DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

INTRODUCTION. NUMBER SYSTEMS.

Natural Numbers.
When we count objects we assign them the numbers 1, 2, 3, ... We denote
N = {0, 1, 2, . . .}. We fix 0 as the first natural number.
One of the most important properties of the natural numbers is that every
element of N can be obtained by applying the successor function s (s(n) =
n + 1) repeatedly to 0.
0
1 = s(0)
2 = s(s(0))
3 = s(s(s(0))) . . .
We shall be using this fact to prove many properties of the natural numbers.
The natural numbers N is an ordered set:
m n m = n or
n may be obtained applying several times the successor function to m
m = n or n = s(...(s(m))...)

Integer Numbers
To solve the equation m n = x when m < n(i.e. m n and m 6= n) we must
consider negative numbers.

Z = N {1, 2, 3, . . .}

Now, we are not able to obtain every integer by applying repeatedly the succes-
sor function s to 0. We need another generating function which will give us all
the negative numbers. We shall denote it the predecessor function p(n) = n1.
0
1 = s(0) 1 = p(0)
2 = s(s(0)) 2 = p(p(0))
3 = s(s(s(0))) 3 = p(p(p(0)))
.
.
.

The relation between both functions may be described as follows:

s(p(n)) = n p(s(n)) = n
So, we have:
s(2) = s(p(p(0))) = p(0) = 1
p(3) = p(s(s(s(0)))) = s(s(0)) = 2

1
p(p(3)) = p(p(s(s(s(0))))) = p(s(s(0))) = s(0) = 1

| | | | | | | |
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

The fact that there are gaps between the integers leads us to say that Z is
discrete. In analysis limiting processes are of fundamental importance and it
is essential to use continuous number systems.

The Rational Numbers

N Z Q
If we now consider the equation m = nx with n 6= 0 and when m is not a
multiple of n (m is a multiple of n if m = t n, t Z) its solution is not an
m
integer, x = Q
n
nm o
Q=  m, n Z

n
Every rational number has a finite or recurring decimal expansion.
Examples:
1 1
= 0.2 = 0.3333... (with 3 repeating)
5 3
17 41
= 2.8333... (with 3 repeating) = 0.0123123... (with 123 repeating)
6 3330
Of course we may consider numbers whose decimal expansion is not recurring,
for example 8.101001000100001... since the number of zeros between the ones
increases. These are called the irrational numbers. Other irrational numbers
are:
= 3.1415926535897932384626...

2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242097....

3, 5, . . .
Together with the rational numbers we get the real numbers.

The Real Numbers

R= QI
We may also distinguish between algebraic and trascendental numbers.
We say a real number is algebraic if it is a solution of a polynomial equation

a0 xn + a1 xn1 + . . . + an1 x + an = 0 a0 6= 0, a1 , . . . , an Z and n > 0

m
Every rational number is an algebraic number: q = = q is solution of
n
nx m = 0

2 is an irrational number but it is an algebraic number since it is a solution

of x2 2 = 0

2
 = 3,1415... e = 2,71828... are not algebraic numbers, they are transcenden-
tal numbers.

The Complex Numbers

Continuing in this way, if we consider the equation x2 + 1 = 0 there is no
real number that is a solution of this equation. Hence we must consider yet a
bigger class of numbers: the complex numbers.

RC C = {a + ib|a, b R} i = 1
C verifies that every polynomial whose coefficients belong to C has a solution
in C. (The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)
N Z Q R C
This algebraic process which has obliged us to extend gradually our number
systems has finally come to an end with C due to this theorem.

Peano Axioms. Principle of Induction.

Here we describe precisely the natural numbers. The following axioms charac-
terise N.

1. P1 m, n N s(m) = s(n) = m = n
2. P2 n N s(n) 6= 0
3. P3 Principle of Induction

Before stating this principle we illustrate it with the following example:

Suppose that a sequence of blocks numbered 0,1,2,... sits on a table and that
some blocks are marked with an X.
Suppose that:

(S1) Block 0 is marked.

(S2) If all the blocks preceding the (n+1)st block are marked, then the (n+1)st
block is also marked.

Assuming this principle is true, we will show every block is marked.

(S1) explicitly states that block 0 is marked.
Consider block 1. All of the blocks preceding block 1, namely block 0, are
marked, thus according to (S2) block 1 is also marked.
Consider block 2. All of the blocks preceding block 2, namely blocks 0 and 1,
are marked, thus according to (S2) block 2 is also marked.
In this way, we can show that every block is marked.
For example, suppose that we have verified that block 0 . . . 5 are marked, to
show that block 6 is marked, we note that all the blocks that precede block 6
are marked, so by (S2), block 6 is also marked.

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P3 Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Suppose that for each natural n we have a statement S(n) that is either true
or false. Suppose that
Basis Step: S(0) is true.
Inductive Step:
For all k N, if S(k) is true then S(k+1) is also true.
Then S(n) is true for every natural number n.

EXAMPLES

Ex.1
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n positive integers

Sn = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . n
n(n + 1)
We claim () Sn = for n = 0, 1, . . .
2
A sequence of statements is really being made, namely
01
S0 = =0
2
12
S1 = =1
2
23
S2 = =3
2
.
.
Our proof using mathematical induction consists of two steps. First we must
prove the Basis step, that is, the statement corresponding to n = 0, S0 , is
true.
01
S(0) S0 = =0
2
S0 = 0
Second, we assume that the statement corresponding to n = k is true (Induc-
tive Hypothesis (IH)), and we must prove that the statement corresponding
to n = k + 1 is true: (S(k) = S(k + 1)) (Inductive Step)
k(k + 1)
S(k) Sk =
2
k(k + 1)
Sk = 0 + 1 + 2 + . . . + k =
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
We must show that Sk+1 = is true.
2
According to the definition Sk+1 = 0 + 1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = Sk + (k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Because of the Inductive Hypothesis we assume Sk = hence
2

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 k(k + 1) k(k + 1) 2(k + 1) k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
Sk+1 = Sk +(k+1) = +(k+1) = + = =
2 2 2 2
(k + 2)(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2 2
as we wanted to prove.
Since the Basis Step and the Inductive Step have been verified, the Principle
of Induction tells us that () is true for all n N.

Ex.2
32n + 4n+1 is divisible by 5 for n = 0, 1, . . ..
Basis Step S(0) 30 + 41 = 5 = 5 1 = 5 t for t = 1
Inductive Step S(k) = S(k + 1)
(IH) S(k) 32k + 4k+1 = 5 t1 for some t1 N
S(k + 1) 32(k+1) + 4(k+1)+1 = 32k 32 + 4k+1 4 = 32k 9 + 4k+1 4 =
32k (5 + 4) + 4k+1 4 = 32k 5 + 4(32k + 4k+1) = 32k 5 + 4(5t1) = 5(32k + 4t1 ) = 5t2

(IH. S(k))

Ex.3
 1 n n
1+ 1+ n = 0, 1, . . ..
3 3
 1 0 0
Basis Step S(0) 1 + 1+ =1
3 3
 1 0 0
1+ =1=1+
3 3
Inductive Step S(k) = S(k + 1)
We assume S(n) is true for n = k
 1 k k
(IH) S(k) 1 + 1+
3 3
We must prove
 1 k+1 k+1
S(k + 1) 1 + 1+
3 3
 1  k+1  1 k  1  k  1  k
S(k + 1) 1 + = 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ = 1+ +
3 3 3 3 3 3

(IH. S(k))
 k  1  k 1 k k 1 k+1
1+ =1+ + + 1+ + =1+
3 3 3 3 9 3 3 3

k 
0
9

Sometimes we cannot apply the Principle of Induction directly and we need a

stronger version which is known as the Principle of Strong Induction or

5
the Principle of Complete Induction. (It is equivalent to the Principle of
Induction we have already studied.)

Strong Mathematical Induction

Suppose that for each n N we have a statement S(n) that is either true or
false. Suppose that
Basis Step: S(0) is true.
Strong Inductive Step:
For all k N, if S(j) is true for all 0 j < k then S(k) is true
Then we may conclude that S(n) is true for every natural number n.

Sometimes S(0) may not be defined but we still want to prove the truth of
statements

S(n0 ), S(n0 + 1), S(n0 + 2), . . . where n0 6= 0

it seems that if we change the Basis step to S(n0 ) is true, instead of, S(0)
is true, we will have a similar Principle of Induction. Indeed it is so and it
happens we may state a more general Principle of Induction. To do so we first
define Zm , a segment of Z.

Zm and the Principle of Induction.

Let m Z. We define Zm = {m, s(m), s(s(m)), . . .} where s is the successor
function. Zm = {m, m + 1, m + 2, . . .}
We may now define the Principle of Induction and the Strong Principle of
Induction for Zm as follows:

Principle of Induction
Suppose that for each integer n we have a statement S(n) that is either true
or false. Suppose that
Basis Step: S(m) is true. m Z
Inductive Step:
For all k Zm , if S(k) is true then S(k+1) is also true.
Then S(n) is true for all n Zm .

Note: The key idea behind mathematical induction is the proof that the impli-
cation S(k) = S(k + 1) is true. You should think of this implication in fairly
generic terms: If S is true at some imteger, then it is also true at the next in-
teger. To complete the hypothesis of the theorem of mathematical induction,
we need a starting value, i0 for which S(i0 ) is true. Recall that the implication
S(k) = S(k + 1) may be true, but S(k) may be false. If we cannot find an
integer i0 for which S(i0 ) is true, then the conclusion that S(n) is true for all
n i0 would be false. Thus the base step is essential (even though it is often
trivial to verify).

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Ex.
S(n) 2 + 2 2 + . . . 2 n = (n 1)(n + 2) n = 1, 2 . . ..
Inductive Step S(k) = S(k + 1)
(IH) S(k) 2 + 2 2 + . . . 2 k = (k 1)(k + 2)
S(k + 1) 2 + 2 2 + . . . 2 k + 2 (k + 1) = (k 1)(k + 2) + 2 (k + 1) =
k 2 k + 2k 2 + 2k + 2 = k(k + 3)

Therefore, if the claim properly calculates the sum of the first k even positive
integers, then it also properly calculates the sum of the first k + 1 positive even
integers.
Notice, however, that the claim is wrong for every positive integer:
n(n + 1)
2 + 2 2 + . . . 2 n = 2(1 + 2 + . . . n) = 2 = n(n + 1) and
2
(n 1)(n + 2) = n(n + 1) implies 2 = 0

Strong Principle of Induction

Suppose that for each integer n we have a statement S(n) that is either true
or false. Suppose that
Basis Step: S(m) is true. m Z
Strong Inductive Step:
For all k m, if S(j) is true for all m j < k, then S(k) is also true.
Then S(n) is true for all n Zm .

Ex.
n! 2n1 n = 1, 2, . . .
Basis Step S(1) 1! = 1 = 211 = 20 = 1
Inductive Step k Z1 S(k) = S(k + 1)
(IH) S(k) k! 2k1
We must prove
S(k + 1) (k + 1)! 2(k+1)1 = 2k

S(k + 1) (k + 1)! = (k + 1)k! (k + 1)2k1 2 2k1 = 2k

(IH. S(k)) (k + 1) 2

Ex.
n 4 2n < n!
Basis Step S(4) 24 < 4! 16 < 24 = 4!
Inductive Step k Z4 S(k) = S(k + 1)
k
(IH) S(k) 2 < k!

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We must prove
S(k + 1) 2k+1 < (k + 1)!

2k+1 = 2 2k < 2 k! < (k + 1)k! = (k + 1)!

(IH. S(k)) 2 < (k + 1) (since k 4)

Example of Strong Induction.

If n > 1 then n can be written as a product of primes.
Basis Step S(2) 2 can be written as a product of one prime, itself. (2 is
prime)
Inductive Step n 2 if S(k) is true for all 2 k < n then S(n) is true.
There are two cases to consider:
When n is prime = S(n) is trivially true.
When n is composite = n = a b with 2 a b < n.
By the Inductive Hypothesis S(a) and S(b) are true, so they can both be
written as a product of primes, hence a = p1 . . . pr b = p1 . . . ps
n = a b = p1 . . . pr p1 . . . ps
Ex.
Use mathematical induction to show that postage of four cents or more, can
be achieved by using only 2-cent or 5-cent stamps.

Basis Step S(4) we may use two 2-cent stamps.

Inductive Step n 4 if S(k) is true for all 4 k < n then S(n) is true.
To show S(n) is true we write n = (n 2) + 2. By the Inductive Hypothesis
S(n 2) is true, hence n 2 = t1 2 + t2 5 and
n = (n 2) + 2 = t1 2 + t2 5 + 2 = 2(t1 + 1) + 5t2 hence S(n) is also true.

There is one subtle point, we are only considering postage of 4 cents or more,
thus when n = 5, n 2 = 3 is not a valid value and we cannot assume S(3)
true. This is only the case for n = 5, hence if we explicitly verify S(4) and S(5)
(i.e. taking them as basis steps) we are done. We have already proved S(4).
S(5) 5 = 1 5 We may use only one 5-cent stamp.

This example leads us to consider the Principle of Mathematical Induc-

tion with various basis steps for Zm
Suppose that S is a atatement defined for integer numbers.
Basis Step: S(m) . . . S(l) l m are true.
Strong Inductive Step:
For every k > l, if S(j) is true for all m j < k then S(k) is true

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Then we may conclude that S(n) is true for all n Zm .

Although so far, this is the most general induction principle we have considered
it cannot still be applied to the whole of Z. We need what it is known as
Structural Induction.
Let S be a statement defined for integer numbers.

1. P1 S(0) is true.
2. P2 k N if S(k) is true = S(s(k)) = S(k + 1) is true, where s is
the successor function.
3. P3 k N if S(k) is true = S(p(k)) = S(k 1) is true, where p is
the predecessor function.

Then n Z, S(n) is true.

Ex.
Let a, m Z a 6= 0
n Z am+n = am an

1. P1 S(0) am+0 = am = am 1 = am a0
2. P2 (IH) S(k) am+k = am ak
S(s(k)) = S(k + 1) = am+(k+1) = a(m+k)+1 = am+k a = am ak a =

(IH. S(k))
= am (ak a) = am ak+1
3. P3 (IH) S(k) am+k = am ak
am+k am ak ak
S(p(k)) = S(k 1) = am+(k1) = a(m+k)1 = = = am =
a a a

(IH. S(k))
= am ak1