12/7/2016 CanonoftheNewTestament

CanonoftheNewTestament
TheCatholicNewTestament,asdefinedbytheCouncilofTrent,doesnotdiffer,as
regardsthebookscontained,fromthatofallChristianbodiesatpresent.LiketheOld
Testament,theNewhasitsdeuterocanonicalbooksandportionsofbooks,their
canonicityhavingformerlybeenasubjectofsomecontroversyintheChurch.Theseare
fortheentirebooks:theEpistletotheHebrews,thatofJames,theSecondofSt.Peter,
theSecondandThirdofJohn,Jude,andApocalypsegivingseveninallasthenumber
oftheNewTestamentcontestedbooks.Theformerlydisputedpassagesarethree:the
closingsectionofSt.Mark'sGospel,xvi,920abouttheapparitionsofChristafterthe
ResurrectiontheversesinLukeaboutthebloodysweatofJesus,xxii,43,44the
PericopeAdulter,ornarrativeofthewomantakeninadultery,St.John,vii,53toviii,
11.SincetheCouncilofTrentitisnotpermittedforaCatholictoquestiontheinspiration
ofthesepassages.

A.THEFORMATIONOFTHENEWTESTAMENTCANON(A.D.100
220)

TheideaofacompleteandclearcutcanonoftheNewTestamentexistingfromthe
beginning,thatisfromApostolictimes,hasnofoundationinhistory.TheCanonofthe
NewTestament,likethatoftheOld,istheresultofadevelopment,ofaprocessatonce
stimulatedbydisputeswithdoubters,bothwithinandwithouttheChurch,andretarded
bycertainobscuritiesandnaturalhesitations,andwhichdidnotreachitsfinaltermuntil
thedogmaticdefinitionoftheTridentineCouncil.

1.ThewitnessoftheNewTestamenttoitself:Thefirstcollections

ThosewritingswhichpossessedtheunmistakablestampandguaranteeofApostolic
originmustfromtheveryfirsthavebeenspeciallyprizedandvenerated,andtheircopies
eagerlysoughtbylocalChurchesandindividualChristiansofmeans,inpreferencetothe
narrativesandLogia,orSayingsofChrist,comingfromlessauthorizedsources.Already
intheNewTestamentitselfthereissomeevidenceofacertaindiffusionofcanonical
books:IIPeter,iii,15,16,supposesitsreaderstobeacquaintedwithsomeofSt.Paul's
EpistlesSt.John'sGospelimplicitlypresupposestheexistenceoftheSynoptics
(Matthew,Mark,andLuke).TherearenoindicationsintheNewTestamentofa
systematicplanforthedistributionoftheApostoliccompositions,anymorethanthereis
ofadefinitenewCanonbequeathedbytheApostlestotheChurch,orofastrongself
witnesstoDivineinspiration.NearlyalltheNewTestamentwritingswereevokedby
particularoccasions,oraddressedtoparticulardestinations.Butwemaywellpresume
thateachoftheleadingChurchesAntioch,Thessalonica,Alexandria,Corinth,Rome
soughtbyexchangingwithotherChristiancommunitiestoaddtoitsspecialtreasure,and
havepubliclyreadinitsreligiousassembliesallApostolicwritingswhichcameunderits
knowledge.Itwasdoubtlessinthiswaythatthecollectionsgrew,andreached
completenesswithincertainlimits,butaconsiderablenumberofyearsmusthaveelapsed
(andthatcountingfromthecompositionofthelatestbook)beforeallthewidely
separatedChurchesofearlyChristendompossessedthenewsacredliteratureinfull.And
thiswantofanorganizeddistribution,secondarilytotheabsenceofanearlyfixationof
theCanon,leftroomforvariationsanddoubtswhichlastedfarintothecenturies.But
evidencewillpresentlybegiventhatfromdaystouchingonthoseofthelastApostles
thereweretwowelldefinedbodiesofsacredwritingsoftheNewTestament,which
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constitutedthefirm,irreducible,universalminimum,andthenucleusofitscomplete
Canon:theseweretheFourGospels,astheChurchnowhasthem,andthirteenEpistles
ofSt.PaultheEvangeliumandtheApostolicum.

2.Theprincipleofcanonicity

Beforeenteringintothehistoricalproofforthisprimitiveemergenceofacompact,
nucleativeCanon,itispertinenttobrieflyexaminethisproblem:Duringtheformative
periodwhatprincipleoperatedintheselectionoftheNewTestamentwritingsandtheir
recognitionasDivine?Theologiansaredividedonthispoint.Thisviewthat
ApostolicitywasthetestoftheinspirationduringthebuildingupoftheNewTestament
Canon,isfavouredbythemanyinstanceswheretheearlyFathersbasetheauthorityofa
bookonitsApostolicorigin,andbythetruththatthedefinitiveplacingofthecontested
booksontheNewTestamentcataloguecoincidedwiththeirgeneralacceptanceasof
Apostolicauthorship.Moreover,theadvocatesofthishypothesispointoutthatthe
Apostles'officecorrespondedwiththatoftheProphetsoftheOldLaw,inferringthatas
inspirationwasattachedtothemunuspropheticumsotheApostleswereaidedbyDivine
inspirationwheneverintheexerciseoftheircallingtheyeitherspokeorwrote.Positive
argumentsarededucedfromtheNewTestamenttoestablishthatapermanentprophetical
charisma(seeCHARISMATA)wasenjoyedbytheApostlesthroughaspecial
indwellingoftheHolyGhost,beginningwithPentecost:Matth.,x,19,20Acts,xv,28I
Cor.,ii,13IICor.,xiii,3IThess.,ii,13,arecited.Theopponentsofthistheoryallege
againstitthattheGospelsofMarkandofLukeandActswerenottheworkofApostles
(however,traditionconnectstheSecondGospelwithSt.Peter'spreachingandSt.Luke's
withSt.Paul's)thatbookscurrentunderanApostle'snameintheEarlyChurch,suchas
theEpistleofBarnabasandtheApocalypseofSt.Peter,wereneverthelessexcludedfrom
canonicalrank,whileontheotherhandOrigenandSt.DionysiusofAlexandriainthe
caseofApocalypse,andSt.JeromeinthecaseofIIandIIIJohn,althoughquestioning
theApostolicauthorshipoftheseworks,unhesitatinglyreceivedthemasSacred
Scriptures.Anobjectionofaspeculativekindisderivedfromtheverynatureof
inspirationadscribendum,whichseemstodemandaspecificimpulsefromtheHoly
Ghostineachcase,andprecludethetheorythatitcouldbepossessedasapermanent
gift,orcharisma.TheweightofCatholictheologicalopinionisdeservedlyagainstmere
Apostolicityasasufficientcriterionofinspiration.Theadverseviewhasbeentakenby
Franzelin(DeDivinTraditioneetScriptur,1882),Schmid(DeInspirationisBibliorum
VietRatione,1885),Crets(DeDivinBibliorumInspiratione,1886),Leitner(Die
prophetischeInspiration,1895amonograph),Pesch(DeInspirationeSacr,1906).
Theseauthors(someofwhomtreatthemattermorespeculativelythanhistorically)admit
thatApostolicityisapositiveandpartialtouchstoneofinspiration,butemphaticallydeny
thatitwasexclusive,inthesensethatallnonApostolicworkswerebythatveryfact
barredfromthesacredCanonoftheNewTestamentTheyholdtodoctrinaltraditionas
thetruecriterion.

CatholicchampionsofApostolicityasacriterionare:Ubaldi(IntroductioinSacram
Scripturam,II,1876)Schanz(inTheologischeQuartalschrift,1885,pp.666sqq.,andA
ChristianApology,II,tr.1891)Szkely(HermeneuticaBiblica,1902).Recently
ProfessorBatiffol,whilerejectingtheclaimsoftheselatteradvocates,hasenunciateda
theoryregardingtheprinciplethatpresidedovertheformationoftheNewTestament
Canonwhichchallengesattentionandperhapsmarksanewstageinthecontroversy.
AccordingtoMonsignorBatiffol,theGospel(i.e.thewordsandcommandmentsofJesus
Christ)borewithititsownsacrednessandauthorityfromtheverybeginning.This
Gospelwasannouncedtotheworldatlarge,bytheApostlesandApostolicdisciplesof
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Christ,andthismessage,whetherspokenorwritten,whethertakingtheformofan
evangelicnarrativeorepistle,washolyandsupremebythefactofcontainingtheWord
ofOurLord.Accordingly,fortheprimitiveChurch,evangelicalcharacterwasthetestof
Scripturalsacredness.Buttoguaranteethischaracteritwasnecessarythatabookshould
beknownascomposedbytheofficialwitnessesandorgansoftheEvangelhencethe
needtocertifytheApostolicauthorship,oratleastsanction,ofaworkpurportingto
containtheGospelofChrist.InBatiffol'sviewtheJudaicnotionofinspirationdidnotat
firstenterintotheselectionoftheChristianScriptures.Infact,fortheearliestChristians
theGospelofChrist,inthewidesenseabovenoted,wasnottobeclassifiedwith,
becausetranscending,theOldTestamentItwasnotuntilaboutthemiddleofthesecond
centurythatundertherubricofScripturetheNewTestamentwritingswereassimilated
totheOldtheauthorityoftheNewTestamentastheWordprecededandproducedits
authorityasaNewScripture.(RevueBiblique,1903,226sqq.)MonsignorBatiffol's
hypothesishasthisincommonwiththeviewsofotherrecentstudentsoftheNew
TestamentCanon,thattheideaofanewbodyofsacredwritingsbecameclearerinthe
EarlyChurchasthefaithfuladvancedinaknowledgeoftheFaith.Butitshouldbe
rememberedthattheinspiredcharacteroftheNewTestamentisaCatholicdogma,and
mustthereforeinsomewayhavebeenrevealedto,andtaughtby,Apostles.Assuming
thatApostolicauthorshipisapositivecriterionofinspiration,twoinspiredEpistlesofSt.
Paulhavebeenlost.ThisappearsfromICor.,v,9,sqq.IICor.,ii,4,5.

3.TheformationoftheTetramorph,orFourfoldGospel

Irenus,inhiswork"AgainstHeresies"(A.D.18288),testifiestotheexistenceofa
Tetramorph,orQuadriformGospel,givenbytheWordandunifiedbyoneSpiritto
repudiatethisGospeloranypartofit,asdidtheAlogiandMarcionites,wastosin
againstrevelationandtheSpiritofGod.ThesaintlyDoctorofLyonsexplicitlystatesthe
namesofthefourElementsofthisGospel,andrepeatedlycitesalltheEvangelistsina
mannerparalleltohiscitationsfromtheOldTestamentFromthetestimonyofSt.
IrenusalonetherecanbenoreasonabledoubtthattheCanonoftheGospelwas
inalterablyfixedintheCatholicChurchbythelastquarterofthesecondcentury.Proofs
mightbemultipliedthatourcanonicalGospelswerethenuniversallyrecognizedinthe
Church,totheexclusionofanypretendedEvangels.Themagisterialstatementof
IrenusmaybecorroboratedbytheveryancientcatalogueknownastheMuratorian
Canon,andSt.Hippolytus,representingRomantraditionbyTertullianinAfrica,by
ClementinAlexandriatheworksoftheGnosticValentinus,andtheSyrianTatian's
Diatessaron,ablendingtogetheroftheEvangelists'writings,presupposetheauthority
enjoyedbythefourfoldGospeltowardsthemiddleofthesecondcentury.Tothisperiod
oralittleearlierbelongsthepseduoClementineepistleinwhichwefind,forthefirst
timeafterIIPeter,iii,16,thewordScriptureappliedtoaNewTestamentbook.Butitis
needlessinthepresentarticletoarraythefullforceoftheseandotherwitnesses,since
evenrationalisticscholarslikeHarnackadmitthecanonicityofthequadriformGospel
betweentheyears140175.

ButagainstHarnackweareabletotracetheTetramorphasasacredcollectionbacktoa
moreremoteperiod.TheapocryphalGospelofSt.Peter,datingfromabout150,isbased
onourcanonicalEvangelists.SowiththeveryancientGospeloftheHebrewsand
Egyptians(seeAPOCRYPHA).St.JustinMartyr(13063)inhisApologyrefersto
certain"memoirsoftheApostles,whicharecalledgospels",andwhich"arereadin
ChristianassembliestogetherwiththewritingsoftheProphets".Theidentityofthese
"memoirs"withourGospelsisestablishedbythecertaintracesofthree,ifnotall,of
themscatteredthroughSt.Justin'sworksitwasnotyettheageofexplicitquotations.
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Marcion,thehereticrefutedbyJustininalostpolemic,asweknowfromTertullian,
institutedacriticismofGospelsbearingthenamesoftheApostlesanddisciplesofthe
Apostles,andalittleearlier(c.120)Basilides,theAlexandrianleaderofaGnosticsect,
wroteacommentaryon"theGospel"whichisknownbytheallusionstoitintheFathers
tohavecomprisedthewritingsoftheFourEvangelists.

InourbackwardsearchwehavecometothesubApostolicage,anditsimportant
witnessesaredividedintoAsian,Alexandrian,andRoman:

St.Ignatius,BishopofAntioch,andSt.Polycarp,ofSmyrna,hadbeendisciplesof
Apostlestheywrotetheirepistlesinthefirstdecadeofthesecondcentury(100
110).TheemployMatthew,Luke,andJohn.InSt.Ignatiuswefindthefirst
instanceoftheconsecratedterm"itiswritten"appliedtoaGospel(AdPhilad.,viii,
2).BoththeseFathersshownotonlyapersonalacquaintancewith"theGospel"
andthethirteenPaulineEpistles,buttheysupposethattheirreadersaresofamiliar
withthemthatitwouldbesuperfluoustonamethem.Papias,BishopofPhrygian
Hierapolis,accordingtoIrenusadiscipleofSt.John,wroteaboutA.D.125.
DescribingtheoriginofSt.Mark'sGospel,hespeaksofHebrew(Aramaic)Logia,
orSayingsofChrist,composedbySt.Matthew,whichthereisreasontobelieve
formedthebasisofthecanonicalGospelofthatname,thoughthegreaterpartof
CatholicwritersidentifythemwiththeGospel.Aswehaveonlyafewfragments
ofPapias,preservedbyEusebius,itcannotbeallegedthatheissilentaboutother
partsoftheNewTestament.
ThesocalledEpistleofBarnabas,ofuncertainorigin,butofhighestantiquity(see
BARNABAS,EPISTLE),citesapassagefromtheFirstGospelundertheformula
"itiswritten".TheDidache,orTeachingoftheApostles,anuncanonicalwork
datingfromc.110,impliesthat"theGospel"wasalreadyawellknownand
definitecollection.
St.Clement,BishopofRome,anddiscipleofSt.Paul,addressedhisLettertothe
CorinthianChurchc.A.D.97,and,althoughitcitesnoEvangelistexplicitly,this
epistlecontainscombinationsoftextstakenfromthethreesynopticGospels,
especiallyfromSt.Matthew.ThatClementdoesnotalludetotheFourthGospelis
quitenatural,asitwasnotcomposedtillaboutthattime.

ThusthepatristictestimonieshavebroughtusstepbysteptoaDivineinviolablefourfold
GospelexistingintheclosingyearsoftheApostolicEra.JusthowtheTetramorphwas
weldedintounityandgiventotheChurch,isamatterofconjecture.But,asZahn
observes,thereisgoodreasontobelievethatthetraditionhandeddownbyPapias,ofthe
approvalofSt.Mark'sGospelbySt.JohntheEvangelist,revealsthateitherthelatter
himselfofacollegeofhisdisciplesaddedtheFourthGospeltotheSynoptics,andmade
thegroupintothecompactandunalterable"Gospel",theoneinfour,whoseexistence
andauthoritylefttheirclearimpressuponallsubsequentecclesiasticalliterature,and
findtheirconsciousformulationinthelanguageofIrenus.

4.ThePaulineEpistles

ParalleltothechainofevidencewehavetracedforthecanonicalstandingoftheGospels
extendsoneforthethirteenEpistlesofSt.Paul,formingtheotherhalfoftheirreducible
kernelofthecompleteNewTestamentcanon.AlltheauthoritiescitedfortheGospel
Canonshowacquaintancewith,andrecognize,thesacredqualityoftheseletters.St.
Irenus,asacknowledgedbytheHarnackiancritics,employsallthePaulinewritings,
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excepttheshortPhilemon,assacredandcanonical.TheMuratorianCanon,
contemporarywithIrenus,givesthecompletelistofthethirteen,which,itshouldbe
remembered,doesnotincludeHebrews.ThehereticalBasilidesandhisdisciplesquote
fromthisPaulinegroupingeneral.ThecopiousextractsfromMarcion'sworksscattered
throughIrenusandTertullianshowthathewasacquaintedwiththethirteenasin
ecclesiasticaluse,andselectedhisApostolikonofsixfromthem.Thetestimonyof
PolycarpandIgnatiusisagaincapitalinthiscase.EightofSt.Paul'swritingsarecitedby
PolycarpSt.IgnatiusofAntiochrankedtheApostlesabovetheProphets,andmust
thereforehaveallowedthewrittencompositionsoftheformeratleastanequalrankwith
thoseofthelatter("AdPhiladelphios",v).St.ClementofRomereferstoCorinthiansas
atthehead"oftheEvangel"theMuratorianCanongivesthesamehonourtoI
Corinthians,sothatwemayrightfullydrawtheinference,withDr.Zahn,thatasearlyas
Clement'sdaySt.Paul'sEpistleshadbeencollectedandformedintoagroupwithafixed
order.ZahnhaspointedoutconfirmatorysignsofthisinthemannerinwhichSts.
IgnatiusandPolycarpemploytheseEpistles.Thetendencyoftheevidenceistoestablish
thehypothesisthattheimportantChurchofCorinthwasthefirsttoformacomplete
collectionofSt.Paul'swritings.

5.TheremainingBooks

InthisformativeperiodtheEpistletotheHebrewsdidnotobtainafirmfootinginthe
CanonoftheUniversalChurch.AtRomeitwasnotyetrecognizedascanonical,as
shownbytheMuratoriancatalogueofRomanoriginIrenusprobablycitesit,but
makesnoreferencetoaPaulineorigin.YetitwasknownatRomeasearlyasSt.
Clement,asthelatter'sepistleattests.TheAlexandrianChurchadmitteditastheworkof
St.Paul,andcanonical.TheMontanistsfavouredit,andtheaptnesswithwhichvi,48,
lentitselftotheMontanistandNovatianistrigourwasdoubtlessonereasonwhyitwas
suspectintheWest.AlsoduringthisperiodtheexcessovertheminimalCanon
composedoftheGospelsandthirteenepistlesvaried.Theseven"Catholic"Epistles
(James,Jude,IandIIPeter,andthethreeofJohn)hadnotyetbeenbroughtintoaspecial
group,and,withthepossibleexceptionofthethreeofSt.John,remainedisolatedunits,
dependingfortheircanonicalstrengthonvariablecircumstances.Buttowardstheendof
thesecondcenturythecanonicalminimumwasenlargedand,besidestheGospelsand
PaulineEpistles,unalterablyembracedActs,IPeter,IJohn(towhichIIandIIIJohn
wereprobablyattached),andApocalypse.ThusHebrews,James,Jude,andIIPeter
remainedhoveringoutsidetheprecinctsofuniversalcanonicity,andthecontroversy
aboutthemandthesubsequentlydisputedApocalypseformthelargerpartofthe
remaininghistoryoftheCanonoftheNewTestamentHowever,atthebeginningofthe
thirdcenturytheNewTestamentwasformedinthesensethatthecontentofitsmain
divisions,whatmaybecalleditsessence,wassharplydefinedanduniversallyreceived,
whileallthesecondarybookswererecognizedinsomeChurches.Asingularexception
totheuniversalityoftheabovedescribedsubstanceoftheNewTestamentwasthe
CanonoftheprimitiveEastSyrianChurch,whichdidnotcontainanyoftheCatholic
EpistlesorApocalypse.

6.TheideaofaNewTestament

ThequestionoftheprinciplethatdominatedthepracticalcanonizationoftheNew
TestamentScriptureshasalreadybeendiscussedunder(b).Thefaithfulmusthavehad
fromthebeginningsomerealizationthatinthewritingsoftheApostlesandEvangelists
theyhadacquiredanewbodyofDivineScriptures,aNewwrittenTestamentdestinedto
standsidebysidewiththeOld.ThattheGospelandEpistleswerethewrittenWordof

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God,wasfullyrealizedassoonasthefixedcollectionswereformedbuttoseizethe
relationofthisnewtreasuretotheoldwaspossibleonlywhenthefaithfulacquireda
betterknowledgeofthefaith.InthisconnectionZahnobserveswithmuchtruththatthe
riseofMontanism,withitsfalseprophets,whoclaimedfortheirwrittenproductionsthe
selfstyledTestamentoftheParacletetheauthorityofrevelation,aroundtheChristian
Churchtoafullersensethattheageofrevelationhadexpiredwiththelastofthe
Apostles,andthatthecircleofsacredScriptureisnotextensiblebeyondthelegacyofthe
ApostolicEra.Montanismbeganin156agenerationlater,intheworksofIrenus,we
discoverthefirmlyrootedideaoftwoTestaments,withthesameSpiritoperatingin
both.ForTertullian(c.200)thebodyoftheNewScriptureisaninstrumentumonatleast
anequalfootingandinthesamespecificclassastheinstrumentumformedbytheLaw
andtheProphets.ClementofAlexandriawasthefirsttoapplytheword"Testament"to
thesacredlibraryoftheNewDispensation.Akindredexternalinfluenceistobeadded
toMontanism:theneedofsettingupabarrier,betweenthegenuineinspiredliterature
andthefloodofpseudoApostolicapocrypha,gaveanadditionalimpulsetotheideaofa
NewTestamentCanon,andlatercontributednotalittletothedemarcationofitsfixed
limits.

B.THEPERIODOFDISCUSSION(A.D.220367)

InthisstageofthehistoricaldevelopmentoftheCanonoftheNewTestamentwe
encounterforthefirsttimeaconsciousnessreflectedincertainecclesiasticalwriters,of
thedifferencesbetweenthesacredcollectionsindiverssectionsofChristendom.This
variationiswitnessedto,andthediscussionstimulatedby,twoofthemostlearnedmen
ofChristianantiquity,Origen,andEusebiusofCsarea,theecclesiasticalhistorian.A
glanceattheCanonasexhibitedintheauthoritiesoftheAfrican,orCarthaginian,
Church,willcompleteourbriefsurveyofthisperiodofdiversityanddiscussion:

1.Origenandhisschool

Origen'stravelsgavehimexceptionopportunitiestoknowthetraditionsofwidely
separatedportionsoftheChurchandmadehimveryconversantwiththediscrepant
attitudestowardcertainpartsoftheNewTestamentHedividedbookswithBiblical
claimsintothreeclasses:

thoseuniversallyreceived
thosewhoseApostolicitywasquestions
apocryphalworks.

Inthefirstclass,theHomologoumena,stoodtheGospels,thethirteenPaulineEpistles,
Acts,Apocalypse,IPeter,andIJohn.ThecontestedwritingswereHebrews,IIPeter,II
andIIIJohn,James,Jude,Barnabas,theShepherdofHermas,theDidache,andprobably
theGospeloftheHebrews.Personally,OrigenacceptedalloftheseasDivinelyinspired,
thoughviewingcontraryopinionswithtoleration.Origen'sauthorityseemstohavegiven
toHebrewsandthedisputedCatholicEpistlesafirmplaceintheAlexandrianCanon,
theirtenuretherehavingbeenpreviouslyinsecure,judgingfromtheexegeticalworkof
Clement,andthelistintheCodexClaromontanus,whichisassignedbycompetent
scholarstoanearlyAlexandrianorigin.

2.Eusebius

Eusebius,BishopofCsareainPalestine,wasoneofOrigen'smosteminentdisciples,a
manofwideerudition.Inimitationofhismasterhedividedreligiousliteratureintothree
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classes:

Homologoumena,orcompositionsuniversallyreceivedassacred,theFour
Gospels,thirteenEpistlesofSt.Paul,Hebrews,Acts,IPeter,IJohn,and
Apocalypse.Thereissomeinconsistencyinhisclassificationforinstance,though
rankingHebrewswiththebooksofuniversalreception,heelsewhereadmitsitis
disputed.
ThesecondcategoryiscomposedoftheAntilegomena,orcontestedwritingsthese
inturnareofthesuperiorandinferiorsort.ThebetteronesaretheEpistlesofSt.
JamesandSt.Jude,IIPeter,IIandIIIJohnthese,likeOrigen,Eusebiuswishedto
beadmittedtotheCanon,butwasforcedtorecordtheiruncertainstatusthe
AntilegomenaoftheinferiorsortwereBarnabas,theDidache,Gospelofthe
Hebrews,theActsofPaul,theShepherd,theApocalypseofPeter.
Alltherestarespurious(notha).

EusebiusdivergedfromhisAlexandrianmasterinpersonallyrejectingApocalypseasan
unBiblical,thoughcompelledtoacknowledgeitsalmostuniversalacceptance.Whence
camethisunfavourableviewoftheclosingvolumeoftheChristianTestament?Zahn
attributesittotheinfluenceofLucianofSamosata,oneofthefoundersoftheAntioch
schoolofexegesis,andwithwhosedisciplesEusebiushadbeenassociated.Lucian
himselfhadacquiredhiseducationatEdessa,themetropolisofEasternSyria,whichhad,
asalreadyremarked,asingularlycurtailedCanon.Luicianisknowntohaveeditedthe
ScripturesatAntioch,andissupposedtohaveintroducedtheretheshorterNew
TestamentwhichlaterSt.JohnChrysostomandhisfollowersemployedoneinwhich
Apocalypse,IIPeter,IIandIIIJohn,andJudehadnoplace.ItisknownthatTheodoreof
MopsuestiarejectedalltheCatholicEpistles.InSt.JohnChrysostom'sampleexpositions
oftheScripturesthereisnotasinglecleartraceoftheApocalypse,whichheseemsto
implicitlyexcludethefoursmallerEpistlesIIPeter,IIandIIIJohn,andJudefromthe
numberofthecanonicalbooks.Lucian,then,accordingtoZahn,wouldhave
compromisedbetweentheSyriacCanonandtheCanonofOrigenbyadmittingthethree
longerCatholicEpistlesandkeepingoutApocalypse.Butafterallowingfullyforthe
prestigeofthefounderoftheAntiochschool,itisdifficulttograntthathispersonal
authoritycouldhavesufficedtostrikesuchanimportantworkasApocalypsefromthe
CanonofanotableChurch,whereithadpreviouslybeenreceived.Itismoreprobable
thatareactionagainsttheabuseoftheJohannineApocalypsebytheMontanistsand
ChiliastsAsiaMinorbeingthenurseryofboththeseerrorsledtotheeliminationofa
bookwhoseauthorityhadperhapsbeenpreviouslysuspected.Indeeditisquite
reasonabletosupposethatitsearlyexclusionfromtheEastSyrianChurchwasanouter
waveoftheextremereactionistmovementoftheAlogesalsoofAsiaMinorwho
brandedApocalypseandalltheJohanninewritingsastheworkofthehereticCerinthus.
WhatevermayhavebeenalltheinfluencesrulingthepersonalCanonofEusebius,he
choseLucian'stextforthefiftycopiesoftheBiblewhichhefurnishedtotheChurchof
ConstantinopleattheorderofhisimperialpatronConstantineandheincorporatedall
theCatholicEpistles,butexcludedApocalypse.Thelatterremainedformorethana
centurybanishedfromthesacredcollectionsascurrentinAntiochandConstantinople.
However,thisbookkeptaminorityofAsiaticsuffrages,and,asbothLucianand
EusebiushadbeentaintedwithArianism,theapprobationofApocalypse,opposedby
them,finallycametobelookeduponasasignoforthodoxy.Eusebiuswasthefirstto
callattentiontoimportantvariationsinthetextoftheGospels,viz.,thepresenceinsome

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copiesandtheabsenceinothersofthefinalparagraphofMark,thepassageofthe
AdulterousWoman,andtheBloodySweat.

3.TheAfricanChurch

St.Cyprian,whoseScripturalCanoncertainlyreflectsthecontentsofthefirstLatin
Bible,receivedallthebooksoftheNewTestamentexceptHebrews,IIPeter,James,and
Judehowever,therewasalreadyastronginclinationinhisenvironmenttoadmitIIPeter
asauthentic.JudehadbeenrecognizedbyTertullian,but,strangely,ithadlostits
positionintheAfricanChurch,probablyowingtoitscitationoftheapocryphalHenoch.
Cyprian'stestimonytothenoncanonicityofHebrewsandJamesisconfirmedby
Commodian,anotherAfricanwriteroftheperiod.Averyimportantwitnessisthe
documentknownasMommsen'sCanon,amanuscriptofthetenthcentury,butwhose
originalhasbeenascertainedtodatefromWestAfricaabouttheyear360.Itisaformal
catalogueofthesacredbooks,unmutilatedintheNewTestamentportion,andproves
thatatitstimethebooksuniversallyacknowledgedintheinfluentialChurchofCarthage
werealmostidenticalwiththosereceivedbyCyprianacenturybefore.Hebrews,James,
andJudeareentirelywanting.ThethreeEpistlesofSt.JohnandIIPeterappear,butafter
eachstandsthenoteunasola,addedbyanalmostcontemporaryhand,andevidentlyin
protestagainstthereceptionoftheseAntilegomena,which,presumably,hadfounda
placeintheofficiallistrecently,butwhoserighttobetherewasseriouslyquestioned.

C.THEPERIODOFFIXATION(A.D.367405)

1.St.Athanasius

WhiletheinfluenceofAthanasiusontheCanonoftheOldTestamentwasnegativeand
exclusive(seesupra),inthatoftheNewTestamentitwastrenchantlyconstructive.Inhis
"EpistolaFestalis"(A.D.367)theillustriousBishopofAlexandriaranksallofOrigen's
NewTestamentAntilegomena,whichareidenticalwiththedeuteros,boldlyinsidethe
Canon,withoutnoticinganyofthescruplesaboutthem.Thenceforwardtheywere
formallyandfirmlyfixedintheAlexandrianCanon.Anditissignificantofthegeneral
trendofecclesiasticalauthoritythatnotonlywereworkswhichformerlyenjoyedhigh
standingatbroadmindedAlexandriatheApocalypseofPeterandtheActsofPaul
involvedbyAthanasiuswiththeapocrypha,butevensomethatOrigenhadregardedas
inspiredBarnabas,theShepherdofHermas,theDidachewereruthlesslyshutoutunder
thesamedamnatorytitle.

2.TheRomanChurch,theSynodunderDamasus,andSt.Jerome

TheMuratorianCanonorFragment,composedintheRomanChurchinthelastquarter
ofthesecondcentury,issilentaboutHebrews,James,IIPeterIPeter,indeed,isnot
mentioned,butmusthavebeenomittedbyanoversight,sinceitwasuniversallyreceived
atthetime.ThereisevidencethatthisrestrictedCanonobtainednotonlyintheAfrican
Church,withslightmodifications,aswehaveseen,butalsoatRomeandintheWest
generallyuntilthecloseofthefourthcentury.Thesameancientauthoritywitnessesto
theveryfavourableandperhapscanonicalstandingenjoyedatRomebytheApocalypse
ofPeterandtheShepherdofHermas.Inthemiddledecadesofthefourthcenturythe
increasedintercourseandexchangeofviewsbetweentheOrientandtheOccidentledto
abettermutualacquaintanceregardingBiblicalcanonsandthecorrectionofthe
catalogueoftheLatinChurch.ItisasingularfactthatwhiletheEast,mainlythroughSt.
Jerome'spen,exertedadisturbingandnegativeinfluenceonWesternopinionregarding
theOldTestament,thesameinfluence,throughprobablythesamechiefintermediary,
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madeforthecompletenessandintegrityoftheNewTestamentCanon.TheWestbegan
torealizethattheancientApostolicChurchesofJerusalemandAntioch,indeedthe
wholeOrient,formorethantwocenturieshadacknowledgedHebrewsandJamesas
inspiredwritingsofApostles,whilethevenerableAlexandrianChurch,supportedbythe
prestigeofAthanasius,andthepowerfulPatriarchateofConstantinople,withthe
scholarshipofEusebiusbehinditsjudgment,hadcanonizedallthedisputedEpistles.St.
Jerome,arisinglightintheChurch,thoughbutasimplepriest,wassummonedbyPope
DamasusfromtheEast,wherehewaspursuingsacredlore,toassistataneclectic,but
notecumenical,synodatRomeintheyear382.Neitherthegeneralcouncilat
ConstantinopleoftheprecedingyearnorthatofNice(365)hadconsideredthequestion
oftheCanon.ThisRomansynodmusthavedevoteditselfspeciallytothematter.The
resultofitsdeliberations,presidedover,nodoubt,bytheenergeticDamasushimself,has
beenpreservedinthedocumentcalled"DecretumGelasiiderecipiendisetnon
recipiendislibris",acompilationpartlyofthesixthcentury,butcontainingmuchmaterial
datingfromthetwoprecedingones.TheDamasancataloguepresentsthecompleteand
perfectCanonwhichhasbeenthatoftheChurchUniversaleversince.TheNew
TestamentportionbearsthemarksofJerome'sviews.St.Jerome,alwaysprepossessedin
favourofOrientalpositionsinmattersBiblical,exertedthenahappyinfluenceinregard
totheNewTestamentifheattemptedtoplaceanyEasternrestrictionupontheCanonof
theOldTestamenthiseffortfailedofanyeffect.Thetitleofthedecree"Nuncverode
scripturisdivinisagendumestquiduniversalisCatholicarecipiatecclesia,etquidvitare
debeat"provesthatthecouncildrewupalistofapocryphalaswellasauthentic
Scriptures.TheShepherdandthefalseApocalypseofPeternowreceivedtheirfinal
blow."Romehadspoken,andthenationsoftheWesthadheard"(Zahn).Theworksof
theLatinFathersoftheperiodJerome,HilaryofPoitiers,LuciferofSardina,Philaster
ofBresciamanifestthechangedattitudetowardHebrews,James,Jude,IIPeter,andIII
John.

3.FixationintheAfricanandGallicanChurches

ItwassomelittletimebeforetheAfricanChurchperfectlyadjusteditsNewTestamentto
theDamasanCanon.OptatusofMileve(37085)doesnotusedHebrews.St.Augustine,
whilehimselfreceivingtheintegralCanon,acknowledgedthatmanycontestedthis
Epistle.ButintheSynodofHippo(393)thegreatDoctor'sviewprevailed,andthe
correctCanonwasadopted.However,itisevidentthatitfoundmanyopponentsin
Africa,sincethreecouncilsthereatbriefintervalsHippo,Carthage,in393Thirdof
Carthagein397Carthagein419founditnecessarytoformulatecatalogues.The
introductionofHebrewswasanespecialcrux,andareflectionofthisisfoundinthefirst
Carthagelist,wherethemuchvexedEpistle,thoughstyledofSt.Paul,isstillnumbered
separatelyfromthetimeconsecratedgroupofthirteen.ThecataloguesofHippoand
CarthageareidenticalwiththeCatholicCanonofthepresent.InGaulsomedoubts
lingeredforatime,aswefindPopeInnocentI,in405,sendingalistoftheSacredBooks
tooneofitsbishops,ExsuperiusofToulouse.

SoatthecloseofthefirstdecadeofthefifthcenturytheentireWesternChurchwasin
possessionofthefullCanonoftheNewTestamentIntheEast,where,withtheexception
oftheEdesseneSyrianChurch,approximatecompletenesshadlongobtainedwithoutthe
aidofformalenactments,opinionswerestillsomewhatdividedontheApocalypse.But
fortheCatholicChurchasawholethecontentoftheNewTestamentwasdefinitely
fixed,andthediscussionclosed.

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ThefinalprocessofthisCanon'sdevelopmenthadbeentwofold:positive,inthe
permanentconsecrationofseveralwritingswhichhadlonghoveredonthelinebetween
canonicalandapocryphalandnegative,bythedefiniteeliminationofcertainprivileged
apocryphathathadenjoyedhereandthereacanonicalorquasicanonicalstanding.Inthe
receptionofthedisputedbooksagrowingconvictionofApostolicauthorshiphadmuch
todo,buttheultimatecriterionhadbeentheirrecognitionasinspiredbyagreatand
ancientdivisionoftheCatholicChurch.Thus,likeOrigen,St.Jeromeadducesthe
testimonyoftheancientsandecclesiasticalusageinpleadingthecauseoftheEpistleto
theHebrews(DeVirisIllustribus,lix).ThereisnosignthattheWesternChurchever
positivelyrepudiatedanyoftheNewTestamentdeuterosnotadmittedfromthe
beginning,thesehadslowlyadvancedtowardsacompleteacceptancethere.Ontheother
hand,theapparentlyformalexclusionofApocalypsefromthesacredcatalogueofcertain
GreekChurcheswasatransientphase,andsupposesitsprimitivereception.Greek
Christianityeverywhere,fromaboutthebeginningofthesixthcentury,practicallyhada
completeandpureNewTestamentCanon.(SeeHEBREWS,EPISTLETOST.PETER,
JAMES,JUDE,JOHN,EPISTLESOFAPOCALYPSE.)

D.SUBSEQUENTHISTORYOFTHENEWTESTAMENTCANON

1.TotheProtestantReformation

TheNewTestamentinitscanonicalaspecthaslittlehistorybetweenthefirstyearsofthe
fifthandtheearlypartofthesixteenthcentury.Aswasnaturalinageswhen
ecclesiasticalauthorityhadnotreacheditsmoderncentralization,thereweresporadic
divergencesfromthecommonteachingandtradition.Therewasnodiffusedcontestation
ofanybook,buthereandthereattemptsbyindividualstoaddsomethingtothereceived
collection.InseveralancientLatinmanuscriptsthespuriousEpistletotheLaodiceansis
foundamongthecanonicalletters,and,inafewinstances,theapocryphalIII
Corinthians.ThelasttraceofanyWesterncontradictionwithintheChurchtotheCanon
oftheNewTestamentrevealsacurioustransplantationofOrientaldoubtsconcerningthe
Apocalypse.AnactoftheSynodofToledo,heldin633,statesthatmanycontestthe
authorityofthatbook,andordersittobereadinthechurchesunderpainof
excommunication.TheoppositioninallprobabilitycamefromtheVisigoths,whohad
recentlybeenconvertedfromArianism.TheGothicBiblehadbeenmadeunderOriental
auspicesatatimewhentherewasstillmuchhostilitytoApocalypseintheEast.

2.TheNewTestamentandtheCouncilofTrent(1546)

ThisecumenicalsynodhadtodefendtheintegrityoftheNewTestamentaswellasthe
OldagainsttheattacksofthepseudoReformers,Luther,basinghisactionondogmatic
reasonsandthejudgmentofantiquity,haddiscardedHebrews,James,Jude,and
Apocalypseasaltogetheruncanonical.ZwinglicouldnotseeinApocalypseaBiblical
book.(OEcolampadiusplacedJames,Jude,IIPeter,IIandIIIJohninaninferiorrank.
EvenafewCatholicscholarsoftheRenaissancetype,notablyErasmusandCajetan,had
thrownsomedoubtsonthecanonicityoftheabovementionedAntilegomena.Asto
wholebooks,theProtestantdoubtsweretheonlyonestheFathersofTrenttook
cognizanceoftherewasnottheslightesthesitationregardingtheauthorityofanyentire
document.Butthedeuterocanonicalpartsgavethecouncilsomeconcern,viz.,thelast
twelveversesofMark,thepassageabouttheBloodySweatinLuke,andthePericope
AdulterinJohn.CardinalCajetanhadapprovinglyquotedanunfavourablecommentof
St.JeromeregardingMark,xvi,920Erasmushadrejectedthesectiononthe
AdulterousWomanasunauthentic.Still,evenconcerningthesenodoubtofauthenticity

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wasexpressedatTrenttheonlyquestionwasastothemanneroftheirreception.Inthe
endtheseportionswerereceived,likethedeuterocanonicalbooks,withouttheslightest
distinction.Andtheclause"cumomnibussuispartibus"regardsespeciallythese
portions.ForanaccountoftheactionofTrentontheCanon,thereaderisreferredback
totherespectivesectionofthearticle:II.TheCanonoftheOldTestamentintheCatholic
Church.

TheTridentinedecreedefiningtheCanonaffirmstheauthenticityofthebookstowhich
propernamesareattached,withouthoweverincludingthisinthedefinition.Theorderof
booksfollowsthatoftheBullofEugeniusIV(CouncilofFlorence),exceptthatActs
wasmovedfromaplacebeforeApocalypsetoitspresentposition,andHebrewsputat
theendofSt.Paul'sEpistles.TheTridentineorderhasbeenretainedintheofficial
VulgateandvernacularCatholicBibles.Thesameistobesaidofthetitles,whichasa
rulearetraditionalones,takenfromtheCanonsofFlorenceandCarthage.

3.TheNewTestamentCanonoutsidetheChurch

TheOrthodoxRussianandotherbranchesoftheEasternOrthodoxChurchhaveaNew
TestamentidenticalwiththeCatholic.InSyriatheNestorianspossessaCanonalmost
identicalwiththefinaloneoftheancientEastSyrianstheyexcludethefoursmaller
CatholicEpistlesandApocalypse.TheMonophysitesreceiveallthebook.The
ArmenianshaveoneapocryphallettertotheCorinthiansandtwofromthesame.The
CopticArabicChurchincludewiththecanonicalScripturestheApostolicConstitutions
andtheClementineEpistles.TheEthiopicNewTestamentalsocontainsthesocalled
"ApostolicConstitutions".

AsforProtestantism,theAnglicansandCalvinistsalwayskepttheentireNewTestament
ButforoveracenturythefollowersofLutherexcludedHebrews,James,Jude,and
Apocalypse,andevenwentfurtherthantheirmasterbyrejectingthethreeremaining
deuterocanonicals,IIPeter,IIandIIIJohn.Thetrendoftheseventeenthcentury
Lutherantheologianswastoclassallthesewritingsasofdoubtful,oratleastinferior,
authority.ButgraduallytheGermanProtestantsfamiliarizedthemselveswiththeidea
thatthedifferencebetweenthecontestedbooksoftheNewTestamentandtherestwas
oneofdegreeofcertaintyastooriginratherthanofinstrinsiccharacter.Thefull
recognitionofthesebooksbytheCalvinistsandAnglicansmadeitmuchmoredifficult
fortheLutheranstoexcludetheNewTestamentdeuterosthanthoseoftheOld.Oneof
theirwritersoftheseventeenthcenturyallowedonlyatheoreticdifferencebetweenthe
twoclasses,andin1700BossuetcouldsaythatallCatholicsandProtestantsagreedon
theNewTestamentCanon.TheonlytraceofoppositionnowremaininginGerman
ProtestantBiblesisintheorder,Hebrews,comingwithJames,Jude,andApocalypseat
theendthefirstnotbeingincludedwiththePaulinewritings,whileJamesandJudeare
notrankedwiththeCatholicEpistles.

4.Thecriterionofinspiration(lesscorrectlyknownasthecriterionofcanonicity)

EventhoseCatholictheologianswhodefendApostolicityasatestfortheinspirationof
theNewTestament(seeabove)admitthatitisnotexclusiveofanothercriterion,viz.,
CatholictraditionasmanifestedintheuniversalreceptionofcompositionsasDivinely
inspired,ortheordinaryteachingoftheChurch,ortheinfalliblepronouncementsof
ecumenicalcouncils.Thisexternalguaranteeisthesufficient,universal,andordinary
proofofinspiration.TheuniquequalityoftheSacredBooksisarevealeddogma.
Moreover,byitsverynatureinspirationeludeshumanobservationandisnotself
evident,beingessentiallysuperphysicalandsupernatural.Itssoleabsolutecriterion,
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therefore,istheHolyinspiringSpirit,witnessingdecisivelytoItself,notinthesubjective
experienceofindividualsouls,asCalvinmaintained,neitherinthedoctrinalandspiritual
tenorofHolyWrititself,accordingtoLuther,butthroughtheconstitutedorganand
custodianofItsrevelations,theChurch.Allotherevidencesfallshortofthecertaintyand
finalitynecessarytocompeltheabsoluteassentoffaith.(SeeFranzelin,"DeDivin
TraditioneetScriptur"Wiseman,"LecturesonChristianDoctrine",Lectureii)
TheCatholicEncyclopedia,VolumeIII
NihilObstat,November1,1908.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor
Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork

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