truncated conical reflector geometry was
adopted. As can be observed in previous tables, Rankine cycle usually with water
or an organic compound as working fluids and also a binary cycle with water as
heat transfer fluid in the top cycle and an organic compound in a bottom Rankine
cycle are the common power cycles used in the CTM.

02
2.2 Unconventional thermodynamics methods (UTM)

The development of solar thermal heat engines for water pumping whose
operation fits to a UTM has been less noticeable than the systems based in CTM.
The operation principle of these systems is almost the same in all the designs
found in the literature reviewed, identifying three variants the heating and
evaporation of a working fluid causes the water pumping whereas the subsequent
vapour condensation causes the suction of the liquid from the well or vessel from
which is extracted, the alternative heating and cooling of a gas causes the pumping
and suction of the water to be lifted and the heating of a chemical compound
causes the generation of a gas at a pressure that permits the water pumping
whereas the cooling of the chemical compound induces the adsorption of the gas
and a pressure reduction occurs. This pressure reduction is used for the water
suction from a lower level. The latter is the operation principle of metal hydride-
based systems.
Depending on the cooling way of the pump, one can distinguish between
solar thermal air-cooled pumping system and solar thermal water-cooled pumping
systems. In the second one, the previous pumped water acts as cooling medium
being this the more common way. The subsequently vapour cooling and
condensation entails a pressure drop inside the tank that causes the suction of the
liquid from a lower level to the tank. The saturated vapour generation takes place
in a boiler where the solar radiation is concentrated.

03
 CHAPTER-3
SPECIFICATION:
A system has been constructed by detailed dimensions and parameters to
fabricate a total process of system details are mentioned:

1. Length of Stainless Sheet - 1250mm

2. Width of Stainless Sheet - 1000mm
3. Thickness of Stainless Sheet - 0.4mm
4. Diameter of Copper tube - 0.5mm
5. Height of Stand - 440mm
6. Width of Stand - 40mm
7. Height of Face Plate - 270mm
8. Width of Face Plate - 0.5mm
9. Rotation Angle of SS Sheet - 270
10.Angle Position of SS Sheet - 45
11.Height of Water Tank - 205mm
12.Width of Water Tank - 205mm
13.Thickness of Water Tank - 0.3mm

04

CHAPTER-4
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN:
 05

CHAPTER-5

TYPES OF SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS:

 5.1 Parabolic through system

5.2 Parabolic dish (Stirling Engine)

5.3 Central tower

5.1 PARABOLIC THROUGH SYSTEM:

Directly heat the water that will be used in the steam turbine, or steam
engine. Directly heat water that in turn is circulated through a hot tank of
molten salt, with the molten salt storing heat and in turn heating the steam
that is used in a steam turbine, as illustrated in the following diagram.

5.1 Parabolic through schematic

06

5.2 PARABOLIC DISH SCHEMATIC:

To declare their environmental impact for comparison with other renewable

techniques. Evaluation of their contribution to the reduction of
 environmental impact. To environmentally label STS in order to compete
with low environmental performance STS products. To maintain continuous
development of environmental improvements.

5.2 Parabolic dish schematic

07

5.3 CENTRAL RECEIVER SCHEMATIC:

 Large-scale introduction of STS. Often complementary unit to another
heating system .To promote operational advantages compared to resource
use. The oceans cover a little more than 70 percent of the earth surface. This
makes them the world largest solar energy collector and energy storage
system.

5.3 Central receiver schematic

08

CHAPTER-6
LITERATURE REVIEW:

A list of materials used for working the Parabolic through Solar Collector in
Steam Engine has been detailed review of a project materials are discussed below.

6.1 LIST OF MATERIALS:

1. Polymer station Stainless Steels Sheet

2. Copper Tubes
3. Heat Exchanger
4. Suction Pumps (DC)
5. AC to DC Adapter
6. Control Valves
7. Battery
8. Thermometer
9. Stand Setup for PTC
10.Single Acting Piston
11.Water Tank

09

6.1.1 P0LYMER STATION STAINLESS STEEL SHEET:

Sheet metal is metal formed by an industrial process into thin, flat pieces. It
is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking and it can be cut and bent
into a variety of shapes. Countless everyday objects are fabricated from sheet
metal. Thicknesses can vary significantly; extremely thin thicknesses are
considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are considered plate.
 Sheet metal is available in flat pieces or coiled strips. The coils are formed
by running a continuous sheet of metal through a roll slitter. The thickness of sheet
metal is in the USA commonly specified by a traditional, non-linear measure
known as its gauge. The larger the gauge number, the thinner the metal. Commonly
used steel sheet metal ranges from 30 gauges to about 7 gauges. Gauge differs
between ferrous iron based metals and nonferrous metals such as aluminum or
copper; copper thickness, for example is measured in ounces, which represents the
thickness of one ounce of copper rolled out to an area of one square foot. In the
rest of the world, the sheet metal thickness is given in millimeters.

Grade 304 is the most common of the three grades. It offers good corrosion
resistance while maintaining formability and weld ability. Available finishes are
#2B, #3, and #4. Grade 303 is not available in sheet form. Grade 316 possesses
more corrosion resistance and strength at elevated temperatures than 304. It is
commonly used for pumps, valves, chemical equipment, and marine applications.
Available finishes are #2B, #3, and #4. Grade 410 is a heat treatable stainless steel,
but it has a lower corrosion resistance than the other grades. It is commonly used
in cutlery. The only available finish is dull. Grade 430 is popular grade, low cost
alternative to series 300's grades.

10
 6.1.1 Polymer station Stainless Steel Sheet

There are many different metals that can be made into sheet metal, such
as aluminum, brass, copper, steel, tin, nickel and titanium. For decorative uses,
important sheet metals include silver, gold, and platinum (platinum sheet metal is
also utilized as a catalyst.)

6.1.2 COPPER TUBE:

Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold tap water, and as
refrigerant line in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft
copper and rigid copper. Copper tubing is joined using flare connection,
compression connection, or solder. Copper offers a high level of corrosion
resistance, but is becoming very costly.

TYPES:
1. Soft Copper
2. Rigid Copper

11
Soft Copper:
Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles
in the path of the tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to
size the tubing makes the copper hard or rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it
soft again; it is therefore more expensive to produce than non-annealed, rigid
copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods used for rigid copper,
and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft copper
is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and
heat pumps.

Rigid Copper:
Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat,
roll grooved, compression or crimped/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due
to the work hardening of the drawing process, cannot be bent and must use elbow
fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and allowed to cool in a
process called annealing, rigid copper will become soft and can be bent/formed
without cracking.

6.1.2 Copper Tubes

12
6.1.3 HEAT EXCHANGER:

A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between a solid object and
a fluid, or between two or more fluids. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall
to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact. They are widely used in space
heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical plants,
petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural-gas processing, and sewage
treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal
combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows
through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and
heats the incoming air. Another example is the heat sink, which is a passive heat
exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an electronic or a mechanical device
to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid coolant.

The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position,
but an appropriate means temperature can be defined. In most simple systems this
is the "log mean temperature difference" (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of
the LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used.

For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of
the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through
the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of
fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area and may
channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.

13
 There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their
flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the
exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In
counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends.
The counter current design is the most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat
from the heat (transfer) medium per unit mass due to the fact that the average
temperature difference along any unit length is higher. See countercurrent
exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to
one another through the exchanger.

1. Shell and tube heat exchanger, single pass (11 parallel flow):
2. Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-pass tube side (12 cross flow):
3. Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-pass shell side, 2-pass tube side (2-2
countercurrent)

This is a heat exchanger with a gas passing upwards through a shower of

fluid (often water), and the fluid is then taken elsewhere before being cooled. This
is commonly used for cooling gases whilst also removing certain impurities, thus
solving two problems at once. It is widely used in espresso machines as an energy-
saving method of cooling super-heated water to use in the extraction of express.

14
Shell and tube heat exchanger:
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of series of tubes. One set of these
tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs
over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat
or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be
made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube
heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures
greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260 C). This is because the shell
and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape. Several thermal design
features must be considered when designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat
exchangers: There can be many variations on the shell and tube design. Typically,
the ends of each tube are connected to plenums (sometimes called water boxes)
through holes in tube sheets. The tubes may be straight or bent in the shape of a U,
called U-tubes.

Fixed tube liquid-cooled heat exchangers especially suitable for marine and
harsh applications can be assembled with brass shells, copper tubes, brass baffles,
and forged brass integral end hubs. (See: Copper in heat exchangers).

6.1.3.1 Typical kettle boiler used for industrial distillation towers

15
 Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined
to ensure:
There is enough room for corrosion

That flow-induced vibration has resistance

Axial strength

Availability of spare parts

Hoop strength (to withstand internal tube pressure)

Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell)

Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller
shell diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make
the heat exchanger as long as physically possible whilst not exceeding
production capabilities. However, there are many limitations for this, including
space available at the installation site and the need to ensure tubes are available
in lengths that are twice the required length.

6.1.3.2 Straight tube heat exchanger

16
 Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube
pitch (i.e., the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25
times the tubes' outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall
shell diameter, which leads to a more expensive heat exchanger.
Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes,
increases the turbulence of the fluids and the effect is very important in the heat
transfer giving a better performance.
Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are
four main types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30), rotated triangular
(60), square (90) and rotated square (45). The triangular patterns are
employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a more
turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed where high
fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.

Baffle Design: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct
fluid across the tube bundle. They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the
bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length. They can also
prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is the
segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at 180 degrees
to the adjacent baffles forcing the fluid to flow upward and downwards between
the tube bundles. Baffle spacing is of large thermodynamic concern when
designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be spaced with
consideration for the conversion of pressure drop and heat transfer. For thermo
economic optimization it is suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than
20% of the shells inner diameter. Having baffles spaced too closely causes a
greater pressure drop because of flow redirection.

17
Plate fin heat exchanger:
This type of heat exchanger uses "sandwiched" passages containing fins to
increase the effectiveness of the unit. The designs include cross flow and counter
flow coupled with various fin configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and
wavy fins. Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminum alloys,
which provide high heat transfer efficiency. The material enables the system to
operate at a lower temperature difference and reduce the weight of the equipment.
Plate and fin heat exchangers are mostly used for low temperature services such as
natural gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and
transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines.

Advantages of plate and fin heat exchangers:

High heat transfer efficiency especially in gas treatment

Larger heat transfer area

Approximately 5 times lighter in weight than that of shell and tube heat
exchanger.
Able to withstand high pressure

Disadvantages of plate and fin heat exchangers:

Might cause clogging as the pathways are very narrow

Difficult to clean the pathways

Aluminum alloys are susceptible to Mercury Liquid Embrittlement Failure

 18

Pillow plate heat exchanger:

A pillow plate exchanger is commonly used in the dairy industry for cooling
milk in large direct-expansion stainless steel bulk tanks. The pillow plate allows
for cooling across nearly the entire surface area of the tank, without gaps that
would occur between pipes welded to the exterior of the tank.

The pillow plate is constructed using a thin sheet of metal spot-welded to the
surface of another thicker sheet of metal. The thin plate is welded in a regular
pattern of dots or with a serpentine pattern of weld lines. After welding the
enclosed space is pressurized with sufficient force to cause the thin metal to bulge
out around the welds, providing a space for heat exchanger liquids to flow, and
creating a characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow formed out of metal.

6.1.3.3 Helical-Coil Heat Exchanger

 19

6.1.4 SUCTION PUMP (DC):

A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes

slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups
according to the method they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and
gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or
rotary), and consume energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid.
Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual operation, electricity,
engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical
applications to large industrial pumps. Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of
applications such as pumping water from wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering
and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy
industry for pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In the
medical industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes in developing and
manufacturing medicine, and as artificial replacements for body parts, in particular
the artificial heart and penile prosthesis.

1. Single stage pump - When in a casing only one impeller is revolving then it
is called single stage pump.
2. Double/ Multi stage pump - When in a casing two or more than two
impellers are revolving then it is called double/ multi stage pump.
3. In biology, many different types of chemical and bio-mechanical pumps
have evolved, and bio mimicry is sometimes used in developing new types
of mechanical pumps.
 20

Priming pump:
Typically, a liquid pump can't simply draw air. The feed line of the pump
and the internal body surrounding the pumping mechanism must first be filled with
the liquid that requires pumping: An operator must introduce liquid into the system
to initiate the pumping. This is called priming the pump. Loss of prime is usually
due to ingestion of air into the pump. The clearances and displacement ratios in
pumps for liquids, whether thin or more viscous, usually cannot displace air due to
its compressibility. This is the case with most velocity (rotor dynamic) pumps for
example, centrifugal pumps.

Positivedisplacement pumps, however, tend to have sufficiently tight sealing

between the moving parts and the casing or housing of the pump that they can be
described as self-priming. Such pumps can also serve as priming pumps, so called
when they are used to fulfill that need for other pumps in lieu of action taken by a
human operator.

6.1.4.1 Suction Pump (DC)

 21

The predecessor to the vacuum pump was the suction pump, which was
known to the Romans. Dual-action suction pumps were found in the city
of Pompeii. Arabic engineer Al-Jazari also described suction pumps in the 13th
century. He said that his model was a larger version of the siphons the Byzantines
used to discharge the Greek fire. The suction pump later reappeared in Europe
from the 15th century.

Positive displacement pumps use a mechanism to repeatedly expand a

cavity, allow gases to flow in from the chamber, seal off the cavity, and exhaust it
to the atmosphere. Momentum transfer pumps, also called molecular pumps, use
high speed jets of dense fluid or high speed rotating blades to knock gas molecules
out of the chamber. Entrapment pumps capture gases in a solid or adsorbed state.
This includes cryopumps, getters, and ion pumps.

6.1.4.2 Blower Type Suction Pump

 22

Positive displacement pumps are the most effective for low vacuums.
Momentum transfer pumps in conjunction with one or two positive displacement
pumps are the most common configuration used to achieve high vacuums. In this
configuration the positive displacement pump serves two purposes. First it obtains
a rough vacuum in the vessel being evacuated before the momentum transfer pump
can be used to obtain the high vacuum, as momentum transfer pumps cannot start
pumping at atmospheric pressures. Second the positive displacement pump backs
up the momentum transfer pump by evacuating to low vacuum the accumulation of
displaced molecules in the high vacuum pump. Entrapment pumps can be added to
reach ultrahigh vacuums, but they require periodic regeneration of the surfaces that
trap air molecules or ions. Due to this requirement their available operational time
can be unacceptably short in low and high vacuums, thus limiting their use to
ultrahigh vacuums. Pumps also differ in details like manufacturing tolerances,
sealing material, pressure, flow, admission or no admission of oil vapor, service
intervals, reliability, tolerance to dust, tolerance to chemicals, tolerance to liquids
flow.

6.1.4.3 Vacuum
Pump

23

6.1.5 AC TO DC
ADAPTER:
 An AC adapter, AC/DC adapter, or AC/DC converter is a type of
external power supply, often enclosed in a case similar to an AC plug. Other
common names include plug pack, plug-in adapter, adapter block, domestic mains
adapter, line power adapter, wall wart, power brick, and power adapter. Adapters
for battery-powered equipment may be described as chargers or rechargers (see
also battery charger). AC adapters are used with electrical devices that require
power but do not contain internal components to derive the required voltage and
power from mains power. The internal circuitry of an external power supply is very
similar to the design that would be used for a built-in or internal supply.

External power supplies are used both with equipment with no other source
of power and with battery-powered equipment, where the supply, when plugged in,
can sometimes charge the battery in addition to powering the equipment.

Use of an external power supply allows portability of equipment powered

either by mains or battery without the added bulk of internal power components,
and makes it unnecessary to produce equipment for use only with a specified
power source; the same device can be powered from 120 VAC or 230 VAC mains,
vehicle or aircraft battery by using a different adapter.

Losses in the transformer and the linear regulator were considerable;

efficiency was relatively low, and significant power dissipated as heat even when
not driving a load.

24
 Originally, most AC/DC adapters were linear power supplies, containing
a transformer to convert the mains electricity voltage to a lower voltage,
a rectifier to convert it to pulsating DC, and a filter to smooth the pulsating
waveform to DC, with residual ripple variations small enough to leave the powered
device unaffected. Size and weight of the device was largely determined by the
transformer, which in turn was determined by the power output and mains
frequency. Ratings over a few watts made the devices too large and heavy to be
physically supported by a wall outlet. The output voltage of these adapters varied
with load; for equipment requiring a more stable voltage, linear voltage
regulator circuitry was added.

6.1.5 Ac to Dc Adapter

25

6.1.6 CONTROL VALVES:

 A flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of a fluid. Control valves
normally respond to signals generated by independent devices such as flow
meters or gauges. Control valves are normally fitted with actuators and
positioners. Pneumatically-actuated globe valves and Diaphragm Valves are widely
used for control purposes in many industries, although quarter-turn types such
ball, gate and butterfly valves are also used.

Control valves can also work with hydraulic actuators (also known as
hydraulic pilots). These types of valves are also known as Automatic Control
Valves. The hydraulic actuators will respond to changes of pressure or flow and
will open/close the valve. Automatic Control Valves do not require an external
power source, meaning that the fluid pressure is enough to open and close the
valve.

6.1.6.1 Control Valve

26

Automatic control valves include: pressure reducing valves, flow control

valves, back-pressure sustaining valves, altitude valves, and relief valves. An
altitude valve controls the level of a tank. The altitude valve will remain open
while the tank is not full and it will close when the tanks reaches its maximum
level. The opening and closing of the valve requires no external power source
(electric, pneumatic, or man power), it is done automatically, process plants consist
of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked together to produce
a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is designed to keep
some important process variable such as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc.
within a required operating range to ensure the quality of the end product. Each of
these loops receives and internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the
process variable, and interaction from other loops in the network provides
disturbances that influence the process variable. The control valve manipulates a
flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to compensate
for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as
possible to the desired set point.

6.1.6.2 Butterfly Control Valve

27

6.1.7 BATTERY:
 An automotive battery is a rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy
to an automobile. Traditionally, this is called an SLI, for starting, lighting, ignition,
and its main purpose is to start the engine. Once the engine is running, power for
the car is supplied by the alternator. Typically, starting discharges less than three

per cent of the battery capacity. SLI batteries are designed to release a high burst
of current, measured in amperes, and then be quickly recharged. They are not
designed for deep discharge, and a full discharge can reduce the battery's lifespan.

As well as starting the engine an SLI battery supplies the extra power
necessary when the vehicle's electrical requirements exceeds the supply from the
charging system. It is also a stabilizer, evening out potentially-damaging voltage
spikes. While the engine is running, most of the power is provided by the
alternator, which includes a voltage regulator to keep the output between 13.5 and
14.5 V.

Modern SLI batteries are lead-acid type and provide 12.6 volts of direct
current, nominally 12 V. The battery is actually six cells connected serially. Battery
electric vehicles are powered by a high-voltage electric vehicle battery, but they
usually have an automotive battery as well, so that it can be equipped with standard
automotive accessories which are designed to run on 12 V.

About 97 per cent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that
over 12 million third world people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB
processing.

28
 Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources
required for manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and
prevents risk of improper disposal. Once a lead acid battery ceases to hold a
charge, it is deemed a used lead acid battery (ULAB), which is classified
as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery is the most
recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are
replaced, and 99 percent of them are turned in for recycling. However the recycling
may be done incorrectly in unregulated environments. As part of global waste
trade ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to developing countries for
disassembly and recuperation of the contents.

6.1.7 Lead Acid Battery

29
6.1.8 THERMOMETER:

A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature

gradient. A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g.
the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer) in which some physical change occurs
with temperature, and (2) some means of converting this physical change into a
numerical value (e.g. the visible scale that is marked on a mercury-in-glass
thermometer). Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate
processes, in the study of weather, in medicine, and in scientific research.

There are various principles by which different thermometers operate. They

include the thermal expansion of solids or liquids with temperature, and the change
in pressure of a gas on heating or cooling. Radiation-type thermometers measure
the infrared energy emitted by an object, allowing measurement of temperature
without contact. Most metals are good conductors of heat and they are solids at
room temperature. Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature, and
has high coefficient of expansion. Hence, the slightest change in temperature is
notable when it's used in a thermometer. This is the reason behind mercury and
alcohol being used in thermometer.

The most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature

Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K (272.5 C; 458.5 F) to approximately
1,358 K (1,085 C; 1,985 F).

30
Primary and secondary thermometers:

A thermometer is called primary or secondary based on how the raw

physical quantity it measures is mapped to a temperature. As summarized by
Kauppinenetal. "For primary thermometers the measured property of matter is
known so well that temperature can be calculated without any unknown quantities.
Examples of these are thermometers based on the equation of state of a gas, on the
velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise voltage or current of an electrical
resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of certain
radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field.

In contrast, "Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their

convenience. Also, they are often much more sensitive than primary ones. For
secondary thermometers knowledge of the measured property is not sufficient to
allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be calibrated against a
primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed
temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting
transitions, occur reproducibly at the same temperature.

6.1.8. Thermometer

31
6.1.9 STAND SETUP FOR PTC:

A Fabrication of stand setup for Parabolic through Solar Collector in Steam

engine has been done over by two types process hence they are:

1. Bending of Frame
2. Welding
3. Sheet Metal Process
The stand setup of process in conduct by an Mild Steel Frame (MS) material is
used to fabricated stand and construct a Polymer Station Stainless Steel Sheet of
0.5mm thickness is folding by an sheet metal process into an even shape of both
ends of sheet.

A construction of stand setup of PTC in an parabolic curved shape hence

process of sheet metal work in consider a parabolic curve shape of Polymer
Station Stainless Steel Sheet, and process of frame work is taken over a welding
process therefore frame is enable through arc welding of total stand setup is
consider over a frame make accuracy angle of sun light fall over Polymer Station
Stainless Steel Sheet to absorbed a heat energy deliver through a copper tubes and
it converts into a steam energy.

32
 6.1.9 Stand Setup for PTC

Arc welding is use to engaging a frame and stainless steel sheet at corrected
position to directly sun light falls over a sheet to absorbed heat energy converted
into steam energy by parabolic arrangement of (SS) sheet.

33
6.1.10 SINGLE ACTING PISTON:

A single-acting cylinder in a reciprocating engine is a cylinder in which

the working fluid acts on one side of the piston only. A single-acting cylinder relies
on the load, springs, other cylinders, or the momentum of a flywheel, to push the
piston back in the other direction. Single-acting cylinders are found in most kinds
of reciprocating engine. They are almost universal in internal combustion
engines (e.g. petrol and diesel engines) and are also used in many external
combustion engines such as Stirling engines and some steam engines. They are
also found in pumps and hydraulic rams.

Their pistons are usually trunk pistons, where the gudgeon pin joint of the
connecting rod is within the piston itself. This avoids the crosshead, piston rod and
its sealing gland, but it also makes a single-acting piston almost essential. This, in
turn, has the advantage of allowing easy access to the bottom of the piston for
lubricating oil, which also has an important cooling function. This avoids local
overheating of the piston and rings.

Normally use double-acting cylinders. However, early steam engines, such

as atmospheric engines and some beam engines were single-acting. These often
transmitted their force through the beam by means of chains and an "arch head", as
only a tension in one direction was needed.
 34

Where these were used for pumping mine shafts and only had to act against
a load in one direction, single-acting designs remained in use for many years. The
main impetus towards double-acting cylinders came when James Watt was trying
to develop a rotary beam engine that could be used to drive machinery via an
output shaft. With a single-cylinder engine, a double-acting cylinder gave a
smoother power output. The high-pressure engine as developed by Richard
Trevithick, used double-acting pistons and became the model for most steam
engines afterwards.

Some of the later steam engines, the high-speed steam engines, used single-
acting pistons of a new design. The crosshead became part of the piston and there
was no longer any piston rod. This was for similar reasons to the internal
combustion engine, as avoiding the piston rod and its seals allowed a more
effective crankcase lubrication system. Small models and toys often use single-
acting cylinders for the above reason but also to reduce manufacturing costs.
 6.1.10 Single Acting Piston

35

6.1.11 WATER TANK:

A water storage tank is help to deliver water through a copper tube setup
construction fixed over PTC stand setup. The water storage tank is kept at a higher
head position to deliver a to copper tubes at a level of pressure maintain to flow of
fluid at all part of system at a good range of flow level of pressure ratio.

Due high position of tank is fixed a flow rate of fluid is maintain a constant
pressure held over a particular portion of fluid delivery is over to capable.

A construct of water tank is also made by a sheet metal work to fabricate a

water storage tank.

6.1.11 Water Tank

 36

CHAPTER-7

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

WATER TANK

SOLAR COLLECTOR

COPPER TUBE SETUP

PUMP SETUP

HEAT EXCHANGER

STEAM ENGINE
 37

CHAPTER-8

WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The development of solar thermal heat engines for water pumping whose
operation fits to a UTM has been less noticeable than the systems based in CTM.
The operation principle of these systems is almost the same in all the designs.

Found in the literature reviewed, identifying three variants: (1) the heating
and evaporation of a working fluid causes the water pumping whereas the
subsequent vapour condensation causes the suction of the liquid from the well or
vessel from which is extracted, (2) the alternative heating and cooling of a gas
causes the pumping and suction of the water to be lifted and (3) the heating of a
chemical compound causes the generation of a gas at a pressure that permits the
water pumping whereas the Solar thermal heat engines for water pumping
according to the CTM scheme developed before the I World War Year and location
Solar collector Thermodynamic cycle/working fluid Pumping system
characteristics 1878, Paris (France) Solar collector with conical reflector
Rankine/water A column formed by interconnected vertical tubes was placed along
the cone axis. Pumping capacity of 2.2 m3/h 1880, Paris (France) Parabolic
collector with 9.2 m2 aperture area Rankine/water Rotative pump which lift 0.1 m3
at a discharge head of 3 m in 14 min 190; Pasadena, California, (E.E.U.U.)
 Truncated cone with sun tracking. 10 m diameter and 4.5 m diameter in the
bottom. Inner surface formed by approximately 1800 flat mirrors Rankine/water
Steam generated at 1.03 MPa.

38

This vapour drives an 8.085 kW engine coupled to a centrifugal pump. For a

pumped flow of 5.3 m3/min at a discharge head of 3.6 m the power delivery by the
system is 7.35 kW. Pumping of 6.4 m3/min from a tank at 5 m depth 1905 Flat
plate collector Rankine/sulphur dioxide Vapour generated at 13.8 bar that drives a
14.7 kW engine connected to a centrifugal pump 1907, Pensilvania (E.E.U.U.)

Solar pond of 103 m2 area glass-covered; wooden box of 100 m2

Binary/water; Rankine with ether vapour generated in the water submerged heat
exchanger drives a 2.57 kW vapour engine connected to a small centrifugal pump
1911, Pensilvania (E.E.U.U.) Wooden boxes with reflector plates for concentration;
total aperture area around 1000 m2 Rankine/water The system lifts 11.312
m3/min at a discharge head of 10 m. It delivers a maximum power of 17.6423.52
kW and a mean daily power of 10.2911.76 kW, Meadi (Egypt) Five parabolic
trough collectors 60 m long and 4 m wide each, approximately Rankine/water the
system pumps 27 m3/min and delivers a maximum power of 40.42 kW.

There are three various systems should be used for working of PTC process
cycle hence the system are detailed review:

8.1 Vapour cycles based systems

8.2 Liquid piston systems

8.3 Metal hydride-based systems

 39

8.1 VAPOUR CYCLE BASED SYSTEM:

As it has been aforementioned, A. Mouchot is one of the researchers with

major interest in solar heat engines and its application to water pumping in the
second half of 19th century. In this paper, we consider his system patented in 1861
and quoted by Butti and Perlin as the first UTM-based solar thermal heat engine
for water pumping.
The use of bellows and diaphragms in unconventional solar pumps has the
advantage of simplicity and no mixing between the working fluid and the water to
be lifted. However, due to the high maintenance cost of these devices, some
designs with additional tanks full of air or water has been proposed in the
literature. These additional tanks are situated between the workings fluid vapour
and the tank where the water to be pumped is. Sudhakar propose a modification of
the Rao and Rao system. The Brown Boveri system quoted by Wong and Sumathy
is another example of these improved systems. The design is similar to the
Sudhakar et al design with the exception of the float and also operates with pentane
as working fluid.
In addition to the designs aforementioned so far, there are others as the
camel system which operates with flat plate solar collectors and an organic fluid as
working fluid or the Minto engine invented by Wally Minto in 1975 whose
operation is similar to the Camel system. This system has been recently studied by
Quickenden et al from an experimental point of view with the main objective of
improving its irregular operation. According to the authors, the latter could be one
of the reasons because this pumping device has not been commercially established.

40
8.2 LIQUID PISTON SYSTEM:
Solar thermal water pumping systems based in the operation principle of the
liquid piston engine also has been studied and proposed. Liquid piston engines are
variants of the free-piston Stirling engine in which the solid piston and displacer
have been replaced by a liquid. Solar thermal water pumping systems based in
liquid piston systems are quoted by Wong and Sumathy and by Mankbadi and
Ayad. In these systems, the oscillation of a U-shape liquid column causes the water
lifting and suction.
An example of this kind of solar pumps is the Fluydine system in which the
heating and cooling of an air mass gives the liquid column oscillation. In general,
the main disadvantage of liquid piston system is its instability under changing
loads. There is a displacer inside the chamber provoking the alternative contact of
the gas with the cold and hot side of the engine. Kluppel and Gurgel give the
thermodynamic cycle described by the gas in the pumping process. They build a
laboratory physical model working with air at 91.8C and 27.85 8C. There is direct
contact between the gas and the water to be lifted in this design. As a consequence,
it is observed that certain amount of gas is dissolved in the water after 1 h of
pumps operation.
This situation makes the pumps performance goes down. In addition, the
operation of the system is very slowly which is due to the rate of heat transfer to
the gas. Kluppel and Gurgel, with the objective of improving the systems
efficiency, are working in a prototype in which this problem is overcome. They
think that this system could operate coupled with solar collectors in Northeast
regions of Brazil Once the water in the tank B has reached a certain level, the tank
is automatically emptied and the water flows through the solar collector acting as
cooling medium at temperatures between 15C and 20C.
41
8.3 METAL HYDRIDE-BASED SYSTEM:
The operation principle of this system is the endothermic nature of the metal
hydride dissociation reaction yielding hydrogen gas and the corresponding metal
alloy. The other way around, hydrogen adsorption by the alloy takes place with a
simultaneous heat generation. The relation between Tde and pde is given by the
Vant Hoff equation so it is characteristic of the metal hydride in question. In the
case of the metal hydrides treated in this paper, for a temperature Tde = 70 8C the
equilibrium pressure does not exceed 500 kPa.
The generation of the hydrogen gas causes the water lifting. On the other
hand, the hydrogen adsorption by the alloy is an exothermic process. The heat
generated is transferred to a cooling flow that, in general, is the water previously
already pumped. When the hydrogen adsorption process by the alloy takes place at
temperatures of 15 8C or 20 8C the equilibrium pressure is below 100 kPa in the
systems quoted in this paper.
In principle, the system was designed to pump water from a well at a depth
of 60 m operating at temperatures of 80 8C and 20 8C. However, the operation of
the system with solar collectors did not finish being the experiments carried out
with hot water at 70 8C. The hydrogen generation due to the heating of the metal
hydride provokes the chamber expansion and the water pumping while the
hydrogen adsorption provokes the reduction of pressure inside the chamber and the
water suction from the lower level. These copper tubes are connected to the
diaphragm-piston system. As metal hydride is heated, the generated gas can reach
a pressure up to 300 kPa. This causes the piston displacement and the evacuation
of the water from the tank A to the tank B.

42
For purpose of solar process design and performance calculation it is often
necessary to calculate the hourly radiation on a tilted surface of a collector from
measurements or estimate the solar radiation on a horizontal surface. The latitude
of Patna is 25037N and Longitude of Patna is 85002. Geometric factor or tilt
factor for beam radiation (Rb) is the ratio of the beam radiation flux falls on a tilted
surface to that falling on a horizontal surface.
Geometric factor or tilt factor for diffuse radiation (Rd) is the ratio of the
diffuse radiation flux falling on the tilted surface to that falling on a horizontal
surface. Tilt factor for diffuse radiation for a tilted surface with a slope is gives as
1. Rd= (1+cos )/2
2. Rr=p (1-cos )/2
Similarly tilt factor for reflected radiation is given as Where p=Reflectivity
So, Total solar flux falling on a tilted surface is given as
IT=Ib*R b +Id *Rd + (Ib +Id)*Rr

Solar radiation and parabolic through

Location A B

0.25 0.57
New Delhi
0.28 0.44
Kolkata
0.30 0.42
 Chennai
0.27 0.50
Nagpur

43
8.4 SOLAR PARABOLIC THROUGH PERFORMANCE:
The parabolic through is also referred to as a cylindrical parabolic collector
or a linear parabolic collector. The basic elements making up a conventional
collector are(i) the absorber tube located at the focal axis through which the liquid
to be heated flows, (ii) the concentric transparent cover, (iii) the reflector, and (iv)
the support structure. Elements (i) and (ii) together constitute the receiver, while
elements (iii) and (iv) Constitute the concentrator. Energy delivery temperatures
can be increased by decreasing the area from which heat losses occurs increase the
concentration ratio. For maximum high flux intensity tracking is done to track the
sun so that beam radiation will be directed onto the absorbing surface. There are
also requirements for maintenance, particularly to retain the quality of optical
systems for long periods of time in the presence of dirt, weather, and oxidizing or
other corrosive atmospheric components.
Aperture is the plane opening of the concentrator through which the solar
radiation passes. It is characterized by the diameter or width of the opening. The
ratio of the effective area of the aperture to the surface area of the absorber. Values
of the concentration ratio vary from unity to a few thousand. This quantity is also
referred to as the geometric concentration ratio or simply concentration ratio. The
fraction of the radiation, which is reflected or refracted from the concentrator and
is incident on the absorber. The value of the intercept factor is generally close to
unity. The angle over which beam radiation may deviate from the normal to the
aperture plane and yet reach the absorber. Collectors with large acceptance angles
require only occasional adjustments, while collectors with small acceptance angles
have to be adjusted continuously.

44
A parabolic trough solar collector uses a mirror or aluminum foil sheet in the
shape of a parabolic cylinder to reflect and concentrate sun radiations towards a
receiver tube located at the focus line of the parabolic cylinder. The receiver
absorbs the incoming radiations and transforms them into thermal energy, the latter
being transported and collected by a fluid medium circulating within the receiver
tube. This method of concentrated solar collection has the advantage of high
efficiency and low cost, and can be used either for thermal energy collection, for
generating electricity. Therefore it is an important way to exploit solar energy
directly. Parabolic trough is the most mature technology for large scale exploitation
of solar energy. Several power plants based on this technology have been
operational for years, and more are being built. However, the current technology
suffers from a too high installation cost. Through solar trough collector
temperature increase up to 100C to 400C or above 400C.
Transmission through cover is functions of incoming radiation, thickness,
refractive index, and extinction coefficient of the material. The incoming radiation,
thickness, refractive index, and extinction coefficient of the material will be
assumed to be independent of wavelength. Solar energy is primary source of all
type of energy which is present in nature i.e. all the energy derived from it. So,
direct utilization of solar energy into useful energy is important. There are so many
solar thermal equipments in which concentrating type collector heated the fluid up
to 100 to 4000C. It is employed for a variety of applications such as power
generation, industrial steam generation and hot water production. Parabolic trough
collector is preferred for steam generation because high temperatures can achieve.
Cylindrical parabolic trough type collector consists of selective concentrator and a
receiver tube.

45
Solar radiation at Patna:

Solar radiation at Patna (10th April 2013)

Time (W/m2) Beam radiation (W/m2) Total solar radiation

08:00-09:00 422.57 561.44
09:00-10:00 565.94 748.66
10:00-11:00 671.04 886.49
11:00-12:00 730.67 964.83
12:00-01:00 740.77 978.01
01:00-02:00 700.65 925.38
02:00-03:00 613.04 810.38
03:00-04:00 483.94 641.41
04:00-05:00 322.18 413.51

For purpose of solar process design and performance calculation it is often

necessary to calculate the hourly radiation on a tilted surface of a collector from
measurements or estimate the solar radiation on a horizontal surface. The latitude
of Patna is 25.37N and Longitude of Patna is 85.02.Geometric factor or tilt factor
for beam radiation (Rb) is the ratio of the beam radiation flux falls on a tilted
surface to that falling on a horizontal surface.
 46
8.4 Global and Beam Vs Time Radiation in Patna

The aperture (W):-Aperture is the plane opening of the concentrator

through which the solar radiation passes. It is characterized by the diameter or
width of the opening.
Concentration ratio(C):- The ratio of the effective area of the aperture to
the surface area of the absorber. Values of the concentration ratio vary from unity
to a few thousand. This quantity is also referred to as the geometric concentration
ratio or simply concentration ratio.
Intercept factor ():- The fraction of the radiation, which is reflected or
refracted from the concentrator and is incident on the absorber. The value of the
intercept factor is generally close to unity.
 47
Transmission through the cover system:
Transmission through cover is functions of incoming radiation, thickness,
refractive index, and extinction coefficient of the material. The incoming radiation,
thickness, refractive index, and extinction coefficient of the material will be
assumed to be independent of wavelength. When a beam of light of intensity Ibn
travelling through a medium 1 strikes the interface separating it from another
medium 2, it is reflected and refracted . The reflected beam has reduced intensity Ir
and has a direction such that the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.

Solar Thermal Seasonal variation in the production of solar-thermal electricity in

Egypt, Spain, and Germany
 48
Dimensions and parameters:

Content Symbol Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

Length of the back Lb 1000 1219 970
Width of the back Wb 1000 809 1124.1
Thickness of the
back Tb 2 2 2
Length of the end,
width of the Le 856.5 690 967
reflective surface
Height of the end We 228.1 186.7 253.5
Thickness of t end
Te 2 2 2
Length of the cover Lc 1000 1219 1000
Width of the cover Wc 890 723 1000
Thickness of the
cover Tc 2 2 2
Outer diameter of the
bearing Do 40 40 40
Distance from the
bearing's center to
upper border end Iup 28 28 24
Distance between 2
site angles of cover Is 859.5 693 970
Collecting area 0.84 0.83 0.96
49

Dimensions and parameters

In the previous section, different designs of solar engines working on
conventional thermodynamics cycles were surveyed. Conventional pumps can be
operated by any of these solar engines. In this section, special designs of expanders
and pumps that have been developed especially for solar energy as their input
source are presented. Basically, they all make use of the fact that the change of
phase of any substance (for solid to liquid or from liquid to vapour) upon heating
results in a change in its volume. The volume increase at a given pressure may be
utilized to displace water to a higher elevation whereas the volume reduction at a
lower pressure is used to produce suction of water from a depth.

50
Latest Parabolic Through Systems Either:

Directly heat the water that will be used in the steam turbine, or steam
engine.
Directly heat water that in turn is circulated through a hot tank of molten
salt, with the molten salt storing heat and in turn heating the steam that is
used in a steam turbine.
Electricity can be generated 24 hours per day
The capacity factor (average output over peak output) can reach 85%

Comparison of current performance and current and projected cost

of different solar thermal technologies for generating electricity
 T e c h n o lo g y
A ttr ib u te P a r a b o lic P a r a b o lic C e n tr a l
Trough D is h Tow er
P o w e r p la n t c h a r a c te r is tic s
P e a k e ffic ie n c y 21% 29% 23%
N e t a n n u a l e ffic ie n c y 13% 15% 13%
C a p a c ity fa c to r w ith o u t s to r a g e 24% 25% 24%
C a p a c ity fa c to r w ith 6 -h o u r s 4 2 -4 8 % U p to 6 0 %
sto ra g e
C u r r e n t in v e s tm e n t c o s t ( /k W ) 3 5 0 0 -6 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 -1 2 0 0 0 3 5 0 0 -4 5 0 0
F u t u r e in v e s t m e n t c o s t ( $ /k W ) 2 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 -3 0 0 0
C u r r e n t e le c t r ic it y c o s t ( /k W h ) 0 .1 3 -0 .2 3 0 .2 7 - 0 .3 2 0 .1 7 - 0 .2 2
F u tu r e e le c tr ic ity c o s t ($ /k W h ) 0 .0 5 -0 .0 8 0 .0 5 - 0 .0 8 0 .0 5 - 0 .0 8
S to r a g e s y s te m c h a r a c te r is tic s
M e d iu m S y n th e tic o il B a tte r y M o lte n s a lt
C o st ($ /k W h e a t) 200 30 5 0 0 -8 0 0
L if e t im e ( y e a r s ) 30 5 -1 0 30
R o u n d tr ip e ffic ie n c y 95 76 99

51
PHOTOGRAPHS
 52

CHAPTER-9

ADVANTAGES:

Pollution Less Process

No Fuel Cost
Easy to Handle
Simple Construction
Production of Electricity is Rapidly High
 53
CHAPTER-10

APPLICATIONS:

Hospitals
Industry
Schools & Colleges
Agriculture
 54
CHAPTER-11

CONCLUSION:

Knowledge about solar thermal heat engines for steam engine has been
updated. New conventional designs have been added to previous known systems,
some of them corresponding to solar thermal driven electricity power systems. In
almost cases, these conventional systems are low power output and low efficiency
systems: below 20 Kw with the exception of the 150 kW solar Coolidge irrigation
plant and below 5% respectively. In general, Rankine cycle with water or an
organic substance as working fluid is used as power cycle to convert solar thermal
energy into work. In the case of unconventional systems, one additional vapour
cycle-based system and some new liquid parabolic power generates systems has
been found in the literature. In addition, parabolic solar collector systems for steam
engine not covered by previous review papers have been introduced in this work as
interesting steam engine devices. The power output and efficiencies of
Unconventional designs are even lower than conventional ones.

55

COST OF ESTIMATION

S.NO LIST OF COST

MATERIALS
1. Polymer station
Stainless Steels Sheet 1400
2. Copper Tubes 800
3. Heat Exchanger 1450
4. Suction Pumps ( DC ) 450
5. Control Valves 400
6. Thermometer 300
7. Stand Setup for PTC 1400
8. Steam Engine 1200
 9. Water Tank 700
10. Battery 1000
Total 9000

56

CHAPTER-12

REFERENCES

1. Spencer LC. A comprehensive review of small solar-powered heat

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