Indus River Basin Water Management Plan

Indus River Basin:
Water Management Plan
Prepared by: Aaron Burt, Jon Lee, Jeff Morgan, Ben Roman, and Liyiran (Shelly) Xia
Prepared for: International Affairs 501 - Water and Sustainable Development
April 26, 2016
Executive Summary
Home to the largest irrigation system in the world and roughly 300 million people, the
Indus River Basin is endowed with high-quality glacier melt from the Himalayan mountain
range; however, Pakistan and India are increasingly finding their water resources to be
diminishing at an alarming rate. Climate change, inefficient water use, pollution from
agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors, in addition to historic water allocation disputes, all
contribute to the growing water crisis in one of the most strategically important regions in the
world. Water security has innate links with food and energy security. With a growing population
and increasing urbanization rate, improving water management of the Indus River Basin is vital
in ensuring the livelihood of a large faction of Southeast Asias population and in preventing a
range of economic, social, and political instabilities that can have a ripple effect across the globe.
This Plan conducts a situational analysis on the status of water management in the basin,
with a focus on four main areas: hydropower development, irrigation, wastewater pollution, and
legal framework. Our strategies are:
emphasizing integrated water management approach rather than isolated efforts

across different jurisdictions
increasing the use of small scale hydropower structures that have less ecological
impact than big dams
promoting education on techniques to increase irrigation efficiency, reduce
waterlogging, seepage, evaporation, and wastewater
implementing low-cost wastewater treatment systems to improve the overall water
quality and human health within the basin
strengthening law enforcement mechanisms through resource sharing and capacity
building with external actors such as international institutions and donors
meeting the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals through suggested
indicators
Many developing regions around the world are experiencing similar problems as the
Indus River Basin. Implementing an efficient and well executed water management plan is one
of the foundations to improving the quality of life in these areas. Constructing a template to
achieve these goals, in a region that may not have the financial capabilities to do so, is sorely
needed. If successful in the Indus River Basin, this plan can be used to improve the quality of
life, by improving the overall water management, for many developing nations around the world.
Table of Contents
1. INDUS RIVER BASIN BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................ 1

Physical Dimensions of the Indus River System ...................................................................................... 2
Climate ......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Social Description of Basin ......................................................................................................................... 5
Demography .............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Political System .........................................................................................................................................................5
Economy ...................................................................................................................................................................6
Challenges .................................................................................................................................................... 7
Climate Change .........................................................................................................................................................7
Pollution .................................................................................................................................................................. 10
Conflict.................................................................................................................................................................... 10
2. ECONOMIC STATUS OF AREAS WITHIN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN ................... 13

Industry and Economy on the Indus River Basin .................................................................................. 14
Indus Water Treaty Concerning Dams ................................................................................................... 16
Dam Building Race ................................................................................................................................... 19
Hydro Power Performance in the Indus River Basin ............................................................................ 20
Trade Off Priority Between Irrigation and Hydro Power .................................................................... 23
Solutions ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
3. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN .................................. 25

Agriculture & Irrigation .......................................................................................................................... 26
Background of Cultivation in the Indus .................................................................................................................. 26
Limited Role of China ............................................................................................................................................. 27
Objectives for the Agricultural Sector ..................................................................................................................... 27
Agricultural Review of Riparian Nations ............................................................................................... 28
India: Essential Component of Food Security ......................................................................................................... 28
Pakistan: Complete Dependence ............................................................................................................................. 30
Afghanistan: Limited Traditional Systems .............................................................................................................. 32
Irrigation Systems and Efficiency ........................................................................................................... 33
Pakistan: Full Control.............................................................................................................................................. 33
India: Room to Improve .......................................................................................................................................... 35
Afghanistan: Limited Traditional Systems .............................................................................................................. 36
Prioritized Solutions for Agriculture and Irrigation ............................................................................. 37
4. WATER POLLUTION IN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN ................................................... 41

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 42
Municipal Wastewater Pollution ............................................................................................................. 43
Environmental and Human Health Impacts ............................................................................................................ 43
Current Pollution and Wastewater Treatment ......................................................................................................... 44
Methods for Improving the Current State ............................................................................................................... 44
Agricultural Pollution ............................................................................................................................... 47
Pesticides Effect on the Environment and Human Health ..................................................................................... 47
Pollution from Agricultural Runoff ......................................................................................................................... 48
1
Education and Management Practices to Reduce Agricultural Pollution ................................................................ 48
Industrial Wastewater Pollution.............................................................................................................. 49
Industrial wastewater discharge and lack of regulations ......................................................................................... 49
Field Study on the Lower Reaches of the Indus River ............................................................................................ 49
Implementing Regulatory Agencies ........................................................................................................................ 51
Natural Geologic Pollution ....................................................................................................................... 52
The Pothohar Plateau Field Study ........................................................................................................................... 52
Cascade Aerators and Settling Ponds to Precipitate Metals .................................................................................... 53
Courses of Action to Improve Water Quality ........................................................................................ 54
5. ANALYSIS ON WATER-RELATED LEGAL FRAMEWORK ....................................... 55

Transboundary Legal Framework .......................................................................................................... 56
Existing Bilateral Water Treaty with India ............................................................................................................. 56
Potential Water Treaty with Afghanistan ................................................................................................................ 56
Legal Framework within Pakistan: ......................................................................................................... 56
Major Water-Related Legislation............................................................................................................ 56
National Level Legislation ...................................................................................................................................... 58
Provincial Level Legislation ................................................................................................................................... 61
Analysis of Ongoing Progress Regarding Water-Related Legislation: ................................................ 62
Water-Related Institutions In Pakistan and External Actors............................................................... 62
The Ministry of Water and Power ........................................................................................................................... 63
Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) ......................................................................................................... 64
Ministry of Environment (Federal) ......................................................................................................................... 65
Ministries of Local Government (Provincial) ......................................................................................................... 65
Agriculture Department (Provincial) ....................................................................................................................... 65
Water User Associations (WUA) ............................................................................................................................ 66
Departments of Public Health Engineering (Provincial) ......................................................................................... 66
The Irrigation Departments (PIDs) and Irrigation and Drainage Authorities (PIDAs) (Provincial) ....................... 66
External Actors (International Organizations and Donors) ..................................................................................... 67
Analysis on Institutional Shortfalls and Challenges .............................................................................. 68
Addressing Areas of Capacity Building .................................................................................................................. 68
Recommendations on Capacity Building and Opportunities................................................................................... 68
APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................... 71
Table 1. Sector wise estimated wastewater production in Pakistan .................................................... 71
Table 2. Wastewater produced annually by cities in Pakistan ............................................................ 71
Table 3. Construction and operation and maintenance cost estimate for wastewater treatment
facilities in the ten largest cities without sanitation in Pakistan ........................................................... 71
Figure 1. Changes in course of the Indus River .................................................................................... 72
Figure 2. Tres Rios constructed wetland ............................................................................................... 72
Figure 4. Map of industries in Pakistan ................................................................................................. 74
Figure 5. Cascade aerator. ...................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 6. Lead oxide. ............................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 7. Settling pond. ........................................................................................................................... 75
2
1
Indus River Basin
Background Information
1
Physical Dimensions of the Indus River System
The Indus River System is one of the largest systems on Earth, coving thousands of miles
through several countries and supporting the lives of millions of people. The Indus originates on
the Tibetan Plateau and spans approximately 2,000 miles before its delta drains into the Arabian
Sea.1 While the Indus itself flows almost exclusively through Pakistani territory, the breadth of
the entire Indus basin is distributed between four countries. 53% of the area remains in Pakistan
while 33%, 8%, and 6% exist in India, China, and Afghanistan respectively.2 This vast swath of
territory makes up roughly 450,000 square miles, 175,000 square miles of which lie in the
Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Karakorum mountain ranges and foothills, while the remainder
encompasses the plains and lowlands of Pakistan.3 For a sense of scale, the Indus annual flow is
58 cubic miles, which is twice that of
the Nile River and three times the
flow of the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers combined.4
The river begins its journey in Tibet

at an elevation of 18,000 feet. From
there, it flows 200 miles northwest,
crossing through the disputed Kashmir
region between Pakistan and India
where it encounters its first major
tributary, the Zaskar River in Ladakh.
150 miles on, in Pakistan-controlled
Kashmir, the Indus is joined by
another notable tributary, the Shyok
River. The Skyok and other
Figure 1a. Indus River Basin Land Area (EcoPeace Middle East,
tributaries, the Shigar and the Gilgit,
2012) feed glacial melt into the Indus from
the Karakoram Range, the Nanga
Parbat Massif, and the Kohistan Highlands. The Indus moves rapidly as it descends from the
mountains and is joined with the Kabul River just north of the city of Attock, at which point the
Indus flows at an elevation of 2,000 feet. At this point, the flow of the Indus slows dramatically
as it enters the Punjab Plain, which sits at just 260 feet above sea level. It is in the eastern region
1
CMS Data. "THE LOWER INDUS RIVER: BALANCING DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF
WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS AND DEPENDENT LIVELIHOODS." CMS Data. Accessed April 17, 2016.
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/indus.pdf.
2
Aquastat. "Indus Basin." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Last modified 2011. Accessed
April 15, 2016. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/basins/indus/index.stm.
3
Mehran, Sngg Zangbo, and Sindhu Shiquan He. "Indus River." Encyclopedia Britanica. Last modified March 17,
2016. Accessed April 17, 2016. http://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River.
4
Ibid.
2
of the Punjab Plain where the Indus connects with its most significant tributaries, the Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej Rivers. This region forms the boundary between India and
Pakistan and control of these rivers is split between the two countries.5 The remainder of the
Indus path is a slow wind through Punjab and Sindh until it branches into distributaries near the
city of Thatta, forming a delta that empties into the Arabian Sea at various points southeast of
Karachi. The Indus delta is the 6th largest in the world, covering approximately 3,000 square
miles and extending hundreds of miles along the coast.6
The large area of the basin necessarily results in a variety of land cover. The majority of
the basin includes the plains of Punjab and Sindh, where the groundcover is generally sand and
sparse grass. This map details where in the Indus basin particular ground cover is prevalent. As
can be seen, huge sections of the basin are labelled as barren or shrubland, with the orange
depicting land that is used for agriculture and is thus irrigated, but which would otherwise be
shrubland as well. A disconcerting aspect of this map is the distinct lack of forest and wetlands
and, in their place, large portions of land that are impervious due to urbanization.
Figure 1b. Land Cover of the Indus River Basin (India Water Portal, 2009)
The irrigation networks have make the banks of the Indus lush, but desert conditions
prevail 10 to 25 miles away from the river. In the northern area of Punjab province, initial land
cover consisted of varied vegetation and woodlands, but overgrazing and deforestation have
destroyed much of the natural ecosystem. Timber felling in the Himalaya foothills has led to a
drop in groundwater levels, further harming natural vegetation.
5
Ibid.
6
CMS Data. "THE LOWER INDUS RIVER: BALANCING DEVELOPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF
WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS AND DEPENDENT LIVELIHOODS." CMS Data. Accessed April 17, 2016.
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/indus.pdf.
3
Because of the harsh climate, the majority of agricultural land is fed by irrigation rather
than rainfall. The Indus basin houses one of the most extensive irrigation systems in the world.
The Indus basin irrigation system (IBIS) encompasses approximately 16-18 million hectares of
farmland in Pakistan alone, 26 million hectares if farms in India are taken into account,
comprising 22% of the basins total land area.7 The almost complete reliance on irrigation has
made the Indus basin one of the worlds most over-exploited groundwater systems.
Climate
The climate of the Indus River Basin varies wildly along its 2,000 mile course,
encompassing subtropical arid, semi-arid, temperate, and alpine biomes.8 As a result, the
annual precipitation in the Indus basin ranges from 5-20 inches, with most of the rain falling in
the plains coming during the monsoon season (July through September) and snow accumulation
in the mountains, principally in December through February.9 With the exception of the
mountainous parts of the basin, the Indus Valley lies in the driest part of the subcontinent, where
in parts of the Sindh and Punjab plains, the average temperature can exceed 100 degrees
Fahrenheit in July.
The flow of the Indus System is at a minimum in winter (December through February)
with a rise in water levels beginning in March as the principle rivers in the system are largely fed
by snow and glacial melt from the Karakorum, Hindu Kush, and Himalayan mountain ranges.
Peak level occurs in the rainy season during the later summer months as the snow and glacial
melt is supplemented by periods of sustained rainfall. While there is very little rain in the lower
basin during the winter, northwestern winds sweep the upper Indus valley and generally bring
four to eight inches of rain to the lower basin, which is vital for Pakistans cultivation of wheat
and barley. The monsoons are unable to overcome the towering mountain ranges, and as a
result, the upper basin receives very little rainfall at any point in the year. The vast majority of
its precipitation comes from snow accumulation.10
7
Earth Observatory. "Indus River." Earth Observatory. Accessed April 17, 2016.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/WorldOfChange/indus.php.
8
9
Mehran, Sngg Zangbo, and Sindhu Shiquan He. "Indus River." Encyclopedia Britanica. Last modified March 17,
2016. Accessed April 17, 2016. http://www.britannica.com/place/Indus-River.
10
Ibid.
4
Social Description of Basin
It is difficult to find reliable data sources that reach a consensus on the number of people
who live in the Indus basin, but approximations place the population between 215 and 300
million. Suffice to say, it is integral to the livelihoods and survival of the large and continuously
growing populations of two of south Asias major countries in India and Pakistan. As such, the
inhabitants differ in ethnicity, religion, language, and culture.
Demography
Those in the upper reaches of the basin, Tibetans, Ladakhi, and Balti, show affinities
closer to cultures in central rather than southern Asia. These people tend to speak Tibetan and
practice Buddhism, though the Balti have adopted Islam. Throughout much of the rest of the
Indus Valley, Islam is the dominant religion, though tribal ancestry differs the people in many
other respects. Western Kashmir is inhabited by Dardic-speaking groups, the Kafir, Shinas, and
Kashmiri Gujar, among others. Predominant in northwestern Pakistan are the Pashtuns who
speak Pashto and are closely related to tribes in Afghanistan. The Yusufzai are the largest
Pashtun tribe and several of the other notable ones are the Afridi, Mohmand, Khattak, and
Wazir.11 Most of the rest of the Indus course in Pakistan passes through the Punjab and Sindh
provinces. The ethnic makeup of the Punjab region is primarily Punjabis, who live in both
Pakistans Punjab province and Indias Punjab state; the region was divided following
independence from Britain. Most people in the region speak Punjabi, which is the most widely
spoken language in Pakistan. The people of the Sindh province are ethnically diverse as a
substantial portion of the population is now descended from refugees from India. Pakistans
official language, Urdu, is taught in schools alongside Sindhi.12
While two-thirds of Pakistanis currently live in rural areas or small communities, the
trend of urbanization is rapidly progressing and shows no sign of slowing down. Pakistan is
urbanizing at 3% annually, which is the fastest pace in South Asia, and according to the United
Nations Population Division, half of the country will live in urban areas by 2025. Large cities
such as Lahore and Karachi are expected to grow by 50%.13
Political System
Because the Indus basin exists for the most part inside Pakistans borders, only Pakistans
political system will be addressed in this paper. Pakistan is a Federal Republic as of the
ratification of their constitution in 1973. The countrys official name, the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan, indicates that Islam is the official religion. For a period in the 1970s and 80s, Pakistan
11
Ibid.
12
Encyclopedia Britannica. Sindh Province, Pakistan. Accessed April 17, 2016.
http://www.britannica.com/place/Sindh-province-Pakistan
13
Dominguez, Gabriel, Pakistans Urbanization: A challenge of great proportions. Deutsche Welle. Accessed
April 17, 2016. http://www.dw.com/en/pakistans-urbanization-a-challenge-of-great-proportions/a-18163731
5
was governed by the military, however, in 2010 the 18th amendment to the constitution was
passed, thereby removing the majority of changes the military made to the document.
The executive branch of the government consists of the President, who is the Head of
State, and the Prime Minister, who acts as the Presidents advisor. Presidents serve a five year
term and are chosen by a secret ballot through an Electoral College made up of members of the
Senate, the National Assembly, and the Provincial Assemblies. Qualifications for the position
include a minimum age of 45 years and identification as a Muslim. The Prime Minister is an
appointed position by the President from among the members of the National Assembly and
must be approved by a majority of members.
As mentioned briefly above, the Legislature is comprised of the Senate and the National
Assembly. The Senate has equal representation from each of Pakistans four provinces and
members are chosen by the provincial assembly of their home province. The National Assembly
is the only section of the Federal government that is subjected to a national election. 272 of the
342 seats are determined by a first-past-the-post election while 60 of the remaining openings are
reserved for women and 10 for non-Muslim minorities. Seats are allocated by population in the
four provinces and also in the Federally Administered Tribal Area and Islamabad Capital
Territory.
Each province has a governor, a Council of Ministers, and a provincial assembly. While
the provincial assemblies are democratically elected, governors are appointed by the Prime
Minister and governors, in turn, appoint the Council of Ministers in their province. Given what
has been presented here, the people of Pakistan have relatively little power to choose their
leaders or to have their interests proportionally represented. In addition, the centralization of
power among a relatively small number of people has made Pakistan one of the more corrupt
governments in the world.14
Economy
Pakistans economy is growing alongside its population, but low per-capita income is
indicative of the countrys struggles along with the governments inability to provide reliable
public services. Pakistans economy is currently ranked 26th in the world with regards to
purchasing power parity and has been projected for a 4-5% annual increase in GDP for the last
several years. The service sector remains the area in which the most significant gains are being
made. In the fiscal year 2015, services expanded by 5% while manufacturing and agriculture
remained steady but experienced little growth.15 Ones perception of Pakistans economy and
the well-being of its people can be greatly skewed when viewed in terms relative to the past, or
relative to much of the world. In the last year, Pakistans per-capita income increased $129; an
14
Ahmed, Mughees, Saadia Saleem, and Iqra Iftikhar. Political System of Pakistan, Analysis of Political Structure
of Local Bodies in Pakistan. Berkeley Journal of Social Science Vol. 2, Issue 10-11, Oct,-Nov. 2012. Accessed
April 19, 2016. http://www.berkeleyjournalofsocialsciences.com/OctNov1.pdf
15
Asian Development Bank. Pakistan: Economy. Accessed April 18, 2016.
http://www.adb.org/countries/pakistan/economy
6
impressive 9.5% hike that raised the average income to $1,513. What must be taken into
consideration, however, is that this value is still well below the middle-income classification of
economies of its size, which, according to the World Bank, necessitates a $4,125 average per
capita income.16 In addition, the reported average income in Pakistan coupled with the fact that
most of the population continues to live an agrarian lifestyle (for now) indicates that a staggering
proportion of the countrys nearly 190 million citizens live in crushing poverty.
The Indus River is the center of Pakistani development and is key to any hope of
sustainable growth and prosperity. The two largest sectors of Pakistans economy are agriculture
and industry, namely textile production and apparel manufacturing. Pakistan is a net exporter of
food and, throughout the last decade, it has produced more wheat annually than all of Africa and
nearly as much as all of South America. Other agricultural exports include rice, cotton, fish,
oranges, mangoes, apricots, and other fruit.17 Of course, what makes the cultivation of these
things possible is Pakistans most valuable natural resources: arable land and a large source of
water. The previously-mentioned irrigation network has allowed Pakistan to exploit land that
otherwise would have been completely unusable in agriculture. As such, agriculture accounts for
roughly 24% of Pakistans GDP.18
Challenges
The Indus basin faces a number of challenges that threaten the well-being of its millions
of inhabitants and the future of sustainability. An increasing gap between supply and demand
due to a rapidly growing and urbanizing population, impacts from climate change, environmental
degradation, soil salinization, and political disagreements are all important issues currently and
will become increasingly defined as time goes on.
Climate Change
The worlds changing climate creates or accelerates problems in almost every region on
earth. In the Indus basin, the problem is defined by reduced flow and the resulting water
shortages for agriculture, industry, and domestic use. The Indus is especially sensitive to climate
change because the majority of its volume is derived from glaciers and snow melt. Glacier and
snow-fed rivers like the Indus are far less variable in year-to-year volume and flow than are
rivers that rely largely on precipitation. The tradeoff is dependence on stable temperatures.
Estimates indicate that the average temperature of the Indus basin has increased by .6
degrees Celsius over the last century, but projections for the coming decades show a far more
expeditious increase. Over that same period of time, it is estimated that annual precipitation has
16
Rana, Shahbaz. Per capita income: A Pakistani now makes $1,513 a year. Accessed April 19, 2016.
http://tribune.com.pk/story/889024/per-capita-income-a-pakistani-now-makes-1513-a-year/
17
18
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. 2012. Agriculture Statistics, Government of Pakistan. 2. Accessed 3 30, 2016.
http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/agriculture-statistics.
7
increased by 25%. The issues with such estimates arise when one considers once again the
extreme size and variability of the region in question. The standard error on the precipitation
measurements are admittedly large, according to the authors of the study19 from which this
information is being withdrawn. So while the actual numbers are not a matter of consensus, the
areas of the Indus basin that are impacted and at what time of year the impacts can be seen are
agreed upon. The trend suggests that precipitation increases during the summer and decreases
during the winter. This corresponds to temperature increase, which is more pronounced in
northern Pakistan than in the south and occurs in most part during the winter. Rising winter
temperatures in the mountainous parts in the north of the basin accompanied by reduced
precipitation in the mountains during winter will result in the inability of the Indus waters to be
replenished by melting snow in the spring. In addition, the amount of water is not the only factor
that should be taken into consideration as rising temperatures also affect when the river is fed by
snowmelt. When snow melts earlier in the year, not as much snowmelt will be entering the basin
during the summer months, which can change the delicate balance needed for agriculture.20
Projections for water levels in

the basin are grim given the
acceleration of global climate change.
Figure 1c depicts the water level of the
Indus over time, with variations
corresponding to different annual
temperature increases.21 Currently, the
most dire predictions have settled on a
3 degrees Celsius increase by the
2050s.22 One of the issues with climate
change that is often overlooked is that
as water levels decrease, farmland Figure 1c. Change in Indus River flow under four climate models
becomes less fertile and thus more (Desdemonda Despair, 2011)
water is required to produce equivalent yield. Climate changes impact on the Indus flow varies
over different periods of time. Described above are long-term projections. In the short-term,
however, water levels are expected to rise, as can be seen in the graph. This is a result of
unprecedented glacial melt feeding more water into the system. This can be beneficial in water-
starved areas, but the more likely scenario is widespread and possibly unpredictable flooding.
19
Winston, Yu, Yang Yi-Chen, Andre Savitsky, Donald Alford, Casey Brown, James Wescoat, Dario Debowicz,
and Sherman Robinson. 2013. The Indus Basin of Pakistan The Impacts of Climate Risks on Water and Agriculture.
Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
20
Ibid.
21
Desdemonda Despair. Predicted Indus River Flows Under Four Warming Scenarios. Accessed April 15, 2016.
http://www.desdemonadespair.net/2011/06/graph-of-day-predicted-indus-river.html
22
Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
8
Outside of the direct
impacts, climate change
will very likely send
ripples through the Indus
basins population. Given
the assumption that the
average atmospheric
temperature will increase
somewhere in the range of
1 degree through 4.5
degrees Celsius in the next
five to six decades, total
crop production in
Pakistan is expected to
decrease by an average of
Figure 1d. Sector Outcomes for Adaptation Investments under Climate Change
13% and, perhaps more
Conditions (The Indus Basin of Pakistan, the Impacts of Climate Risks on significantly, it is believed
Weather and Agriculture, 2013) hydropower generation
will fall by 34%. While the shortage of supply would likely increase the price of food and, thus,
average income of farm-based families, nonfarm households in urban areas and towns will suffer
the consequences of high food prices. Expectedly, cotton, sugarcane, and rice, the most water-
intensive crops grown in Pakistan, are the most sensitive to climate change.23 Thus, it may be
prudent to begin phasing out crops that involve water-intensive cultivation to address reduced
income before, rather than after, it becomes a problem. Of course, it is extremely difficult to
convince poor farming communities to view this issue on a broad, long-term scope when their
short-term livelihoods are being threatened. Proposals have been made in several areas in an
attempt to increase crop production and power generation in the face of the challenges presented
by climate change. The first called for is improvement in canal and watercourse efficiency in
order to bring the entire irrigation system to 50% efficiency levels. The second proposal
suggests construction of new reservoirs to add an additional 13 million acre feet. And third, the
study advocated a government investment in agricultural technology. This figure shows the
percent change in crop yield in the event of one or a combination of these proposals being
enacted. Crop production is projected to increase by approximately 5% if canal efficiency is
improved, 10% if new technology is utilized and up to 20% with a combination of enactments.
In terms of power generation, only the construction of new reservoirs offered results, but they are
significant even on the lower end of the range.24
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid.
9
Pollution
Pollution is another of the challenges facing the Indus basin, and like many issues, its
effects are exacerbated by climate change. Pollution in this area comes in three primary
varieties: municipal water discharge, industrial water discharge, and return-agriculture flows.
The majority of Pakistans cities and towns discharge their wastewater directly into the Indus and
its tributaries, however, wastewater treatment plants, provided they are present at all, are
generally poorly maintained, meaning water re-entering the system has not undergone a
satisfactory degree of treatment. Maintenance and operation of existing plants are undertaken by
local communities, which are often ill-prepared to do the job in addition to lacking the required
funding. The cause for concern in this instance is the discharge of organic matter that causes a
reduction in the rivers capacity to maintain healthy levels of dissolved oxygen. This is
especially a problem in the low-water months of winter as the organic matter is not properly
diluted, fostering an environment for eutrophication and, in some cases, septic conditions.
During septic conditions, iron and manganese are more soluble and threaten the quality of
ground water. Coliform bacteria, which is found in the waste of most organisms and which is
plentiful in poorly-treated municipal wastewater, can cause water-borne diseases like malaria,
typhoid, cholera, and dysentery if used for drinking water.25
Industrial pollution is just as poorly regulated as domestic, though the byproducts are
heavy metals and chemicals rather than organic matter, which carry with them their own
potential health threats. Agricultural pollution in the Indus basin is widespread due to the
sectors overreliance on fertilizer and pesticides. These chemicals are responsible for
eutrophication in the rivers and the delta.
Pollution is much more prevalent downstream than in the upper basin for a number of
reasons. The first, and perhaps most obvious, is that by the time the river encounters the lower
reaches, it has encountered cities, farms, and factories on the way and accumulated the
corresponding pollutants. Another aspect that is perhaps less apparent stems from the flow of the
river itself. Once the Indus emerges from the mountains and foothills, it flows at a low elevation
and spreads out across the plains, giving pollutants less of an opportunity for dilution.26
Conflict
Pakistan relies on the Indus river system for almost all of its irrigation, domestic and
industrial water needs. The complication is that the majority of that water originates in India and
in particular over the Kashmir region which is in a long state of disputed ownership between the
two nations. The roots of the conflict date to before there were modern and independent
countries involved, British colonial roots set the conditions for conflict starting in the mid-1800s.
What was originally a single British colony turned into several nations following independence
25
Mughal, F. H. "Indus water pollution." Sanalist. Accessed April 17, 2016. http://www.sanalist.org/kalabagh/a
4.htm.
26
Ibid.
10
in the 1940s with the current states of Pakistan, Afghanistan, India and Bangladesh the major
remnants. When the separate nations were partitioned there was not attention paid to natural
resources and traditional ethnic boundaries, resulting in the Indus Basin being split between
numerous new nations. A further entanglement was found in the irrigation systems built along
the Indus tributaries which integrated the entire region for irrigation, a region that was suddenly
separated into different countries. Early on in independence water was a core dispute, with India
stopping the flow of water that Pakistani farms relied upon because the water originated in India
leading to animosity and several cases of open conflict occurring.
Kashmir, the disputed mountainous area forming part of the Indus headwaters is a
military controlled zone that sees occasional skirmishes through today. Various portions are
occupied by India and Pakistan and both claim the entirety of the region as their sovereign
territory. The importance of Kashmir is not immediately obvious, aside from a beautiful rugged
mountain landscape there are few mineral resources, limited agriculture and a small population.
What makes Kashmir important is the water that flows from its snowmelt and glaciers, water that
formed the first disputes between India and Pakistan in the 1940s.27 This dispute stands
unresolved currently, however in recent years the level of tensions has decreased somewhat.
This is partly due to both India and Pakistan possessing nuclear weapons and delivery systems
that reduce any opportunity to use conventional military force against each other, and partly
because increased trade and economic development is providing well for both nations that want
inclusion and openness in the world economy. There is still strong potential for a reigniting of
hostilities, aside from terrorist components the largest threat is insecurity, particularly in Pakistan
that would occur quickly in the event of significant decreases in agricultural production that is
dependent on the Indus, decreases that are likely with the changes expected with climate change
modelling.28
Afghanistan is a different case of conflict over the Indus, much of the conflict is low-
level and not openly fought. Notably there is no agreement of any kind for the Kabul River, or
any of the Afghan originating waters of the Indus, which while they are not major parts of the
overall system they do form a critical part of life in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of
Pakistan which are the most dangerous and unstable areas already. Since Afghanistan is only
using around 30% of the water available in the Kabul River it is likely that future development
sees that number increase dramatically. Pakistan is aware of this and capitalizing on the lack of
control and security in the region had regularly used its military and the Inter-Services
Intelligence Bureau to disrupt projects, intimidate civilians and destabilize the region. While a
small portion of the Indus, Afghanistan needs to be included in any management plan to remove
27
Siddiqi, Ayesha. 2011. "Kashmir and the Politics of Water." Al Jazeera English, 8 1: 1-20.
28
Swain, Ashok. 2013. "Sharing Indus River for Development and Peace." International Council for Human Rights
(ICHR): Thirsting For Justice. Brussels: ICHR.
11
a potential source of instability and manage a relatively untapped resource for one of the poorest
nations on the planet.29
Aziz, Khalid. 2013. "Need For a Pak Afghan Treaty on Management of Joint Water Courses." Criterion
29
Quarterly 2 (4).
12
2
Economic Status of Areas
within the Indus River Basin
13
Industry and Economy on the Indus River Basin
The industry and economy on the Indus River Basin are similar in both countries that rely
on it, India and Pakistan. The Indus river basin is the backbone of the economy of Pakistan. It is
the most important source of water in the Punjab province in Pakistan; this is essentiality
Pakistan breadbasket. It provides much of the nation's agricultural production. Pakistans
economy is mainly based on agricultural activities, "Majority of the population, directly or
indirectly, dependent on this sector. It contributes about 24% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and accounts for half of employed labor force and is the largest source of foreign exchange
earnings. It feeds whole rural and urban population.30 The Indus River is also to the main
source of potable water in Pakistan. The river is critical to all of the Pakistan however, it is
essential to the lower regions of the Indus River Valley, here in this region precipitation from
rainfall is inadequate. The initial development concerning water was for irrigation for
agricultural needs by past civilizations such as the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. In
modern times, the agricultural industry was boosted by the irrigation activities by the British and
East India Company. Their involvement oversaw the construction of the most multifaceted
irrigation networks in the world, for example, The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 meters (4,450 ft.)
long, irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000
square kilometers (5,000,000 acres).31 The major crops that are grown in Pakistan are cotton,
sugarcane, and wheat (see chapter 3 for information about agriculture and irrigation). The
Major driver in Pakistans economy is textiles. Alongside with agriculture and the textile
industry is extremely water dependent.
Other industries that are reliant on the Indus river basin are dams and fish farming.
Indias province covering the Indus River Valley is similar to the Pakistani region concerning
industry, however, India is not as economically dependent on the Indus River Valley compared
to Pakistan as seen in the table below there are more irrigation projects in Pakistan in the Indus
River Basin.
30
Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, ed., "Agriculture Statistics," Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, accessed April 15, 2016,
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org.
31
New World Encyclopedia, "Indus River," www.newworldencyclopedia.org, accessed April 15, 2016,
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Indus_River#Economy.
14
Table 2a. The barrages in the Indus river basin32
However, between the two countries, much of the world's cotton is provided by the Indus
River Basin area, Nearly 30% of the world's cotton supply comes from India and Pakistan,
much of that from the Indus River Valley. On average, about 737 billion gallons are withdrawn
from the Indus River annually to grow cottonenough to provide Delhi residents with
household water for more than two years.33 Because India uses the river basin for similar things
as Pakistan, as mentioned before all of the economic activities use much water the same goes for
Pakistan.
Pakistan's entire economy is driven by the textile industry, said Michael Kugelman, a
South Asia expert at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. The problem with
Pakistan's economy is that most of the major industries use a ton of watertextiles, sugar,
wheatand there's a tremendous amount of water that's not only used, but wasted, he added.34
Because Pakistan is downstream on the river basin from India, Pakistan in concerned that
they will not get their fair share of water use and that they might potential be cut off from the
river because of the industrial actions that India is performing in the basin. The water is in fact
diminishing, but it is not because of the action s of India alone. Both countries have extreme
32
33
William Wheeler, "India and Pakistan at Odds Over Shrinking Indus River," National Geographic, last modified
October 13, 2011, accessed April 15, 2016, http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/10/111012-india-
pakistan-indus-river-water/.
34
15
population growth and with population means more demand for water. Certain areas are already
feeling the strain from the reduced water levels.
Downstream provinces are already feeling the strain, with some dried-out areas being
abandoned by fishermen and farmers forced to move to cities. That increases competition
between urban and rural communities for water. In areas where you used to have raging rivers,
you have, essentially, streams or even puddles and not much else, said Kugelman. In years
past, the coastal districts that lost their shares of the Indus' flows have become "economically
orphaned, the poorest districts in the country, according to Pakistani water activist Mustafa
Talpur. Because Pakistani civil society is weak, he says, corruption and deteriorating water
distribution tend to go hand in hand. In the port city of Karachi, which depends for its water on
the Indus, water theftin which public water is stolen from the pipes and sold from tankers in
slums and around the citymay be a $500-million annual industry.35
Indus Water Treaty Concerning Dams

A situation like this is why there is why there was a formation of the Indus Water Treaty.
The Indus Water Treaty was implemented in 1960; it took almost ten years of negotiation
mitigated by the World Bank for it to be completed. It was created by the concerns that are
discussed above. Pakistan was concerned that there was no official agreement to prevent India
from stemming the flow of the Indus River affecting the tributaries that Pakistan relies on. It is
unfortunate that this treat has fallen to the wayside and hardly referred to when completing new
projects either irrigational or concerning hydroelectric related. The objectives of the treaty are to
negotiate an equitable allocation of the flow of the Indus River and its tributaries between the
riparian states; develop a rational plan for integrated watershed development.36 In more recent
years the treaty has been viewed as inadequate. However, the desire to resolve issues has been
rekindled, concerning certain dam projects. Below is a diagram of the Indus Water Treaty, but it
illustrates the complexity of the treaty.
35
36
Aaron T. Wolf and Joshua T. Newton, "Case Study of Transboundary Dispute Resolution: The Indus Water
Treaty," Program in Water Conflict Management and Transformation, accessed April 15, 2016,
http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/research/case_studies/Indus_New.htm.
16
Figure 2a. Diagram for the Indus Water Treaty.37
Even with the treaty in place it did not stop the dam projects that both India and Pakistan
have been building in the Indus River Valley. Because the Indus Water Treaty has been
interpreted differently on both side and has led to inefficiency. Moreover, it has resulted in the
river basins dam-building race.
The problem is that even before that separation of India and Pakistan there were problems
concerning water before the two former British colonies. During that time, it was an interstate
issue. It became an international problem only after the United Kingdom left the region ad was
no longer the legal ruling power over the two states. After that time of independence, the issue
was worsened because there was not a legal supranational body to oversee the situation.
Pakistan, which was dependent on the Indus River for centuries, found its self-having to work
with another country because the river flowed through India before it reached Pakistan. Which
relations between India and Pakistan was already volatile. For example, in the mid 20th-century
claims about water flow between the two countries were conflicting.
Resumption of water delivery to Pakistan from the Indian headworks, worked out at an
Inter-Dominican conference held in Delhi on 3-4 May 1948. India agreed to the resumption of
flow, but maintained that Pakistan could not claim any share of those waters as a matter of right
(Caponera, 1987, p. 511). This position was reinforced by the Indian claim that, since Pakistan
had agreed to pay for water under the Standstill Agreement of 1947, Pakistan had recognized
37
17
India's water rights. Pakistan countered that they had the rights of prior appropriation, and that
payments to India were only to cover operation and maintenance costs (Biswas, 1992, p. 204).38
However, these conflicting views never have been fully resolved but, an agreement was
signed anyways this agreement was known as the Delhi Agreement. In this agreement, India
made a promise to Pakistan that is would not withdraw delivery of the water without allowing
time for Pakistan to made replacement sources. Pakistan eventually grew displeased with the
agreement claiming the agreement was not equal or fair. At this point, both countries turned to a
third party to mediate the situation. Because the stalemate was lasting through the 1950s.
Through the 1950s both parties went back and forth on water allocation, eventually, in 1960, the
Indus Water Treaty was signed by Pakistan and India. The following is a summary of the Indus
Water Agreement entails:
an agreement that Pakistan would receive unrestricted use of the western rivers, which
India would allow to flow unimpeded, with minor exceptions
provisions for three dams, eight link canals, three barrages, and 2500 tube wells to be
built in Pakistan
a ten-year transition period, from April 1, 1960 to March 31, 1970, during which water
would continue to be supplied to Pakistan according to a detailed schedule
a schedule for India to provide its fixed financial contribution of $62 million, in ten
annual installments during the transition period
additional provisions for data exchange and future cooperation. 39
The treat also created a body to oversee the agreement; it was the Permanent Indus
Commission made up of officials and delegates from each country. The commission still meets
but not much is accomplished, and unfortunately, the monitoring mechanism of the river basin
are not adequate.
38
Ibid.
39
18
Dam Building Race
India uses the river basin for hydroelectric power produced by dams. Moreover, in turn,
Pakistan also began to build hydroelectric dams. Moreover, so began a dam-building race
among the two nations. As of 2010 India has more dams in the river basin than Pakistan as seen
in the table below.40
Table 2b. Large dams in the Indus river basin41
Because of some projects in the river basin in mostly India but Pakistan as well. The
treaty of the Indus River basin is under stress at levels it has never seen before. The Indus Water
Treaty is over a half century old now and is being interpreted in different ways by both parties.
Both are trying to build dams and irrigation projects so that they can control more of the river. In
Pakistan water is at or near the top of its foreign policies issues, there are many crossroads in the
regions that can cause a conflict many of which concern water. So much is riding on the Indus
Water Treaty and how it is being interpreted. India wants to control the river basin so it can
address its electrical needs. Moreover, Pakistan wants to control the river basin so it can satisfy
its irrigational needs. In 2010 Pakistan began to file a legal motion against Indias Kishanganga
project, this is one of Indias large dams in the Kashmir region. Pakistan is concerned that the
project will have adverse impacts on the flow of water into its country. Pakistan is building a
similar project that will divert water from the river for the Neelum-Jhlum Hydropower Plant.
Both of these projects can have adverse effects on each other. Well, in fact, both of these dams
are run-of-the-river projects. This type of project allows for the river to still flow while only
diverting a small amount of the river and causing not reservoirs to be built. Pakistan filed a
contention against India the highest level that it could according to the Indus Water Treaty.
Because of this, the seven-member international arbitration panel is being assemble to hear the
40
Aquastat, "Indus Basin," Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, last modified 2011, accessed
April 15, 2016, http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/basins/indus/index.stm.
41
Aquastat. "Indus Basin." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations. Last modified 2011. Accessed April 15, 2016. http://www.fao.org/nr/
water/aquastat/basins/indus/index.stm.
19
case. In the history of the Treaty, this is the first contention to be taken at such a high level.
Depending on how the panel reacts could bring about high political tensions in the region. A
previous case was solved in this manner but not at such a high level. It was resolved by a neutral
expert, and it was decided in Indias favor. India is planning more and more dams in the Indus
river basin.
Robert Wirsing, a professor at Georgetown Universitys School of Foreign Service in

Qatar who studies South Asian water issues, says India is considering building 33 dams on parts
of the Indus and its tributaries granted to Pakistan. India is allowed to use a small portion of the
rivers for storage projects, but the distrust between the countries and the scale of development
leave much to worry about, he said.42
Its a phenomenal piece of work. But its unrealistic because the Indians havent really
gotten started [building dams]. And they have now started big time.43
The fear that Pakistan holds that India will cut off their water is creating a tense situation.
However, it also causes an increase in development in the region. Both parties hope that if they
have more projects in the basin that the panel will have ruled in their favor. Moreover, the
current legal fight will likely go on, either until there is a new agreement drafted or it is resolved
in a more violent way.
Hydro Power Performance in the Indus River Basin

The Indus River Basin supports the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world.
There are 16 million hectares, and the volume accounts for around 70% of the entire runoff of
the basin, and this helps produce about 80-90% of Pakistans food production. There are also
four large hydropower stations that account for three of the reservoirs in the system. There is
also one run of the river dam with all of these damn it provides almost all of the hydropower in
the basin. This accounts for only 11% of the hydropower potential in the pool.
The need for electricity is growing in India as well as Pakistan, with such demand
increasing it is questionable whether the Indus Water Treaty will hold. India needs electricity to
be able to grow at the pace that is wanted. India consistently falls short of its demand for
electricity. India needs to increase its electricity capabilities by 10% each year to keep up with
demand. This number only accounts for 40% of Indian homes. Most of the population in India
does not have access to electricity in their homes, In India, hydropower generates 32,000 MW
and comprises a quarter of the nations energy capacity. The country has the potential for 84,000
42
Brett Walton, "Pakistan and India in Dam Building Race Interpreting the Indus Waters Treaty," Circle of Blue,
last modified November 2010, accessed April 15, 2016, http://www.circleofblue.org/2010/world/pakistan-and-india-
in-dam-building-race-interpreting-the-indus-water-treaty/
43
Ibid.
20
MW, but only one-fifth of that has been developed.44 The most promising area for
hydroelectricity production is in Indias region that covers the Indus River Basin. However, the
speed that India needs to build the dams to keep up with demand comes at a price with of the
relations with Pakistan. So India is not allowed to build the 30 dams it needs. Because it shares
the basin with Pakistan, and Pakistans economy is dependent on agriculture and textiles which
both of which require significant amounts of water to be viable.
Pakistan is similar to India in he senses that it is not meeting its electricity needs.
Pakistan is facing a massive energy shortfall; it is causing load sharing during the summer and is
costing the country millions of rupees. The capacity of electricity was provided by many
different sources, 65% was thermal, 33% was hydroelectric, and 2.4% was nuclear.45 Like
India, only 40% of Pakistanis have access to electricity. To better suit Pakistans needs in
electricity it needs to develop more hydroelectric dams. This mentality has led to the dam race
that was discussed in the previous section. However, water is Pakistans only renewable
resources and as mentioned before water is necessary for Pakistans economy because of
agriculture and textiles. Pakistan has now developed a plan to provide the proper amount of
electricity it is called the Hydropower Development Vision 2025 in 2001. This strategy was
based on creating an average demand increase of around four percent each year. Since this
strategy was unveiled, demand for electricity has grown immensely; it has increased to around 8
per cent annually. The plan also including the development of six run-of-river plants. This
means that there is not water storage involved in the plant, it allows the driver to flow still freely
creating no reservoirs. Unfortunately, none of these projects were able to be built. However,
Pakistan does not need to make these big grandiose dams like India; they can take advantage of
small hydropower projects. Providing energy to a more direct region.
However, hydropower production is decreasing over time, even though both states want
to build more hydroelectric projects their capabilities of doing so are not as high. This is shown
in the below graph.
44
Ibid.
45
Arshad H. Abbasi, "Hydropower: way out of energy crisis," Pakistan Water Gateway, accessed April 15, 2016,
http://waterinfo.net.pk/?q=node/90.
21
Figure 2b. Trend line of power generation of Big Hydropower projects for last 28 years for India.46
Also the returns from the hydro power projects in India are demising as shown in the graph
below:
Figure 2c. Diminishing generation from large hydropower projects in India.47
Given the information from the graph above in the future, it may not be worth it in the
long term for India to keep perusing those big hydropower projects. The reason for the
diminishing returns on hydropower would be that the dams are difficult to maintain. There is not
an adequate workforce to maintain a complicated facility. Therefore, the power is not being used
46
SANDRP. "HydroPower Performance in Indus Basin." South Asia Network on Dams,
Rivers and People. Last modified July 6, 2013. Accessed April 15, 2016.
https://sandrp.wordpress.com/2013/07/06/hydropower-performance-in-indus-basin/.
47
Ibid.
22
but, the hydroelectric projects are increasing in number. Also, there is a trade-off with the water
storage and how it is used. India obviously wants to use the majority of the storage for
electricity and power. Moreover, Pakistan because its economy is based on agriculture they
would put more priority on irrigation. Both states have a trade-off concerning this issue.
Trade Off Priority Between Irrigation and Hydro Power

As discussed previously, the Indus River Valley supports many projects concerning
hydropower and irrigation for food productions in India as well and Pakistan. There are also
smaller uses such as household uses, fisheries, and environmental concerns. Many hydropower
projects can easily be converted to support irrigation purposes. However, today people are
waiting for glacier runoff, snowmelt, and precipitation. The dams that are serving as
hydropower production are not used for consumptive use. Even after water passes through the
hydropower production the water is still available for other purposes. There is room for
compromise because hydropower plants are usually placed in hillier regions, and the irrigation
requires more of a flat area for the crops to thrive. However, energy demand normally increases
in the summer, and this is the time that crops need more water to survive. Increasing water
outflows from the dams can provide the necessary amount of the farm lands below. So there
should be by simple agreements for both states to get what they want. However, as discussed
before this story is not that simple. Pakistan and India have had a less than cordial past.
Moreover, also add in the rapid population growth, and the increasing global pressures that are
being put on water in the Indus River Basin.
In Pakistan irrigation has the priority and hydro-powered energy comes second. This also
plays into the constant power shortages that Pakistan suffers from. Nearly one-third of the
region has reported a substantial period that they did not have power. This comes at an
enormous cost to Pakistans economy because it makes it difficult for industries that need a
reliable energy source to operate. The cause of the poor energy supply in Pakistan is primarily
the government and the policy that they implement and the lack thereof.
Additional hydropower generation could help relieve some of the power shortages. An
analysis using a river basin model for the Indus basin finds that maximizing annual hydropower
benefits (rather than prioritizing irrigation) would increase total benefits from hydropower
generation from USD$2.9 to US$3.0 billion, a minor increase; while agricultural profits would
decline by a similar amounta zero-sum game.48
48
Claudia Ringler, Ethan Yang, and Maksud Bekchanov, "Is hydropower for or against Irrigation?" Thrive: the
future of our food, water and enviroment, last modified May 23, 2013, accessed April 15, 2016,
https://wle.cgiar.org/thrive/2013/05/23/hydropower-or-against-irrigation.
23
If more reservoirs were added to the basin, it would help double production and capacity.
Moreover, if energy production would be prioritized the agriculture production could potential
decline. It is extremely evident in Pakistan that new storage is needed. This will help the basin
be more flexible to reach its needs. There needs to be more room for trade-offs to be made.
Moreover, it is important that the trade-off between irrigation and hydropower be taken into
consideration. For this to happen more storage is needed and the proper management to meet the
needs of the basin.
Solutions
In conclusion, the solution for this water use in the region from the two states is simple.
However, it is complicated by political relationships. Pakistan and India have a combative
relationship and is difficult to be reconciled overnight. In a perfect world and Pakistan and India
were able to make and sustain an agreement both parties would be able to obtain what they
desire. Pakistan for economic reasons is more concerned irrigations systems for their crops and
textile industry. Moreover, India is more concerned with providing power for the rest of their
country. Pakistan feared that if India builds hydroelectric dams, they will hinder the amount of
water that flows into Pakistan. So the solution that India has begun to implement is to create
run-of-the-river hydropower projects. This type of project allows for India to use still the river to
produce electricity and water that is used to generate hydropower can still be used for other
purposes such as irrigation for crop production. This solution would put Pakistans concerns to
rest because India would not have as much ability to affect the flow in the Indus River Basin.
However, the solution is never that simple and political aspects of the situation complicate this,
and the historical context makes it difficult for trust to be built.
24
3
Agricultural Practices in the
Indus River Basin
25
Agriculture & Irrigation
Background of Cultivation in the Indus
The Indus River supports one of the most extensive irrigation networks in the world, with
93-97% of total withdrawals of surface and groundwater being used for irrigation and
agriculture, and almost the full flow of the Indus River being withdrawn, approximately 287
billion m3 per year.4950 Most of the basin, and notably the areas with the highest population
concentrations are in arid or semi-arid climates not suitable for rain-fed agriculture and do not
have the carrying capacity to sustain the population without irrigation. The most reliant on the
Indus river is Pakistan, the sole major river for the country provides irrigation for 95% of
irrigated land and 80% of the overall agricultural sector.51 India is not solely reliant on the
Indus, however it is a vital resource that the Northwest region relies on, and which provides
around a quarter of total agricultural output for India. Emphasizing the historical importance of
the river, Punjab which is the name of a Pakistani Province and a bordering Indian State translate
literally as five rivers, the five main tributaries of the Eastern Indus.52 East central Afghanistan
is dependent on the main western tributary of the Indus, the Kabul river for subsistence
agriculture and domestic consumption however this river contributes a small portion of water,
just 1.7% of the total system and a relatively small portion of Afghanistan. The smallest of the
riparian countries, Chinas portion of the Indus has very limited irrigation and agriculture found
in the high mountain origins of the Indus, not forming a significant portion of overall Indus
agriculture with less than 0.1% of the basins total agricultural activity.
Historically the IRB has one of the oldest histories of irrigation with agriculture-based
civilizations dating back thousands of years. Significant irrigation projects began in 1859 under
the British Colonial Government and the East India Company with canals and large scale
diversions, prior to that irrigation systems relied on high flow levels during monsoons to fill
small diversions. In 1915 the Triple Canal project was completed that integrated the water
resources of much of the basin, and would provide a source of contention years later by
establishing connections between the three main tributaries of the Jhelum, Chenab and Ravi.
This system allowed for movement of water from high flow areas with little irrigation potential
49
Mohammad, Ammad Hafiz. 2011. Water Sharing in the Indus River Basin: Application of Integrated Water
Resources Management. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. p 25.
50
Karki, Madhav Bahadur, Bhakta Arun Shrestha, and Matthias Winiger. 2011. "Enhancing Knowledge
Management and Adaptation Capacity for Integrated Management of Water Resources in the Indus River Basin."
Mountain Research and Development 31 (3): 242-251.
51
FAO Land and Water Division. 2012. Irrigation in Southern and Eastern Asia in Figures. Edited by Karen
Frenken. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. p 7-8.
52
Cheema, M.J.M., and W.G.M. Bastiaanssen. 2010. "Land Use And Land Cover Classification In The Irrigated
Indus Basin Using Growth Phenology Information From Satellite Data To Support Water Management Analysis."
Agricultural Water Management 97 (10): 1541-1552.
26
to areas with the land, but not the water, ultimately establishing the core of the current system
that irrigates much of the IRB in Pakistan and India.53
Limited Role of China

The smallest of the riparian countries in the IRB is China with around 6% of the land
area, primarily owing rights to mountainous and extremely rough terrain in the Himalaya and
Hindu Kush mountains where the Indus finds it headwaters over 17,000 feet above sea level.
China does not have any major infrastructure in its small portion of the IRB with some irrigation
in mountain valleys that accounts for 0.1% of all irrigated area in the IRB and its water
withdrawals are only 0.04% of total withdrawals from the river. China has not made any major
attempts to control water flow of the Indus for agriculture, largely leaving the headwaters in
Tibet to flow downstream for India and Pakistan to deal with. Due to its unofficial policy of
disinterest and small area of use or potential development China can be left out of detailed
discussion of agricultural and irrigation use and future.54
Objectives for the Agricultural Sector

The overall goal for the Integrated Water Resource Management Plan relating to
agriculture is the efficient use of available water to continue to provide the majority of food for
the region even through climate change and population growth scenarios. The primary use of
Indus water is currently for irrigation and several objectives for IWRM are specified in this area:
Provide food self-sufficiency for populations within the basin, particularly for Pakistan,
which is near totally reliant on the waters of the Indus River.55
Manage water to be sustainable levels for agriculture and other sectors through likely
climate change scenarios and considering expected population growth
Increase storage capacity to provide adequate water resources in times of drought and
with the end of stationarity. Currently Pakistan has 30 days of storage available, not
enough to cover dry spells currently and definitely not enough for future conditions
considering climate change models.
Reduce water wasted at the farm level with education programs operated through
underfunded but existing extension programs.
Improve canal efficiency through lining to prevent seepage as well as control structures
and improved scheduling and allocation methods to extend the usable water for
agriculture.
53
Mirjat, Muhammad Saffar, and Abdul Samad Chandio. 2011. History and Description of Indus River Irrigation.
Tandojam: Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam and Irrigation department Punjab. p 1.
54
FAO Land and Water Division. 2012.
55
Washington D.C.: The World Bank. p 120.
27
Adjust crop types and introduce varieties that produce higher yields in the current and
projected climate in the IRB, improving water use efficiency and raising crop yields
under full and deficit irrigation conditions.
Agricultural Review of Riparian Nations
India: Essential Component of Food Security
India is reliant on its portion of the Indus River Basin to maintain food security for its
overall population, the second largest in the world at 1.3 billion in 2014.56 While not completely
dependent on the Indus, a significant portion of the countries food is produced there and
precludes rapid large-scale shifts in production or crop varieties being implemented. The four
Indian states within the basin, in order of amount of food production are Punjab, Rajasthan,
Haryana and Himachal Pradesh with the Indus River supplying the vast majority of water to
each. Indian controlled Kashmir is dependent on the Indus river headwaters for agriculture, but
is left out of this analysis in part due to the conflicted status but also because it accounts for
around one third of one percent of Indias agriculture and the high altitude environment has little
room for agricultural growth.
The vast majority of Indias agriculture in the Indus River Basin is irrigated; roughly 80%
of production is dependent on water sourced from Indus tributaries. Of the 20% that is not
irrigated most is rain-fed farming and a portion of mountain and semi-arid areas are used for
grazing and herding of goats and sheep. Most of Punjab and Rajasthan are irrigated with little
rain-fed, while Haryana and Himachal Pradesh have higher rates of non-irrigated agriculture,
though irrigation still comprises the majority. Rain-fed farming is generally focused on less
valuable crops and the farmers are usually of a lower social status and much closer to or below
the poverty line.57
Indias central goals for agriculture are given in a 2014 Government of India Statistics
report, Agricultural policy focus in India across decades has been on self-sufficiency and self-
reliance in food grains production. The four states in the Indus account for approximately 13%
of the overall GDP for India; Rajasthan with 5%, Punjab 3%, Haryana 3.7% and the
mountainous Himachal Pradesh with less than 1%. Agriculture accounts for a sizable portion of
the state share of GDP, with 20% of Punjabs GDP, 18% of Rajasthan, and 14% each for Haryana
and Himachal Pradesh. The primary crops are foodgrains, comprising mostly wheat and rice with
a variety of other course cereals such as Maize. Following grains there is significant production
of oilseed, with Mustard and Rapeseed being most commonly grown while cotton and variety of
pulses round out the major crops for the region.58
56
The World Bank. 2012. "India: Issues and Priorities for Agriculture." 5 17. Accessed 4 4, 2016.
http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/05/17/india-agriculture-issues-priorities
57
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 2015. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2014. First. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press. p 70.
58
Kakakhel, Shafqat. 2015. "The Indus River Basin and Climate Change." Criterion Quarterly 10 (3).
28
The four states in the Indus basin are responsible for a large portion of grain production,
providing insight to Indias likely goals in any water management plan for the Indus River Basin.
Even though less than 11% of the population live in these states they produce more than 40% of
all wheat grown in India with Punjab alone accounting for 20%. Over 15% of rice is produced in
just two of the states, Punjab and Haryana, while the region produces a large portion of other
important crops such as 22.5% course cereals. Important to industry 24% of oilseeds come from
the IRB as does 13% of maize,11% of pulses (primarily used for livestock feed) and 17% of
cotton. These significant portions of grains coming from a relatively small portion of India have
given the Indus region the title as a breadbasket of India. Notably, the majority of crops in the
Indus region have higher yields than in other regions, with the highest yields for grains in the
Khariff or summer season and the best yields of rice and wheat in the Rabi or winter season.5960
Table 3a. Foodgrain Production in India.61
Area, Production and Yield of Foodgrains 2013-14 in Major Producing States along with Coverage under Irrigation
% Area
Area % all India Production % Production all India Yield
irrigated
Punjab 6.56 5.20 28.90 10.92 4409.00 98.7
Rajasthan 13.42 10.64 18.30 6.91 1364.00 27.7

Haryana 4.40 3.49 16.97 6.41 3854.00 88.9
Others (Inc Himachal P) 3.26 2.59 6.38 2.41
All India 126.04 100 264.77 100 2101 49.8
Fertilizers are used extensively throughout India, with similar amounts and types used in
the IRB as other areas in India and regionally. The average amounts applied by Hectare range
from 54 kg in Rajasthan to 242 kg in Punjab, and as a whole are significantly higher than per
hectare fertilizer use in most of the developed world. The market for IRB crops is a mixture of
local and subsistence farming, along with a large degree of exports primarily of foodgrains, but
also oilseed for industry and some cotton for textiles. The majority of farms are small, often less
than two hectares and family owned and operated, while some larger farms are present but less
so than in many developed countries.62
The structure of Indias government causes a number of inefficiencies and barriers to

improvement of agricultural production gains, primarily due to a state-centric government where
59
Archer, David. 2003. "Contrasting Hydrological Regimes In The Upper Indus Basin." Journal of Hydrology 274
(1-4): p 200.
60
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 2015.
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid.
29
each state has significant power and there is less ability at the federal level to smooth policies
between states. This results in poor infrastructure that limits farmers ability to get crops to
markets before spoiling and also inhibits adoption of new technologies. Regulations and other
policies also create constraints to transportation, which reduces options and raises costs for the
farmers. The system structure of numerous small farms also causes issues with adoption of
improved techniques and technologies; a small farm does not realize the same benefit that a large
farm would see with the increases in scale of production. While the IRB region is on a whole
more productive than the rest of India it is far below the developed world, and significantly trails
China, which has similar small farms but a more involved central government pursuing efficient
techniques and policies.63
Pakistan: Complete Dependence

The Indus River Basin and its water accounts for the majority of agriculture in Pakistan,
as well as almost all of the staples considered necessary for self-sufficiency, primarily wheat
based foods that provide as much as 60% of the average diet for Pakistanis.64 The major
provinces of Pakistan in population and economy, the Punjab, Sindh, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
(KPK) are almost completely reliant on the Indus. The Southwest province of Baluchistan is an
arid region largely outside the basin and accounts for little agriculture, while the autonomous
province of Gilgit, disputed Kashmir and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) fall
within the IRB but account for small amounts of agricultural production, largely being
subsistence based communities with minimal exports.65 The most powerful of Pakistani
Provinces is the Punjab, which produces 80% of wheat, 97% of Basmati Rice, is the largest
economic power and has almost twice the population of the next most populous state of Sindh.66
Market structure is mixed between subsistence farming and local markets in many areas ranging
to a primarily cash crop and export base in the most productive regions of the IRB. The
centralized nature of Pakistans government allows for easier access to statistical data and less
regulation that limits interstate movement of produce as compared to India, however similar
issues with transportation and storage exist, as does the limitation of small family farms
incentive and ability adopt modern technology and techniques.
Most of the agricultural production in Pakistan is on irrigated land, with upwards of 80%
of all agriculture dependent on irrigation of which 95% comes from the Indus River. The
remaining areas of irrigation are found in Baluchistan and rain-fed areas are found in the
highlands of the IRB in mountainous areas where the soil is fertile but the slopes are too steep to
develop widespread irrigation. Many of the mountainous areas see small, subsistence farming in
the valleys with the mountains used as pasture for goats, sheep and increasing amounts of cattle.
The climate of the IRB plains area allows for two separate growing seasons that rely on separate
63
The World Bank. 2012. "India: Issues and Priorities for Agriculture."
64
Winston, 2013. P 135.
65
Wescoat, James L. 1991. "Managing the Indus River Basin in Light of Climate Change." Global Environmental
Change 1 (5): p 383.
66
Kakakhel, Shafqat. 2015.
30
monsoon events to provide water, Khariff is the summer season and Rabi the winter season that
takes advantage of mild conditions. Overall there is little land area in Pakistan suitable for
agriculture that is not already under cultivation, since 1972 there has been an overall increase of
less than 2% in cultivated area nationally, signaling that increased efficiency and yield is
necessary to support a growing population.67
As the primary component of Pakistani diets are comprised of wheat based products, this
is the largest crop for Pakistan as well as the three major farming provinces and accounts for
almost two thirds of all irrigated land use. The second largest crop is rice, which is produced
exclusively under irrigation and accounts for around 15% of agricultural land use and is followed
by gram (chickpea flour) and maize at around 5% each. Non-food crops are led by cotton which
uses as much land area as rice and also only grown under irrigation, followed by sugarcane and
oilseeds, rounding out non-food crops at around 15% of total agriculture in Pakistan. Numerous
areas in the IRB are able to utilize both growing seasons, with rice being grown over the Khariff
and wheat grown in the fields over Rabi. Notable livestock shifts have been seen in Pakistan
with increases of cattle, buffalo, goats and sheep over the last 30 years ranging from 30% to
110%, with cattle in particular consuming significant feedstocks and requiring substantial
amounts of water.68
With the notable exception of cotton, most crops yields have steadily increased over the
available years of data starting in the mid-1970s, and are on par regionally but fall far behind
developed nations that have significantly invested in efficiency measures and agricultural
technology. The majority of farms are family based and smaller than 10 hectares, with the rest
comprising a considerable number of medium size farms that are family and tribally organized
and a few large corporate operations as well as some government owned and operated farms.
Technology and mechanization has increased steadily for farmers in Pakistan, from
approximately 35,700 tractors in 1972 to over 401,000 in 2004. Likewise increases have been
seen in tubewells and pumps that have risen eight fold in the same timeframe. Distribution of
improved seed varieties has been a government effort and has seen significant increases recently,
in the period 2003 thru 2011 there was a national increase of 80%, particularly for the Punjab
which more than doubled its use of improved seeds. Fertilizer use has been increasing steadily
rising from an average of 103kg per hectare in 1994 to 183 in 2011 and is fairly even with rates
of use regionally in India and China as well as other developing nations, in contrast however to
developed nations which are steadily decreasing amounts of fertilizer while maintaining high
yields. In particular, major growth in fertilizers is seen in KPK and Baluchistan, which are less
suited to agriculture due to soil quality and water availability.69
67
68
FAO Land and Water Division. 2012. p 9.
69
Winston, 2013. p 49.; Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. 2012.
31
Afghanistan: Limited Traditional Systems
The Kabul river tributary is the primary portion of Afghanistan that is in the IRB, with
some areas bordering the FATA within the drainage but consisting of small streams that are
often perennial. The Kabul River holds the name, however the Konar River provides the
majority of the water; beginning in Pakistan, flowing through Afghanistan and returning to the
FATA and passing through Peshawar. The IRB comprises 11% of Afghanistans land area
however it contains as much as 25% of its water resources.70 Agriculture is the main livelihood
in Afghanistan, in IRB portion well over half of the population are farmers and a significant
number more are directly employed in the agricultural sector.71 Irrigation and advancements in
agriculture are limited in the Kabul River drainage due to more than 30 years of war, oppressive
regimes and significant instability, lending a very low productivity level with only 30%
contribution to overall GDP.72 A primary issue is that statistics of agriculture are very limited in
Afghanistan due to the instability, security and governance challenges leading to wide variations
in data which was essentially not collected in any form from the 1990s until 2003.
The primary staple of the Afghan diet is, as with its fellow riparian countries wheat,
comprising 83% of cereals consumed annually. The Kabul River basin accounts for 11% wheat
production area, but produces 17% of the total, yielding a higher rate than most of the country.
The majority of IRB wheat is irrigated and is three times as productive as rain-fed wheat crops.
Considering the current need to import food into Afghanistan the Kabul basin area is critical to
food security of the primary staple of the Afghan diet. The next largest crops in the area are rice,
barley and maize, which the Kabul accounts for 15% of land area and 16% of national
production. The most productive cotton region is found along the Kabul River in Nangahar
Province, where 7% of Afghan cotton land produces 12% of production. Fruit is a historic cash
crop for Afghanistan, and despite significant reductions due to years of conflict there are still
exports of fruit, with the IRB region producing 39% of all grapes, 65% of apples and 29% of
Peaches. Vegetables are grown primarily for home use and local markets, with the majority
being imported from Pakistan and Iran.73
Technology of all sorts including agriculture is extremely limited in Afghanistan; most

farms are subsistence operations and are run by family units and within tribal contexts. There is
little use of improved seed varieties or crop rotation schemes and even simple mechanization
such as tractors are difficult to find off the beaten path. Fertilizer is used when available,
however the cheapest and most readily available fertilizer can easily be converted into explosives
and has been outlawed nationwide, although significant smuggling still occurs. Transportation is
70
Ahmad, Shahid. 2010. Towards Kabul Water Treaty: Managing Shared Water Resources Policy Issues and
Options. Draft, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Karachi: IUCN Pakistan.
71
Central Statistics Organization, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. 2011. 2009-2010 Agriculture Statistics
Statistical Yearbook. Accessed 4 4, 2016. http://cso.gov.af/en/page/1500/4722/4723.
72
Qureshi, Asad Sarwar. 2002. "Working Paper 49: Water Resources Management in Afghanistan: The Issues and
Options." Pakistan Country Series (International Water Management Institute) 14.
73
Central Statistics Organization, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. 2011.
32
another limitation, outside of the few main roads there are few paved roads extending into the
countryside, little electricity and hardly any ability to adequately store crops after harvest.
Government regulation is minimal however, presenting few barriers to trade in agriculture if the
numerous other challenges can be overcome.
Irrigation Systems and Efficiency

Pakistan: Full Control
Irrigation in Pakistan is critical to the survival of the bulk of the population and accounts
for 80% of all agricultural land and as much as 90% of all production, including the primary
foodgrains that comprise the bulk of the diet. The IRB accounts for 95% of irrigation nationwide
with an estimated 20 million hectares under irrigation. Within the IRB 53% is irrigated from
surface water and 47% from groundwater which that has seen rapid growth in the last 30 years.
Of the IRB total irrigation, 72.7% resides in Pakistan, putting Pakistan particularly dependent on
the Indus waters.74 Around 97% of all water withdrawals from the Indus are used for agriculture,
and considering that almost the entire flow of the Indus is withdrawn at current levels, there is no
further surface water available for Pakistan.
Most of the large structures of Pakistani irrigation date back to the original system
developed before independence of Pakistan and was extensively expanded and adjusted since
The partition of British India in 1947 and the drawing of borders in utter disregard of hydrology
left the headworks of canals in India although 80% of the land irrigated by them were in
Pakistan. The 1960 Indus Water Treaty, despite its flaws gave a solid base that Pakistan used to
update its irrigation system, currently around 75% of Pakistans IRB irrigation is under full
control schemes which are sourced from large barrages, dams and canals and move through an
extensive network of canals to the farms. The Indus river and its tributaries including three
large reservoirs, 23 barrages/headworks/siphons, 12 inter-river link canals and 45 canals
commands extending for 60 800 km, with communal watercourses, farm channels, and field
ditches covering another 1.6 million km to serve over 90 000 farmers operated watercourses.
Groundwater extraction is divided among full control irrigation and complements surface water
diversions in some areas, with the remainder being unregulated private wells serving individual
farms or communities. 75
74
FAO Land and Water Division. 2012. p 8.
75
Kakakhel, Shafqat. 2015. FAO Land and Water Division. 2012. p 7.
33
Table 3b. Irrigation Seepage Losses in Pakistan: 1991-2005 Average76
Seepage Losses in Irrigation Systems Losses
Location Delivery at head, MAF % MAF
Main and branch canals 106 15 16
Distributaries and minors 90 8 7

Watercourses 83 30 25
Fields 58 30 17
Crop Use 41 n.a. n.a.
Totals 61 65
Note: n.a. = not applicable, MAF = million acre-feet
Storage of water is limited across Pakistan, there are only three significant reservoirs
(Tarbela, Mangla, and Chashma) which when combined with smaller works are only able to
provide 30 days worth of storage capacity. Rainfall in the IRB is centered on two monsoon
seasons, with the Rabi (winter) being less intense than the Khariff (summer), with periods
between often experiencing dry spells that may exceed the 30 day capacity. Additionally
precipitation often falls in an intense short period and despite adequate amounts of water not
enough can be captured and held in storage for later use. The overall canal and distribution
system is also inefficient, with significant loss to seepage through unlined canals and outdated
control mechanisms that lead to wasted water. On-farm issues such as poorly leveled fields and
lack of education on best practices also result in an estimated 37% efficiency of the water that
makes it that far. Production levels of irrigated land reveal that Pakistan is operating at lower
levels than its neighbors, producing on average 0.13 kg per m3 of irrigated water while India
averages 0.39 kg and a developed nation, the United States at 1.59 kg.77
The system of regulation and water policies is fragmented between the national level
which has the autonomous Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) handling
planning for water, power production and major dams, but with little authority outside of the
rivers and major canals. After water leaves the major canals the provincial equivalent agencies
hold responsibility for the distribution system all the way to farm and local outlets, however they
are not tied to decisions at the federal level, leaving little influence for the national government
over regional distribution. Water management at the local level varies by location and is
organized around tribal structures, class and family relationships; limiting comprehensive
control, management and reform efforts. Much of the water distribution at the farm level is done
inequitably, with entitlements overriding efficient use with farmers closer to the head of the
76
Winston, 2013. P 47.
77
Ibid.
34
canal often having excess water while those farther down are short of the water they are allocated
and rely on deficit irrigation regardless of precipitation and total water availability. Fiscally the
irrigation system is not efficient either, recovering around 35% of operations and maintenance
costs, which limits capital improvements and requires the government to subsidize irrigation;
artificially lowering the price of water already used inefficiently.78
India: Room to Improve

Indias irrigation infrastructure in the IRB is similar to Pakistan and also based on the
system built during British colonial rule. The principal difference is that India is not wholly
reliant on the IRB for its food supply and basic survival, although the waters from the Indus do
supply a major breadbasket for the Indian population and the region is intensively cultivated,
accounting for 25% of irrigated land in the total basin. India also withdraws 36% of all the water
sourced from the Indus, mostly from the three tributaries, the Chenab, Beas and Sutlej Rivers
prior to entering Pakistan, of which nearly 95% is used for irrigation.79 While the Indus provides
only 7% of Indias total water resources, they provide for crops that make up roughly 25% of
total production, almost solely derived from irrigated lands. Surface water accounts for 59% of
irrigation, with groundwater comprising the balance, a relationship that has been continually
shifting with increasing groundwater pumping due to lower costs of drilling and pumping
combined with full exploitation of surface water resources. Between 1993 and 2001
groundwater irrigation increased by 17% while surface irrigation dropped by 25%, similar
statistics to Pakistans area.80
The basic characteristics of the Indian system are similar to Pakistan, though smaller in
overall numbers due to comprising a smaller area, only four barrages are found on the Indian
portions of tributaries, and similarly smaller lengths of canals and farms served. The Indian side
does have more large dams, a product of more aggressive development by the Indian government
to exploit the available water for hydropower and irrigation. Four of the dams provide
significant diversion and storage, roughly equivalent in volume to Pakistans storage capacity but
considering it serves an area roughly a third the size it provides for a more comfortable cushion
in dry spells. Due to high sediment loads in the Indus tributaries the storage capacity has been
significantly reduced, with the life span estimated to have less than 50 years remaining. The
majority of canals are unlined and significant water is lost to seepage and evaporation before
reaching the farm where inefficient distribution and delivery mechanisms result in significant
further losses of water, averaging 40-60% efficiency across the region, although some of that is
realized as groundwater recharge. The significant growth in groundwater has been the most
recent area of concern, with the Indian Ministry of Water Resources calculating the Punjab as
withdrawing 145% of renewable groundwater and Haryana at 109% in 2011. Another area of
78
Wescoat, James L. 1991. p 385; Kharki, 2011. p 246.
79
Kakakhel, Shafqat. 2015. FAO Land and Water Division. 2012.
80
Laghari, A.N., D. Vanham, and W. Rauch. 2012. "The Indus Basin in the Framework of Current and Future Water
Resources Management." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 16 (4): 1070-71.
35
concern is waterlogged soils that are irrigated beyond their porosity, resulting in water sitting in
the soil, reducing crop yields and increasing salinity levels.81
Productivity of IRB crops are an area of concern and improvement for India, much as
with Pakistan an average of one third of water originally withdrawn for irrigation is ultimately
consumed by crops. Of the minority of water that reaches its intended goal the crop yields, while
average or high for India are much lower than every developed country, with India producing
cereals at 0.39 kg per m3 of water while the US produces 1.56 kg and Canada 8.7 kg. Regulation
and policy is not consistent across the four Indian states in the IRB, within those systems the
local allocations and distributions compare with Pakistans inequitable allocations that are often
based on family, tribal and class status as opposed to efficient use or overall welfare. The most
powerful state is Punjab, and given the significant powers to states in the Indian system it exerts
significant control to maintain ideal conditions for its residents, often at the expense of
neighboring states and downstream Pakistan. Data is also difficult to obtain, as there are limited
monitoring facilities on surface water canals and hardly any to regulate or track groundwater
extraction. Virtual water also comes into play with significant water bearing crops produced in
the water scarce IRB that are domestically exported to regions of India that are more abundant in
water resources. Primary solutions for India are similar to Pakistan, focusing on improving canal
distribution and efficiency combined with efforts through extensions, education and incentives to
raise efficiency at the farm level.82
Afghanistan: Limited Traditional Systems

Irrigation in Afghanistan has suffered significant setbacks in the last 30 years, with the
current irrigated area at a little over half of 1978 levels. Irrigation is the primary use of water,
accounting for as much as 99% of withdrawals; due to a lack of industry the remaining amount is
used primarily for domestic needs. Due to the arid climate of much of Afghanistan, including
most of its portion of the IRB, irrigation is necessary for agriculture is used for at least 85% of all
food production. Officially the Afghan Ministry of Energy and Water manages water resources,
however they have little control aside from a few government projects in secure areas, mostly on
major roads and near Kabul. The Water Law of 1981 provided specific criteria for allocating
available water that was intended to provide equitable access, however it is rarely followed or
enforced.83 The primary source of actual water management is traditional systems within
communities that control localized irrigation systems and allocates water. Most of these are
small and at the village level, however in some of the larger river basins such as the Konar and
Kabul there are organizations that cooperate across multiple communities in larger valleys and
the few plains. The government has little control over these organizations, often appointing the
81
Laghari, A.N. 2012. 1071,73,76; Winston, 2013. p 119; Wescoat, 1991. p 385
82
Laghari, A.N. 2012. 1076; Winston, 2013. p 119; Wescoat, 1991. p 384; FAO Land and Water Division. 2012;
The World Bank. 2012.
83
Rout, Bob. 2008. "How the Water Flows: A Typology of Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan." Afghanistan
Research and Evaluation Unit Issue Paper Series.
36
existing leaders to government positions and allowing the traditional structures to operate
unopposed.
Specific data on irrigation systems within the IRB of Afghanistan are hard to come by, as
are flow rates and other measurements. Afghanistan comprises 1.4% of total irrigation of the
Indus, although only approximately 30% of available water is withdrawn, compared to nearly
100% for India and Pakistan. Most systems operate under simple traditional structures, using
small brush or temporary wiers to divert water, although about10% are large-scale systems with
permanent structures. Canals are the primary source of irrigation at about 75% with wells,
springs and karez systems providing groundwater, about a quarter of the Afghan total for each is
found in the Kabul Basin.84
There are significant problems and inefficiencies with Afghan irrigation, aside from the
lack of infrastructure the water is used inefficiently leading to lower production rates and higher
costs for an exceptionally poor population. Most canals are earthen and allow for significant
seepage, control structures are usually a farmer with a shovel and a set period of time. Many
farms have high loss rates due to lack of knowledge about ideal conditions, leading to frequent
overwatering, increased salinity and associated production drops. For the few modern irrigation
systems the operating and maintenance costs are high with similar issues in traditional systems.
Monitoring and evaluation of irrigation and water in general is almost non-existent and security
issues continue to limit surveys and measurement in many remote agricultural areas.
Prioritized Solutions for Agriculture and Irrigation

Significant changes, modernization and investment are necessary in the agricultural
sector of the primary riparian countries to maintain the supply of food for the region through
expected population growth and water resource fluctuations with climate change. The changes
necessary range from apparent solutions, improved canals and diversion systems to less clear
shifts in crop selection, measurement, de-centralized storage and reform of the entire system of
allocation. These particular efforts will provide the continued food source, allow for flexibility
and reaction to climatic variations and increase productivity for the population while reducing
poverty levels throughout the region.
Measurement: The first step, and the most necessary to fully implement other agricultural
as well as other sectors reforms is effective measurement of water resources and the water
balance equation throughout the IRB. Without a solid base of the ground truth of the situation
potential solutions will be estimates and not have the impact needed in the near future. A
comprehensive system needs to be developed to identify where the water comes from and where
it ultimately is used, as well as groundwater extraction monitoring to develop water balance
systems that allow for recharge and utilize the aquifers as storage mediums.85 The monitoring
84
Qureshi, 2002.
85
Kharki, 2011. p 250.
37
system will need significant transparency and be closely monitored or even managed by an
outside entity to satisfy the suspicions and mistrust of the involved nations.
Crop Selection: Adjusting crop types and varieties to focus on those that are most
efficient at water use while being cost effective is an important way to increase productivity
while decreasing water use, and focusing on varieties that will survive expected climate shifts.
This is a difficult solution however; there are significant education and research challenges to
identify the best crops for each area depending on soil characteristics, available water, and ability
to be implemented among other criteria. Culture is another important component to optimizing
crops and varieties, without obvious market benefits it may take significant time and resources to
convince farmers to change from traditional crops and methods. Considering the significant gaps
in yields between the IRB and numerous developed nations there is significant opportunity to
raise production levels and yields. One notable success stories in the basin in this regard is BT
cotton, which was introduced in India and resulted in significant increases in output while
reducing labor costs and pesticide use. Important considerations are numerous, one example of
analysis needed is whether Pakistan should reduce areas growing rice since it is an export
commodity and very water intensive, a less water intensive high-value crop might provide long-
term stability and could represent a comparative advantage.86
Irrigation Infrastructure: Improving the efficiency of canals at all levels, from major
diversions to local distribution networks could reduce the two thirds of water that never reaches
the field, increasing water availability and reducing the amount of farmers operating in deficit
irrigation. This would be accomplished primarily through canal lining efforts, and to a lesser
extent piping being used as opposed to open-air canals. Modernization of control mechanisms at
the regional to local level is necessary to allow steady availability to farms instead of receiving a
share of water at a particular time and then relying on flood irrigation and wasting excess water
that could otherwise be used if stretched over greater time. On farm improvements would focus
on shifting to drip irrigation where feasible or to sprinkler irrigation as opposed to flood, which
is widespread and leads to waterlogging and salinity problems. Drip and sprinkler systems are
expensive and not affordable for most of Pakistani farmers, a mechanism to finance or subsidize
the improvements will be necessary. These improvements are critical to increasing water
efficiency; since there is no more water to be withdrawn the current amount, and probably less
has to produce significantly more than it does currently.87
Irrigation Allocation: A significant inefficiency in both India and Pakistan is the

inequitable allocation of water to farmers; such as situations where farmers near the head of a
canal are wasting water and those at the tail are forced into deficit irrigation due to lack of
monitoring and systems to manage the water. The fragmented structure of water management as
well as agricultural policy results in an inflexible system that is not responsive to actual
conditions. Tighter policies, down to the local level can reduce the inefficiencies rife throughout
86
Winston, 2013. p 131; Laghari, A.N. 2012. 1078.
87
Winston, 2013. p 51, 131; Laghari, A.N. 2012. 1076.
38
the current system while providing a conduit for detailed analysis to reach the individual farmer
and allow them to adjust for changing conditions by watering appropriately, planting when
optimal and harvesting at the opportune time, all rarely seen practices due to a lack of
communication from expert groups to the actual farmers.88
Storage: Pakistan in particular needs to develop further storage capacity than the current
30 days it currently has if there is a reasonable expectation of sustaining dry periods and lower
water availability in the future. Storage should be accomplished through multiple means,
development of traditional reservoirs to provide more surface water storage as well as improved
efficiencies through irrigation reform, crop variety selection and others to reduce demand for
groundwater, and allow the aquifer to serve as storage for dry periods.89 Groundwater
management has the most potential to resolve storage issues without the associated evaporation
concerns, significant research and measurement is necessary to achieve this in Pakistan. India in
the IRB has manageable storage, however increasing on-site storage through holding ponds or
enclosed tanks will provide local solutions and steadily accessible water for efficient drip and
sprinkler irrigation systems. Local storage also mitigates the time necessary to implement
reforms to policy, distribution and infrastructure while providing the same benefit of water
available consistently as opposed to at spaced out scheduled times.90
Government Policies: Necessary to accomplish any of the above listed recommendations

are clear and effective policies of the riparian countries and sub-levels of government to identify
needs and implement solutions. Primary aspects of policy should be to open effective lines of
communications allowing the individual farmer access to education and modernization
techniques, while providing oversight into allocation processes and decisions by higher
authorities. Allocation reform is a key component in both primary nations, shifting from
traditional water rights based on family, class or tribe into a system that provides equitable
resources is essential to increasing production and reducing vulnerabilities of rural populations.
Transparency, particularly of measurement and monitoring implementation is essential in the
case of Pakistan and India to mitigate the long history of distrust and suspicion that will be a key
complication of resolving the IRB.91
Afghanistan: While a relatively small portion of the IRB Afghanistan is an important

component of any IWRM plan, and presents a uniquely difficult set of challenges. The security
situation and limited development create a different set of goals for the Afghans; most important
is capitalizing on the opportunity to skip the generation of inefficient irrigation and water
management seen in India, Pakistan and most of the world. Instability will prevent significant
near term physical construction, however measurement and planning should be pursued to allow
work to be done as soon as it is feasible. Investment into agriculture and irrigation should focus
88
Wescoat, 1991. p 384; The World Bank. 2012.
89
Kharki, 2011. p 246.
90
Laghari, A.N. 2012. 1078; Qureshi, 2002; Winston, 2013. p 119.
91
The World Bank. 2012; Kharki, 2011. p 246.
39
on locally sustainable techniques and crops as well as return to the historical role of Afghanistan
as a major exporter of certain high-value crops.
40
4
Water Pollution in the Indus
River Basin
41
Introduction
The worlds population is projected to increase by nearly 3 billion people in the next 30
years.92 Access to clean water may become a luxury in many areas of the world, due to impacts
of climate change coupled with population growth. Adding to this concern, the majority of
population growth is expected to occur in the developing world, where access to wastewater
treatment and clean drinking water is already few and far between. In fact, 2.4 billion people,
approximately one third of the earths population, are without sanitation.93 Similarly, over 1
billion people, approximately 1 in 7 people on Earth, do not have access to safe drinking water.94
The UN describes this crisis in water and sanitation as one of the greatest human development
challenges of the early 21st century.95
The use of low cost and low maintenance technologies to increase the amount of
wastewater treated and improve the existing conditions are readily available, but hardly
implemented. It can be assumed that if one developing nation can utilize these technologies to
improve their quality of life, other developing nations will follow suit. This section will address
the various sectors within Pakistan in which water pollution is produced, and provide a plan to
alleviate this pollution for each sector. The problems and solutions addressed in this section are
applicable to many developing regions around the world. Thus, similar approaches to improve
water quality can be used in other developing nations.
Pollution from domestic sewage, agricultural runoff, industrial wastewater, and naturally
occurring geologic formations all impact the water quality of the Indus River. The poor water
quality currently observed in the Indus impacts economic, social, and environmental well-being
of the areas that rely on its water for drinking, bathing, irrigation, etc. Due to the vast majority
of the Indus River being located in Pakistan, this section will only focus on the water quality of
the Indus River within Pakistan.
92
United Nations. World population projected to reach 9.7 billion by 2050. N.p.: n.p., 2015.
93
World Health Organization. Water supply, sanitation and hygiene development. N.p.: n.p., 2016.
94
Ibid.
95
United Nations Development Programme. Human development report 2006: Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and
the global water crisis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
42
Municipal Wastewater Pollution
Environmental and Human Health Impacts
Discharge of raw sewage has devastating effects on both the environment and human
health. Excess nutrients and organic matter within wastewater stimulate plant growth, including
algal blooms, which leads to oxygen depletion, decreased biodiversity, changes in trophic
dynamics, and reduction in water quality of water bodies receiving raw wastewater discharge. 96
In fact, the Arabian Sea is currently experiencing massive algal blooms, largely due to the high
nutrient level discharge from the Indus River (Figure 4a).
Figure 4a. Phytoplankton bloom in the Arabian Sea..97
Human health effects from raw wastewater discharge come from using a source of water
that has been polluted for drinking, bathing, or irrigation. Pathogens commonly found in
wastewater include: Escherichia coli (E.coli); typhoid; salmonella; shigellosis; cholera; giardia;
cryptosporidium; etc., which all can cause severe gastrointestinal illness.98 Preventable diarrheal
disease caused from drinking contaminated water kills around 760,000 children under the age of
five worldwide, the second leading cause of death in children.99 In 2007, 25% of all deaths of
Pakistani children, under the age of one year, were caused from diarrheal disease.100 Moreover,
drinking water treatment is routinely done at the tap, mainly by boiling and filtration. However,
it has been documented that in Karachi (Pakistans largest city) only 33% and 8% of the water
that is boiled and filtered, respectively, is safe for human consumption.101
96
United Nations. Wastewater management: a UN-Water analytical brief. N.p.: n.p., 2015.
97
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. "Phytoplankton bloom in the Arabian Sea." Earth Observatory.
Last modified 2010. Accessed April 17, 2016. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=43050.
98
Snyder, S. Wastewater pathogens. The Water Project, Inc. N.p.: n.p., 2015.
99
World Health Organization. Diarrhoeal disease. Report no. N330. Fact Sheet. N.p.: n.p., 2013.
100
Rahman, A. E., and M. Moinuddin. "Childhood diarrhoeal deaths in seven low- and middle-income countries."
Bulletin of the World Health Organization 92 (2014): 664-71.
101
Luby, S.P., Syed, A.H., Atiullah, N., Faizan, M.K., and S. Fisher-Hoch. Limited effectiveness of home drinking
water purification efforts in Karachi, Pakistan. International Journal of infectious Diseases 4, no. 1 (1999): 3-7.
43
Current Pollution and Wastewater Treatment
Currently, only two cities in the entire country of Pakistan (Islamabad and Karachi) have
biological wastewater treatment facilities.102 To give this perspective, 20 years ago, the United
States had over 16,000 biological wastewater treatment facilities in operation.103 Moreover,
Pakistan annually produces roughly 1.7 trillion gallons of wastewater, with 48% coming from
rural residential sources and 25% coming from urban residential sources (Appendix 1, Table 1 &
Table 2).104 Roughly 60% of the population has access to any type of sewage treatment, with the
majority being outdated latrine and septic systems.105 Thus, it can be estimated that under 8% of
all wastewater produced from urban and rural residential sources is properly treated before
entering surface waters.106 Nevertheless, the access to sanitation systems has increased by 7%
since 2011.107
Methods for Improving the Current State

To continue the trend of increasing access to sanitation systems in Pakistan, biological
treatment systems should be constructed in the major cities. Rural areas can continue to utilize
latrine and septic systems, but these systems need to be routinely maintained. It has been
estimated that to construct biological wastewater treatment systems to treat all municipal and
industrial wastewater in the ten largest cities of Pakistan (that do not currently have these
facilities), it would cost over one trillion U.S. dollars (Appendix 1, Table 3). Since this price is
so astronomical, a more realistic plan has been developed based on the amount of funding that
could reasonable be received (Table 4a). In 2011, The World Bank financed $7.5 billion worth
of projects, 53% for water supply and sanitation. Assuming that they would spend roughly 2%
of this funding on Pakistan (based on the access to sanitation within Pakistan versus the rest of
the developing world), the total amount received from The World Bank would be $79.5 million.
Other agencies may fund this project, adding to the total capital available, but for the purposes of
this document, The World Bank will be used as a sole funding source. It has been determined
that treating 15% of the total wastewater produced in Pakistans three largest cities, without
existing biological treatment facilities, could decrease the amount raw wastewater discharged by
over 9%, or roughly 42.5 million gallons of raw wastewater per day. It should be noted that
these estimates do not include the price of collection infrastructure (pipes, sewers, etc.). It is
expected that this cost would be handled by the Pakistani government.
102
Murtaza, G., and M. H. Zia. Wastewater production, treatment and use in Pakistan. Faisalabad, Pakistan:
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, 2012.
103
United States Census Bureau. Statistical abstract of the United States. N.p.: n.p., 2000.
104
105
The World Bank. Improved sanitation facilities (% of population with access). World Development Indicators.
N.p.: n.p., 2015.
106
107
The World Bank. Improved sanitation facilities (% of population with access). World Development Indicators.
N.p.: n.p., 2015.
44
Table 4a. Cost estimate of constructing and operating conventional wastewater treatment systems in the three
largest cities without sewage treatment in Pakistan (Murtaza & Zia, 2012; GBRA, 2012)
Total Operation &
Urban wastewater Percent of Maintenance Construction
population produced flow treated cost cost
City (1998 census) (106 m3/year) (%) ($/year) ($)
Lahore 5,143,495 287 15% $ 946,717 $ 42,349,587
Faisalabad 2,008,861 129 15% $ 650,639 $ 24,645,201
Rawalpindi 1,409,768 40 15% $ 375,699 $ 11,154,696
Total 8,562,124 456 9.2% $ 1,973,054 $ 78,149,485
A less expensive option that could further improve the quality of the Indus River is to
implement constructed wetlands at the source of the wastewater discharge, or at various locations
along the river that treat a portion of the flow. It should be noted that the lower reaches of the
Indus River are very dynamic (Appendix 1, Figure 1). Thus, implementing constructed wetlands
that are located on the banks of the river in the lower reaches may not be feasible. Also, these
systems tend to take up large areas, so solely using constructed wetlands to treat wastewater from
large cities would not be manageable. Constructed wetlands incorporate physical, chemical, and
biological processes including: adsorption; sedimentation; precipitation; microbial
transformations; and assimilation of nutrients into plant biomass to remove pollutants from
wastewater (Figure 4b).108 The Tres Rios Constructed Wetlands Project (Appendix 1, Figure 2)
located outside of Phoenix, Arizona, was constructed in 1995 to expand the capacity of the
existing wastewater treatment facility.109 The Phoenix Water Services Department estimated that
the cost to upgrade the wastewater treatment plant would have been $625 million dollars, versus
the $80 million is cost to build the constructed wetland.110 Other benefits of utilizing constructed
wetlands, besides improving water quality, include: supporting wildlife habitat; flood
management; recreation; etc.111
108
Kadlec, R. H., and S. D. Wallace. Treatment wetlands. Boca Raton, United States: Taylor & Francis Group,
2008.
109
Elkins, R. "Tres Rios water for the desert." LAKELINE, 2011, 20-23.
110
Gelt, J. "Constructed wetlands: using human ingenuity, natural processes to treat water, build habitat." The
University of Arizona Water Resources Research Center. Last modified 1997. Accessed April 17, 2016.
https://wrrc.arizona.edu/publications/arroyo-newsletter/constructed-wetlands-using-human-ingenuity-natural-
processes-treat-wa.
111
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Constructed treatment wetlands. EPA 834-F-03-013. N.p.:
Office of Water, 2004.
45
Figure 4b. Free-water surface constructed wetland schematic.112
To decrease the amount of raw wastewater discharged into the Indus River, wastewater
treatment systems, by conventional means or constructed wetlands, should be implemented
throughout the Indus River basin. It has been determined that by building conventional
wastewater treatment facilities in the three largest cities of Pakistan, that do not currently have
wastewater treatment, would decrease the amount of raw wastewater discharged into the Indus
River by roughly 9%. This percentage is unlikely to have a significant effect on the overall
water quality of the Indus River, so continued construction of wastewater treatment facilities
should be planned in the coming years. Another option is to utilize constructed wetlands to treat
domestic wastewater at the source, or to be used as a bypass for some of the flow of the Indus,
slightly improving the water quality at sequential locations along the river. The constructed
wetlands approach is preferred, due to its much lower cost and maintenance compared to
building widespread conventional wastewater treatment facilities.
112
Kadlec, R. H., and S. D. Wallace. Treatment wetlands. Boca Raton, United States: Taylor & Francis Group,
2008.
46
Agricultural Pollution
Pesticides Effect on the Environment and Human Health
The use of pesticides in Pakistan began in 1954, and in the 1960s and early 1970s,
thousands of tons of pesticides were imported from Europe and the USA.113 Pesticides are very
biologically active persistent organic compounds that are designed to have an effect at a given
target site. But, these compounds become an environmental and human health concern when
they leach into areas where they are not supposed to be, such as: surface waters; groundwater;
edible plant biomass; etc.114 Low concentrations of pesticide exposure to humans can have both
acute and chronic health effects, including: irritation to skin, eyes, and respiratory tract; diarrhea;
changes in behavior; various types of cancer; endocrine disruption; etc.115 These chemicals can
also effect the ecology in contaminated areas by altering the natural trophic dynamics within an
ecosystem. Various pesticide residues were first reported in cattle drinking water in 1988 in
Karachi, Pakistan, and have since been found in surface water and groundwater samples
throughout the country.116 The use of pesticides in agriculture is essential for controlling pests
and producing higher yields of crops, thus it cannot be avoided.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was a very commonly used pesticide and malaria

eradication throughout the world, but is now banned in most countries due to its high toxicity.
Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (located on the shore of a tributary to the upper
reaches of the Indus River) housed a factory that annually produced 700,000 kilograms of DDT
from 1963 until 1994.117 A study conducted on this site in 2011 showed that levels of DDT in
soil and plant tissue were orders of magnitude higher than the safe levels reported by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency.118,119 This is not only concerning for residents living in
this area because of the potential for DDT to become airborne and contaminate other sites in its
path. Adding to this concern, the prevailing wind direction in Pakistan and the location of the
factory show potential for DDT spreading to a large portion of the agricultural land (Appendix 1,
Figure 3).
113
Azizullah, A., Khan Khattak, M.N., Richter, P., and D.P. Hader. Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on
public health - A review. Environment International 37, (2011): 479-497.
114
Schwarzenbach, R. P., P. M. Gschwend, and D. M. Imboden. Environmental organic chemistry. 2nd ed. N.p.:
John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
115
Agriculture Communications and Marketing. 2009. Potential Health Effects of Pesticides. The Pennsylvania
State University. Code # UO198.
116
Azizullah, A., Khan Khattak, M.N., Richter, P., and D.P. Hader. Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on
public health - A review. Environment International 37, (2011): 479-497.
117
Younas, A., Hilber, I., ur Rehman, S., Khwaja, M., and T.D. Bucheli. Former DDT factory in Pakistan revisited
from remediation: Severe DDT concentrations in soils and plants from within the area. Environmental Science and
Pollution Research 20, (2012): 1966-1976.
118
Ibid.
119
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories Table. 2007.
47
Pollution from Agricultural Runoff
Nutrient pollution from excess fertilizers leaching from agricultural land into surface
waters is one of the main causes for eutrophic and hypoxic ocean zones around the globe. The
Indus River delta is currently listed as a eutrophic zone, largely due to the high nutrient
loadings coming from agricultural runoff, resulting in algal blooms in the Arabian Sea that are
the size of Texas (see figure 4a).120,121 Wastewater irrigation is widely practiced throughout
Pakistan because of its high nutrient content, reliability of supply, and low cost.122 However,
health effects from using untreated wastewater for irrigation are numerous, increasing the
likelihood for disease. Agriculture is the largest sector of Pakistans economy, contributing to
about 24% of the gross domestic product.123 Thus, the use of fertilizers (commercial or
wastewater) to promote higher yields of crops is inevitable for the economic and social well-
being of Pakistan.
Education and Management Practices to Reduce Agricultural Pollution

The best way to avoid the adverse effects of pollution from agricultural practices is to
educate the farmers of best management practices. For example, a simple way to reduce the
amount of fertilizer that leaches from the fields into surface water is to not apply fertilizer before
a heavy rain event. This will allow time for the crops to uptake nutrients within the fertilizer
before being washed away by rain. Another example is to educate the farmers on the adverse
effects of using untreated sewage as a source of fertilizer. Composting the sewage, along with
unwanted plant biomass and food scraps, can remove a large portion of the pathogens within the
wastewater, lowering the chance of contracting a disease from ingesting the crops. Minimizing
the use of pesticides should also be advocated to the farmers.
120
National Aeronautics and Space Administration. "Phytoplankton bloom in the Arabian Sea." Earth Observatory.
Last modified 2010. Accessed April 17, 2016. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=43050.
121
World Resources Institute. World Hypoxic and Eutrophic Coastal Areas. 2008. Accessed April 21, 2016.
http://www.wri.org/resource/world-hypoxic-and-eutrophic-coastal-areas
122
123
48
Industrial Wastewater Pollution
Industrial wastewater discharge and lack of regulations
Industrial wastewater discharge into surface waters used for drinking and irrigation can
lead to serious health effects for the surrounding populations. It is estimated that pollution from
industries in Pakistan make up 6% of the total wastewater discharge, resulting in over 100 billion
gallons annually (Appendix 1, Table 1).124 Pakistan only treats 1% of the wastewater from
industry before being discharged into surface waters or down drains, with the vast majority of
these factories being located on the Indus River, or its tributaries125,126 (Appendix 1, Figure 4).
EPA Sindh has taken several actions to reduce industrial pollution, but from lack of manpower
and the industries playing an important part in the national economy, lax enforcement of
compliance with the water quality criteria is routine.
Field Study on the Lower Reaches of the Indus River

A study conducted near the Indus delta was performed over two years to analyze metals
concentrations in water and fish of two lakes bordering the Indus River: Haleji Lake; and
Keenjhar Lake127 (Figure 4c). This study analyzed the concentrations of arsenic, chromium,
copper, iron, lead, manganese, selenium, zinc, cadmium, and mercury in the lake water eight
times a year for two years. Fish were also captured from each lake and analyzed for the same
compounds. The results show that levels of arsenic, iron, lead, cadmium, and mercury in the
water were above the World Health Organizations standards in both lakes (Table 4b). Even
more unsettling, levels of copper, iron, and manganese in the fish living in these lakes were
orders of magnitude higher than the tolerable limits (Table 4c). The concentrations of all other
metals listed previously were under the level of detection in the fish. The higher concentrations
of some metals within the fish is due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification of these pollutants
into the fish from respiring lake water and ingesting other organisms, respectively.128
124
125
Ministry of Climate Change, 2012. Brief on water pollution. Accessed April 19, 2016.
http://www.mocc.gov.pk/gop/index.php?q=aHR0cDovLzE5Mi4xNjguNzAuMTM2L21vY2xjL3VzZXJmaWxlczEv
ZmlsZS9NT0MvUHVibGljYXRpb25zJTIwb24lMjBFbnYlMjBhbmQlMjBDQy93YXRlci9XYXRlciUyMFBvbGx
1dGlvbi5wZGY%3D
126
Dost Pakistan, 2011. Industrial map Pakistan. Accessed April 19, 2016. http://www.dostpakistan.pk/industrial-
map-pakistan.
127
Shafiq, H. B., M. Ajaz, and S. A. Rasool. "Bacterial and toxic pollutants in lakes of River Indus." Pakistan
Journal of Botany 43, no. 3 (2011): 1765-72.
128
Schwarzenbach, R. P., P. M. Gschwend, and D. M. Imboden. Environmental organic chemistry. 2nd ed. N.p.:
John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
49
Figure 4c. Location of lakes used to analysis concentrations of metals in water and fish.129
Table 4b. Concentrations of metals in Haleji Lake & Keenjhar Lake, Pakistan.130
Concentration in water (ppm)
Constituent Haleji Lake Keenjhar Lake WHO standard
Arsenic 0.23 0.22 0.01
Chromium 0.01 0.04 0.05
Copper 0.1 0.1 2
Iron 0.62 0.78 0.3
Lead 0.015 0.045 0.01
Manganese 0.26 0.26 0.5
Selenium 0.0021 0.0026 0.01
Zinc 6.5 2.2 3
Cadmium 0.22 0.01 0.005
Table 4c. Concentrations of metals in fish from Haleji Lake & Keenjhar Lake, Pakistan.131
Concentration in fish (ppm)
Constituent Haleji Lake Keenjhar Lake
Copper 1.7 1.8
Iron 30 60
Manganese 6 6.5
129
Shafiq, H. B., M. Ajaz, and S. A. Rasool. "Bacterial and toxic pollutants in lakes of River Indus." Pakistan
Journal of Botany 43, no. 3 (2011): 1765-72.
130
Ibid.
131
Ibid.
50
Implementing Regulatory Agencies
To combat the alarming levels of industrial wastewater pollution in the Indus River,
environmental quality enforcement agencies should be installed to regulate the discharge from
industrial facilities. Pakistan currently employs National Environmental Quality standards
(NEQs), but, due to the lack of manpower within governmental agencies, the standards are rarely
enforced. This allows for industries within Pakistan to discharge their wastewater into surface
waters, or down drains, without any treatment. Incentives for the industries to meet the
discharge levels listed in the NEQs: tax reductions for those in compliance; or fines for those out
of compliance, could greatly reduce the environmental and human health impacts of raw
industrial wastewater discharge.
51
Natural Geologic Pollution
The Pothohar Plateau Field Study
The Pothohar Plateau is 32,000 square kilometer area located in Northern Pakistan and
lies on the eastern side of the upper reaches of the Indus River (Figure 4d). This area is made up
of coal-bearing rocks containing lead, iron, and manganese, which, especially in the presence of
acid rain, dissolve and leach into the Indus River and nearby groundwater aquifers.132 In fact,
people living in this area often report having rusty spots on their clothes and teeth.133 The
presence of metals in water used for drinking and irrigation have serious health effects,
including: behavior and learning problems, lower IQ, hyperactivity, slowed growth, hearing
problems, and anemia in children; reduced growth of fetus and premature birth in pregnant
women; and increased blood pressure, hypertension, decreased kidney function, and reproductive
problems in adults.134,135
Figure 4d. Location of the Pothohar Plateau, Pakistan.
Figure 4e. Locations of heavy metal sampling in field study.136
132
Warwick, P. D. Regional studies of the Potwar Plateau area, Northern Pakistan. Bulletin 2078. N.p.: States
Geological Survey, 2007.
133
Ata, S., F. H. Watoo, I. Qasim, M. H.S Watoo, S. A. Tirmizi, and M. A. Qadir. "Monitoring of anthropogenic
influences on underground and surface water quality of Indus River at district Mianwali-Pakistan." Turkish Journal
of Biochemistry 38, no. 1 (2013): 25-30.
134
World Health Organization, 2015. Lead poisoning and health. Fact sheet N379
135
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Lead." Centers for Disease Control. Last modified 2013. Accessed
April 17, 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/.
136
52
A study conducted from November 2009 to April 2010 analyzed surface water samples
from the Indus River at Kalabagh and groundwater samples from Kamer village and Mianwali
City for heavy metals137 (Figure 4e). The study found that levels of cadmium, lead, iron,
chromium, and manganese were all above the World Health Organizations standards for at least
one location (Table 4d). Notably, the concentrations of lead in all three locations were well
above the safe limits.
Table 4d. Concentrations of metals found at three locations near Pothohar Plateau, Pakistan (Ata et al., 2013).
Indus River Kamer Mianwali WHO
Parameters at Kalabagh village city standards
Cadmium (g/L) 4.00 2.00 160 <3
Lead (g/L) 1100 366 1100 <10
Iron (g/L) 363 321 305 <300
Chromium (g/L) 3.00 41.0 6.00 <50
Manganese (g/L) 397 330 481 <100
Cascade Aerators and Settling Ponds to Precipitate Metals

Combining cascade aerators and settling ponds is a low cost and low maintenance
process that can remove metals from water.138,139 Cascade aerators are simply sequential steps
that create a waterfall to allow the water to contact air, increasing the dissolved oxygen
concentration in the water (Appendix 1, Figure 5). These systems are typically built with
concrete in the developed world, but can also be constructed from rocks found in the local areas
of the developing world. Passing water that contains a high dissolved metal concentration over a
cascade will promote the formation of solid metal oxides (Appendix 1, Figure 6). The water that
passes over the cascade can then flow into a pond, where the metal oxides will settle to the
bottom (Appendix 1, Figure 7). These ponds will need to be dredged periodically, but the
benefits greatly outweigh the costs with these extremely high levels of metals seen in this area of
the Indus River basin.
137
138
Mohd, R.R., Jamil, R., and M.N. Adlan. A review of removal iron and manganese by using cascade aeration
systems. Journal of Technology (Sciences & Engineering) 74, no. 11 (2015): 69-79.
139
Abdel-Shafy, H.I., and M.A.M. Salem. Wastewater reuse risk assessment, decision-making and environmental
security. New York City, United States: Springer, 2007.
53
Courses of Action to Improve Water Quality
The Indus River is polluted from a suite of sources, including: domestic; agriculture;
industrial; and natural. Construction of biological wastewater treatment facilities to treat
domestic wastewater is an expensive, but effective, way to vastly improve the environmental
quality and human health. Implementing these systems over several decades to spread the
financial needs is the only realistic option that Pakistan has. The use of low cost technologies,
such as constructed wetlands, can help improve the water quality, from domestic and agricultural
discharge, in the coming years. Industrial facilities should be monitored for their discharge;
rewarding those in compliance and punishing those who are not in compliance. Recognizing
natural geologic formations that can leach metals and other toxic compounds into the Indus River
basin is another crucial aspect to improving the overall water quality. Cascade aerators coupled
with settling ponds is a low cost process that can remove a large portion of the dissolved metals
coming from these sites. Combining these three methodologies: low-cost wastewater treatment;
regulatory agencies; and aerated lagoons, can vastly improve the quality of water within the
Indus River in the years following. Furthermore, long term plans to constructed conventional
biological treatment systems, for the large cities in Pakistan, should be considered. If these goals
can be accomplished by Pakistan, they can become an example for other developing countries to
improve the quality of life, through widespread access to clean water.
54
5
Analysis on Water-Related
Legal Framework
55
Transboundary Legal Framework
Existing Bilateral Water Treaty with India
The Indus Water Treaty 1960
Cause
The main reason for the prolonged water disputes between Pakistan and India has its root
in the partition of the British Indian Empire in 1947. The resulting geography was that the
waters in the Indus river basin originate from India even though Pakistan covers more area of the
basin than India (47% versus 39%, respectively), thus disputes evolved regarding how the waters
should be shared. 140 Pakistan was at an inferior position being downstream and subject to how
India would use the waters, thus it wanted to resolve this through the International Court of
Justice. India refused and would only settle on a bilateral resolution. The World Bank was
initially serving as a consultative role to facilitate and speed up the process in reaching an
agreement in the beginning of 1950s. During the final stage of the negotiation, the agreement
required financing to build canals and storage facilities that would transport water from the
eastern rivers to Pakistan; India refused to pay and the World Bank administered the U.S. and
U.K. for the external financing.
Result
The Treaty was finally reached, taking into account previous use of the waters, where
India now controls the three "eastern" rivers the Beas, Ravi and Sutlej and Pakistan the
three "western" rivers the Indus, Chenab and Jhelum.
Potential Water Treaty with Afghanistan

The Kabul Water Treaty
Afghanistan and Pakistan do not have any existing water sharing agreement or treaty;
there have been attempts but nothing has been reached. Pakistan is likely to press for an
agreement on water sharing because Afghanistan is home to upstream of the Kabul River and
may limit water resources flowing into Pakistan.
Legal Framework within Pakistan:

Major Water-Related Legislation
This section provides details on selected water-related legislation in Pakistan; a more
comprehensive list of water-related legislation is in Figure 5a.
140
FAO 2012
56
Figure 5a: Water-related legislation in Pakistan.141
141
Mustafa, Daanish, Majed Akhter, and Natalie Nasrallah. "Understanding Pakistans water-security
nexus." United States Institute of Peace 2301 (2013).
57
National Level Legislation
Water and Power Development Authority Act, 1958
The Act established the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), a public
utility under the federal government that maintains power and water, a responsibility previously
charged by provincial agencies.
The Act arranged the Constitution of the WAPDA, and charged it with duties of the
"development and utilization of the water and power resources of Pakistan on a unified and
multi-purpose basis." This entails a broad range of schemes, including
"irrigation, water-supply and drainage; and recreational use of water resources;
the generation, transmission and distribution of power; and the construction, maintenance
and operation of power houses and grids;
flood control;
the prevention of waterlogging and reclamation of waterlogged and salted lands;
inland navigation;
the prevention of any ill-effects on public health resulting from the operations of the
Authority; and
[Privatize] or otherwise restructure any operation of the Authority except the hydel
generating power stations and the National Transmission Grid".142
The federal government requires WAPDA to submit approval for any of the schemes
listed above. Schemes initiated by agencies on a Provincial level are required to get approval
from the Federal government through WAPDA the Authority.
Indus River System Authority Act, 1992

The Act defines the institutional setup for the distribution of surface waters among the
provinces.143
Environmental Protection Act, 1997

The Act required "the Federal Agency [to] publish the proposed National Environmental
Quality Standards for public opinion in accordance with the prescribed procedure, [provided that
before seeking approval of the Council], and ensure enforcement of the National Environmental
Quality Standards, as well as establish standards for the quality of the ambient air, water and
142
West Pakistan Gazette (Extraordinary). The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority Act, 1958.
http://faolex.fao.org/docs/texts/pak18869.doc.
143
Ali, Akhtar. Indus Basin Floods Mechanisms, Impacts, and Management. Publication. Asian Development Bank,
2013. Page 28.
58
land, by notification in the official Gazette in consultation with the Provincial Agency
concerned."144
The Water Apportionment Accord of 1991

The Accord deals with the apportionment of Indus River waters among the provinces and
charges the Indus River System Authority (IRSA) responsible for the distribution of water
among the provinces and assists provinces to share shortages.145
Cause:
Water allocation between provinces used to be on ad hoc basis and conflicts have been
going on for a hundred years. Since 1991, the Accord was reached and signed by the Chief
Ministers of provinces.
Result
Conflict has continued since the Accord especially during droughts, because provinces
have interpreted the agreement differently. Major water conflicts "regarding the division of
water and sharing of shortages" are between Punjab and Sindh, which are home to the largest
two metropolitan areas in Pakistan respectively. There are water conflicts between Sindh and
Balochistan for the similar reason as well. 146 A common theme is that the more upstream region
would have advantage in gaining larger share of water and thus diminishing the amount flowing
into downstream regions.
National Environmental Policy (NEP) 2005
The NEP provides a framework for sustainable development and addresses water
management and conservation, pollution, and waste management issues.147
The 2006 National Sanitation Policy
The Policy focuses on the safe disposal of liquid and solid waste, and promotion of health
and hygiene practices in the country.148
The 2009 National Drinking Water Policy (NDWP) (by Ministry of Environment)
The Government of Pakistan recognizes that "access to safe drinking water is the basic
human right of every citizen and that it is the responsibility of the state to ensure its provision to
all citizens, is committed to provision of adequate quantity of safe drinking water to the entire
population at an affordable cost and in an equitable, efficient and sustainable manner." 149
144
The Gazette of Pakistan. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. Available at:
http://www.environment.gov.pk/act-rules/envprotact1997.pdf
145
WaterAid. "Country Strategy 2010-2015: Pakistan." http://www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/annual-
reports-and-strategies/WaterAid-pakistan-country-strategy-2010-2015.pdf?la=en
146
Shahid Ahmad. "Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord for Resolving Inter-provincial Water Conflicts Policy
Issues and Options." IUCN. 2010. https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/pk_ulr_d4.pdf
147
148
Ibid
149
The Government of Pakistan Ministry of Environment. National Drinking Water Policy.
http://environment.gov.pk/NEP/DWPolicyOct2009.pdf.
59
The NDWP was designed to complement and be implemented in coordination with other
water-related policies, including the National Environment Policy, National Sanitation Policy,
and the National Water Policy.
The National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) 2009
The NDWP defines "drinking water" as water that is used for "domestic purposes
including drinking, cooking, hygiene and other domestic uses" and refers "safe" as in compliance
with National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS), which was issued in 2008, in
collaboration with the Ministry of Health, Wold Health Organization, and UNICEF. 150 The
drinking water quality standards were in line with WHO's Guidelines and Criteria for Quality
Drinking Water (1996, 2004).
The NDWQS reviews literature for sources of water contamination, in which the most
prominent one is bacteriological contamination occurring in both rural and urban areas, as a
result of pollution from sewage pipes, leaky pipes, and shallow water table; the second serious
source is chemical pollution from "industrial effluents, textile dyes, pesticides, nitrogenous
fertilizers, arsenic and other chemicals".
The metrics/parameters in the drinking water standards have the same or similar values to
WHO's guidelines for three categories: essential inorganic, toxic inorganic, and radioactive
chemicals. Some of the different ones include lead level, which is less than 0.05 mg/L for
Pakistan compared to a stricter 0.01 level by WHO, and arsenic level, which is also 0.05 mg/L
for Pakistan and 0.01 for WHO. For the organic parameters category, Pakistan does not list any
values suggested by the WHO, including pesticides, phenolic compounds, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (carcinogenic to humans). The reason for not having any limits for pesticides,
herbicides, and fungicides is that it is "difficult, in fact impossible, to identify specific limits for
each single one of these" because "the number of these chemical, in use in Pakistan is so
large".151
The NDWQS contains guidelines on implementation and monitoring. The Federal
government and Provincial government should clarify responsibility for service providers such
as Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA), Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) that
is responsible for rural water supply, Town Municipal Administration (TMA), and Development
Authority. The Federal and Provincial government as well as public private partnership are
responsible for financial constraints to increase capacity of the service providers, including
increasing sector allocation and ensuring sustainable financial mechanism for operation and
maintenance. The Federal and Provincial government are also charged with capacity
development responsibilities, supported by Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources
(PCRWR) (under the Ministry of Science and Technology, MoS&T), Ministry of Health (MoH),
150
The Government of Pakistan Ministry of Environment. National Standards for Drinking Water Quality.
http://www.environment.gov.pk/act-rules/DWQStd-MAY2007.pdf
151
http://www.environment.gov.pk/act-rules/DWQStd-MAY2007.pdf. Page 28
60
and Ministry of Environment. They also work on rehabilitation/expansion of existing water
supply systems and establishment of emergency response mechanism at different level as well as
advocacy and coordination mechanism for all stakeholders.
Provincial Level Legislation

The Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority Acts152
These acts required the Minister for Irrigation and Power of the Province to be the
Chairman of the Authority by adopting a strategy for streamlining the irrigation and drainage
system in the Province. 153 154
Baluchistan Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act, 1997155
NWFP Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act, 1997 156
Punjab Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act, 1997157 158
Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act, 1997 159160
They also registered the Farmer's Organizations (FOs) at the distributary canal level,
where the legislation detailed as "to ensure conveyance of drainage effluent to the outfall in co-
ordination with Area Water Boards and Farmers Organisations as the case may be."161
The On-Farm Water Management and Water Users' Associations Ordinance, 1981
The Ordinance built two organizational units on the provincial level to aid water
management in the agriculture sector through On-Farm Water Management program (OFWM)
and the Water Users' Associations.
152
153
The Gazette of the North-West Frontier Province (Extraordinary). NWFP Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act
1997. 17th July, 1997. http://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/pak67388.pdf
154
Punjab Gazette (Extraordinary). Irrigation and Drainage Authority Act 1997. 2nd July, 1997.
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/the_punjab_irrigation_and_drainage_authority_act_1997.pdf
155
2013. Page 28.
156
Ibid.
157
Ibid.
158
Muhammad, Dil. Legal framework for irrigation management in Punjab and Sindh Provinces, Pakistan. IWMI,
1998. http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_23179i.pdf
159
2013. Page 28.
160
Muhammad, Dil. Legal framework for irrigation management in Punjab and Sindh Provinces, Pakistan. IWMI,
1998. http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_23179i.pdf
161
61
Analysis of Ongoing Progress Regarding Water-Related Legislation:
The National Water Policy was drafted by the Pakistan Engineering Council and is still in
the process of being approved.162 The National Water Policy proposes an Integrated Water
Resources Management Regime with the following objectives:
"i) Providing adequate and safe drinking water for all;
ii) Providing food security for all in Pakistan and feed security for livestock;
iii) Providing hygienic sanitation facilities for urban and rural population;
iv) Maintaining water quality and protecting water resources by preventing their
pollution;
v) Treatment and possible reuse of waste water domestic, agricultural and
industrial;
vi) Restoring and maintaining the health of the environment and ecology;
vii) Flood management to mitigate floods and minimize flood damages;
viii) Hydropower development for economic growth;
ix) Security of benefit streams of the water related infrastructure for sustained
provision of services,
x) Conservation and optimizing water use efficiency."163
Water-Related Institutions In Pakistan and External Actors

This section provides an overview of water-related institutions in Pakistan and
international organizations that work in the water sector in Pakistan. The relationship between
water-related institutions at different levels is illustrated in Figure 5b.
162
Frenken. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. Page 397.
163
Pakistan Federal Ministry Of Planning, Development & Reform. "Water Resources." http://pc.gov.pk/mtdf/27-
Water%20Sector/27-Water%20Sector.pdf
62
Figure 5b: Water-related institutions in Pakistan.164
The Ministry of Water and Power165

Water & Power Development Authority (WAPDA)
The Ministry of Water and Power is supported by the Water & Power Development
Authority (WAPDA), the National Engineering Services, the Indus River System Authority
(IRSA), and the Federal Flood Commission (Figure 5b).
The WAPDA is a semiautonomous body and a functional arm of the Ministry of Water
and Power. It has two main goals: one is development of hydropower and the other is to ensure
increased water storage, reduce drought and water shortages. Since 2007, WAPDA developed
into two separate entities: WAPDA and Pakistan Electric Power Company (PEPCO), where
PEPCO is in charge of thermal power and WAPDA continues its role in developing hydropower.
166
164
165
Frenken. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN.
166
Kazmi, S.Kamal Hayder. "Water And Power Development Authority."
http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/pagesearch/Search-Engine2009/S.E868.php
63
The WAPDA has formulated a National Water Resource and Hydropower Development
Programme-vision 2025. The Water Vision 2025 project aims to boost up water storage and
limit water shortage; 16,000 MW of hydroelectricity would be generated overall through this 30
billion-dollar project and 9,500 MW is planned to be reached by 2016. Five large hydropower
projects have been announced and two are under construction, which in total would have a
capacity of 9,500 MW of electricity. 167
National Engineering Services Pakistan (NESPAK)
The National Engineering Services Pakistan (NESPAK) is a private limited company
created by the Government of Pakistan in 1973 and has been Pakistans major engineering
consultancy organization. The services of NESPAK span across multiple sectors, including the
Energy Sector, Water Resources Development and Dam Engineering Sector, Communications
Sector, Architecture & Planning Sector, Public Health Engineering Sector, Industrial Sector, Oil,
Gas and Petrochemical Sector, Environment Sector, Information Technology & GIS Sector.168
Indus River System Authority (IRSA)
Established by the 1991 Water Apportionment Accord, the IRSA manages the
distribution of water among the provinces to prevent disputes especially during water shortages.
Federal Flood Commission (FFC)
The Federal Flood Commission (FFC), created in 1977, is the chief agency on flood
management for Pakistan. It "provides technical advice to the Ministry of Water and Power on
projects in the field of irrigation, drainage, dams, hydropower and allied engineering matters"
and prepares National Flood Protection Plans, where the National Flood Protection Plan-IV
(2015-25)-the most recent one following 2010 floods-is under approval.169 170 The Federal
investment towards flood protection has totaled 29.350 millions (in Rupee) between 1979 and
2015 for countrywide and Provincial projects. 171
Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST)
Since 1972, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) has been the functional arm
of the Pakistan government to improve the country' technological competence (Figure 5b). Its
duties include "(i) coordination and implementation of national science and technology policy;
(ii) promotion and coordination of research and utilization of the results of research; (iii)
development, production and utilization of nuclear energy; and (iv) coordination of utilization of
scientific and technological manpower." 172
167
Ibid.
168
National Engineering Services Pakistan. "Introduction to NESPAK." http://www.nespak.com.pk/about/intro.asp
169
The Government of Pakistan Ministry of Water & Power. "Federal Flood Commission". http://www.ffc.gov.pk/
170
The Government Of Pakistan Ministry of Water & Power. Annual Flood Report 2015.
http://www.ffc.gov.pk/download/AFR/Annual%20Flood%20Report%202015.pdf
171
Ibid.
172
The Government of Pakistan. "Ministry of Science and Technology". 2012
64
Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (CRWR)
The CRWR is administered under the federal Ministry of Science and Technology and its
research focuses on activities related to water in three main areas: water management (e.g.
recharge of depleted aquifers, drainage and land reclamation, water conservation, crop water
requirements), water quality (i.e. water quality assessment and management, simple and low cost
analytical solutions for water quality monitoring, and innovative water treatment technologies),
and rainwater harvesting & desertification control (e.g. sand dune stabilization, range land
management, grassland development, and saline agriculture).173 174
The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC)
The PARC is not directly administered under the MoST but is in its own a national
organization that collaborates with other federal and provincial institutions "to provide science
based solutions to agriculture of Pakistan through its statutory functions." 175 The PARC
conducts research in land, water, energy, environment, agriculture, and livestock and focuses on
water related issues through its Water Resources Research Institute of the National Agricultural
Research Centre.176
Ministry of Environment (Federal)177
The MoE issues environmental legislation including the National Environmental Policy
and the National Drinking Water Policy.
Ministries of Local Government (Provincial)
The Ministries are tasked with provincial policy making, budget allocation and target
setting.
Agriculture Department (Provincial)
On-Farm Water Management (OFWM)
The OFWM is a program supported by provincial Agriculture Department that is in turn
supported by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (Figure 5b). They promote "water
management interventions" to maximize water use efficiency and crop productivity." 178
http://www.most.gov.pk/
173
174
Government of Pakistan. "Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources." http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/
175
Pakistan Agricultural Research Council. "About PARC." http://www.parc.gov.pk/index.php/en/pakistan-
agriculture-research-council/parc-a-profile
176
177
178
On Farm Water Management (OFWM) of Punjab. "Overview." 2014.
http://www.ofwm.agripunjab.gov.pk/about_overview
65
Water User Associations (WUA)
The WUAs were also created under the World Bank-supported On-Farm Water
Management Programme.179
Departments of Public Health Engineering (Provincial)

The PDPHEs are responsible for infrastructure building (Figure 5b).
Urban Water Supply & Sanitation Authorities (WASA)
WASAs in urban areas are in charge of water supplies and are also responsible for
service delivery and O&M in large cities of Pakistan (e.g. Lahore, Karachi). (Tehsil/taluka/town
municipal administrations (TMAs) are in charge for small and rural areas respectively).
Rural Public Health Engineering Department
The rural PHEDs work with local government to steer "Water, Sanitation and Hygiene"
(WASH) services (Figure 5b).
The Irrigation Departments (PIDs) and Irrigation and Drainage Authorities (PIDAs)
(Provincial)
The PIDs provides information on water demand to the Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) of the Federal Government (Figure 5b). The PIDs are still in function but
would be replaced by the PIDAs and the Area Water Boards (AWB) through the Provincial
Irrigation and Drainage Authority Acts.180
The Farmers Organizations (FOs)
The FOs works on sub-national level to collect water fee and to improve equity and
development of local capacity for irrigation management. They are also responsible for dispute
resolution.181
The FATA Agriculture Department (FAD) and the Pakistan Meteorological Department
(PMD)
Both the FAD and PMD have been installing rain gauges to improve water-monitoring
capabilities. As of 2012, there were a total of 335 rain gauges installed in the four provinces of
Pakistan (Figure 5c). There has not been significant change in arrangements for groundwater
179
180
Ibid.
181
Schultz, B. "Performance of farmers' organizations in Punjab, Pakistan: the challenges and way forward."
In Irrigation and Drainage, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 23-30. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010.
66
monitoring and discharge measurements within Federally Administered Tribal Areas of
Pakistan.182
Figure 5c: Network of rain gauges in Pakistan across four provinces. 183
External Actors (International Organizations and Donors)

Most of the projects within the water sector come from external actors and is
administered and allocated through the Ministry of Finance.184
The most influential international organization and donor is the World Bank, whose
funding has supported not only the series of water policies since 2000 but also capacity building
and training across national and provincial levels.
Other main international actors include the Asian Development Bank, International Fund
for Agricultural Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the
World Food Programme.
They work with Pakistan's provincial and national governments, the Pakistan Poverty
Alleviation Fund, civil society, non-governmental and community-based organizations and, as
well as private enterprises.
182
Asian Development Bank. "Water Balance: Achieving Sustainable Development through a Water Assessment
and Management Plan." 2014. http://adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2014/water-balance-pakistan.pdf. Page 42.
183
Pakistan Meteorological Department. "Drought Bulletin of Pakistan July-September 2012."
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Situation_Report_234.pdf
184
Aberman, Noora-Lisa, Noora-Lisa Aberman, Benjamin Wielgosz, Fatima Zaidi, Claudia Ringler, Agha Ali
Akram, Andrew Bell, and Maikel Issermann.The policy landscape of agricultural water management in Pakistan.
Vol. 1265. Intl Food Policy Res Inst, 2013.
67
Analysis on Institutional Shortfalls and Challenges
The government lacks integrated water sector planning, development, and management
over water resources, due to
lack of coordination between institutions involved with water resources at different levels
(especially Provincial and local)
limited institutional capacity and enforcement capability
inadequate stakeholder participation
lack of public awareness & deficient water information
lack of financial sustainability in water sector services
low private sector investment or participation 185
gap between "declared rules and the rules-in-use" (where the scale and social status of
farmers can create different sets of goals and alliances, which can in practice be the
accepted norms than the declared rules) 186
The key solution to addressing institutional challenges is through capacity building across
established institutions and across other key stakeholders, and experience from the International
Water Management Institute suggested that change in institutions and their capacities typically
occur "incrementally rather than in discontinuous fashion."187
Addressing Areas of Capacity Building

increase education and awareness on water information,
improve financial sustainability in water services especially through the private sector,
have better coordination between institutions involved with water resources at the
provincial and the federal levels.
Recommendations on Capacity Building and Opportunities
Opportunity: Resources Sharing through International and Regional agencies

Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Environmental Management Initiative (GEMI)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) -AQUASTAT
Global Water Partnership (GWP)
185
Minister for Water and Power. "Pakistans Vision Of Water Resources Management." May 14, 2003.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/Pakistan-Development-Forum/water-Mgmt.pdf
186
Bandaragoda, D. J. 2000. A framework for institutional analysis for water resources management in a river basin
context. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) ii, 46p. [IWMI Working Paper 5]
187
Ibid.
68
International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and
Drainage (IPTRID)188
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
UN-Water
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
o WASH section
o Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) programme
o Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) programme
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHabitat)
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Hydrology and Water Resources
Programme
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP)
WaterAid
World Bank
Opportunity: Applicable UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Indicators

The UN SDG Goal 6 sets 6 targets to measure and monitor the progress on "[Ensuring]
availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all":
Target 6.1: By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable
drinking water for all.
o Indicator 6.1.1: Percentage of population using safely managed drinking water
services
Target 6.2: By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for
all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and
those in vulnerable situations.
o Indicator 6.2.1: Percentage of population using safely managed sanitation services
188
Note: The International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID) is a
multidonor trust fund programme created in 1990 and has been hosted by the World Bank then by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations as a Special Programme since 1998. Its goal is to aid "developing
countries and countries in transition in building their capacity for sustainable agricultural water management to
reduce poverty and enhance food security, while conserving the environment." 188 The IPTRID work with central
partners and also directly with country partners. For Pakistan, IPTRID works with three agencies:
Pakistan, Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA)
Pakistan, International Waterlogging and Salinity Research Institute (IWASRI)
Pakistan, National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (PANCID) in Ministry of Water and Power
69
o Indicator 6.2.2: Population with a hand washing facility with soap and water in
the household
Target 6.3: By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping
and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of
untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally.
o Indicator 6.3.1:Percentage of waste water safely treated
o Indicator 6.3.2: Percentage of receiving water bodies with ambient water quality
not presenting risk to the environment or human health
Target 6.4: By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and
ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and
substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity.
o Indicator 6.4.1 Water stress - Percentage of total available water resources used,
taking environmental water requirements into account (Level of Water Stress)
o Indicator 6.4.2 Water Productivity - Percentage of change in water use efficiency
over time
Target 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels,
including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
o Indicator 6.5.1: Status of IWRM Implementation - Degree of integrated water
resources management (IWRM) implementation (0-100)Indicator 6.5.2:
Availability of operational arrangements for transboundary basin management
Target 6.6: By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains,
forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.
o Indicator 6.6.1: Change in wetlands extent over time (% change over time)
Target 6.a: By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to
developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes,
including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies
Target 6.b: Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving
water and sanitation management. 189
189
United Nations Division for Sustainable Development (DSD). "Post-2015 Development Agenda: Goals, targets
and indicators: List of indicator proposals." 11 August 2015.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/7981List%20of%20Indicator%20Proposals%2011-8-
2015.pdf
70
Appendix 1
Table 1. Sector wise estimated wastewater production in Pakistan (Murtaza et al., 2012)
Annual Volume
Source 109 gal/year Percent %
Industry 104 6
Commercial 70 5
Urban Residential 430 25
Rural Residential 808 48
Agriculture 274 16
Total 1694 100
Table 2. Wastewater produced annually by cities in Pakistan (Murtaza et al., 2012)

Total wastewater % of % of
produced Total Treated
City (109 gal/year)
Lahore 76 12.5 0.01
Faisalabad 34 5.6 25.6
Gujranwala 19 3.1 -
Rawalpindi 11 1.8 -
Sheikhupura 4 0.7 -
Multan 17 2.9 -
Sialkot 5 0.8 -
Karachi 160 26.3 15.9
Hyderabad 13 2.2 34.0
Peshawar 14 2.3 36.2
Other 255 41.8 0.7
Total Urban 608 100.0 7.7
Table 3. Construction and operation and maintenance cost estimate for wastewater treatment facilities in
the ten largest cities without sanitation in Pakistan (Murtaza & Zia, 2012; GBRA, 2012).
Total
Urban wastewater O&M Construction Construction
Population produced O&M cost cost cost Cost
City (1998 census) (gal/day) ($/gal) ($/year) ($/gal) ($)
Lahore 5,143,495 207,718,805 $ 8.325E-05 $ 6,311,445 $ 1.36 $ 282,330,580
Faisalabad 2,008,861 93,364,899 $ 1.273E-04 $ 4,337,593 $ 1.76 $ 164,301,342
Rawalpindi 1,409,768 28,950,356 $ 2.370E-04 $ 2,504,657 $ 2.57 $ 74,364,642
Multan 1,197,384 47,768,088 $ 1.817E-04 $ 3,167,731 $ 2.19 $ 104,376,594
Gujranwala 1,132,509 51,386,882 $ 1.748E-04 $ 3,278,101 $ 2.13 $ 109,666,448
Hyderabad 1,116,894 36,911,704 $ 2.083E-04 $ 2,806,937 $ 2.37 $ 87,659,075
Peshawar 982,816 37,635,463 $ 2.062E-04 $ 2,832,616 $ 2.36 $ 88,819,053
Sheikhupura 870,110 10,856,384 $ 3.990E-04 $ 1,581,135 $ 3.53 $ 38,281,210
Sialkot 713,552 13,751,419 $ 3.519E-04 $ 1,766,516 $ 3.27 $ 44,924,998
Quetta 565,137 8,685,107 $ 4.492E-04 $ 1,424,027 $ 3.79 $ 32,913,766
Total 15,140,526 537,029,107 $ 30,010,760 $ 1,027,637,709
71
Figure 1. Changes in course of the Indus River (NASA, 2010).
Figure 2. Tres Rios constructed wetland (Elkins, 2011).
72
Figure 3. Potential for contamination based on the location of the former DDT factory, agricultural land,
and the prevailing wind direction in Pakistan.
73
Figure 4. Map of industries in Pakistan (Dost Pakistan, 2011).
74
Figure 5. Cascade aerator.
Figure 6. Lead oxide.
Figure 7. Settling pond.
75
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Indus River Basin:

Water Management Plan

emphasizing integrated water management approach rather than isolated efforts

1. INDUS RIVER BASIN BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................ 1

2. ECONOMIC STATUS OF AREAS WITHIN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN ................... 13

3. AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN .................................. 25

4. WATER POLLUTION IN THE INDUS RIVER BASIN ................................................... 41

5. ANALYSIS ON WATER-RELATED LEGAL FRAMEWORK ....................................... 55

The river begins its journey in Tibet

Projections for water levels in

Indus Water Treaty Concerning Dams

Robert Wirsing, a professor at Georgetown Universitys School of Foreign Service in

Hydro Power Performance in the Indus River Basin

Figure 2c. Diminishing generation from large hydropower projects in India.47

Trade Off Priority Between Irrigation and Hydro Power

Limited Role of China

Objectives for the Agricultural Sector

Rajasthan 13.42 10.64 18.30 6.91 1364.00 27.7

Others (Inc Himachal P) 3.26 2.59 6.38 2.41

All India 126.04 100 264.77 100 2101 49.8

The structure of Indias government causes a number of inefficiencies and barriers to

Pakistan: Complete Dependence

Technology of all sorts including agriculture is extremely limited in Afghanistan; most

Irrigation Systems and Efficiency

Location Delivery at head, MAF % MAF

Main and branch canals 106 15 16

Distributaries and minors 90 8 7

Crop Use 41 n.a. n.a.

Note: n.a. = not applicable, MAF = million acre-feet

India: Room to Improve

Afghanistan: Limited Traditional Systems

Prioritized Solutions for Agriculture and Irrigation

Irrigation Allocation: A significant inefficiency in both India and Pakistan is the

Government Policies: Necessary to accomplish any of the above listed recommendations

Afghanistan: While a relatively small portion of the IRB Afghanistan is an important

Figure 4a. Phytoplankton bloom in the Arabian Sea..97

Methods for Improving the Current State

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was a very commonly used pesticide and malaria

Education and Management Practices to Reduce Agricultural Pollution

Field Study on the Lower Reaches of the Indus River

Figure 4d. Location of the Pothohar Plateau, Pakistan.

Figure 4e. Locations of heavy metal sampling in field study.136

Cascade Aerators and Settling Ponds to Precipitate Metals

Potential Water Treaty with Afghanistan

Legal Framework within Pakistan:

Indus River System Authority Act, 1992

Environmental Protection Act, 1997

The Water Apportionment Accord of 1991

Provincial Level Legislation

Water-Related Institutions In Pakistan and External Actors

The Ministry of Water and Power165

Departments of Public Health Engineering (Provincial)

External Actors (International Organizations and Donors)

Addressing Areas of Capacity Building

Recommendations on Capacity Building and Opportunities

Opportunity: Resources Sharing through International and Regional agencies

Opportunity: Applicable UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Indicators

Table 2. Wastewater produced annually by cities in Pakistan (Murtaza et al., 2012)

Figure 2. Tres Rios constructed wetland (Elkins, 2011).

Figure 6. Lead oxide.

Figure 7. Settling pond.

Asian Development Bank. Pakistan: Economy. Accessed April 18, 2016.

Central Statistics Organization, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. 2011. 2009-2010 Agriculture

Dominguez, Gabriel, Pakistans Urbanization: A challenge of great proportions. Deutsche Welle.