Fundamentals of Electrical and

Electronics Engineering
EEE-209 Lecture Notes

A. Prof. Dr. Murat Fahrioglu

METU Northern Cyprus Campus

References:
Lecture notes by Prof. Dr. O. Sevaiolu, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, METU
Electrical Circuit Analysis 3rd Ed. by Johnson, Johnson, Hilburn, and Scott
G. Rizzoni, Principl. and Appl. of Electrical Engineering (4th Ed.), McGraw Hill, 2003.
Electric Circuits 8th Ed. by Nilsson & Riedel
Engineering Circuit Analysis 7th Ed. by Hayt, Kemmerly, and Durbin
 Basic Principles of Electricity

Lecture 1-3

Murat Fahrioglu 2
 Atom and Charge
Structure of atom Helium Atom

Electron is assumed to be negatively charged

Proton is assumed to be positively charged Electron

Proton

Neutron

3
 Atom and Charge
Structure of atom Helium Atom

Electron is assumed to be negatively charged

Proton is assumed to be positive charged Electron

Proton

Neutron

Definition
Unit of Electrical Charge Coulomb

6.3 x1018 electrons = 1 Coulomb
or
Electrical charge / electron = 1/ (6.3 x 1018) Coulomb
= 1.602 x 10-19 Coulomb

4
 Charge : Q or q(t) if time varying
Electric circuits are used to move charges at desired rates
through circuit elements
Motion of charge Electric fluid (current)
Separation of charge Electric force (voltage)
Convention in general: Positive charge moves to negative charge

Murat Fahrioglu 5
 Charge : Q or q(t) if time varying
Electric circuits are used to move charges at desired rates
through circuit elements
Motion of charge Electric fluid (current)
Separation of charge Electric force (voltage)
Convention in general: Positive charge moves to negative charge

Mechanical Analogy: Inclined Surface

h2

h1
Murat Fahrioglu 6
 Mechanical Example of Current
Cars Flowing in a Highway

Traffic Current = Cars / minute

Murat Fahrioglu 7
 Electrical Current
Electromotive force

Consumer
(Load)

Electrical Current = No. of electrons / sec = Coulomb / sec

6.3 x 1018 electrons / sec = 1 Amper

Murat Fahrioglu 8
 Electrical Current
Convention in general:
Positive charge moves to
negative charge
Current (I)

Voltage (V)
+
Electromotive force

Consumer
(Load)

Electrical Current = No. of electrons / sec = Coulomb / sec

6.3 x 1018 electrons / sec = 1 Amper

Murat Fahrioglu 9
 Voltage Difference (Mechanical Analogy)

Potential Difference (Height) Electric Potential Difference (Voltage)

Current (I)
P2 V2

Gravitational force
+
P = P2 - P1 V = V2 - V1
Pump

P1
V1

Water flowing from Electrons flowing from

higher to lower potential higher to lower potential

Murat Fahrioglu 10
 Ground Node (Earth Point)

Definition Current (I)

Ground Node is the point
(junction) at which the voltage is
V2
assumed to be zero

All other voltages take their V = V2 - V1

+
references with respect to this = V2
ground node
Representation Ground Node

V1

V1 = 0

11
 Ground Node (Earth Point)

Definition
Ground Node is the point
(junction) at which the voltage is
assumed to be zero

Representation

Ground Node
(Black Terminal )

Measured Node
(Red Terminal )

12
 Current : I or i(t) if time varying
dq
Current is time rate of change of charge: i
dt
Unit of Current: Ampere (A)
1 A = 1 C/s

Current has a magnitude and direction i

Total charge entering the element between time t1 and t2:

Murat Fahrioglu 13
 Current : I or i(t) if time varying
dq
Current is time rate of change of charge: i
dt
Unit of Current: Ampere (A)
1 A = 1 C/s

Current has a magnitude and direction i

Total charge entering the element between time t1 and t2:

t2

qtotal i d
t1
q (t 2 ) q (t1 )

Murat Fahrioglu 14
 Current : I or i(t) if time varying
dq
Current is time rate of change of charge: i
dt
Unit of Current: Ampere (A)
1 A = 1 C/s

Current has a magnitude and direction i

Total charge entering the element between time t1 and t2:

t2

qtotal i d
t1
q (t 2 ) q (t1 )

i(t)
i(t) Alternating
Direct
Current (AC)
Current (DC)
0 t

0 t 15
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example
1 meter

2 mm diameter

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 Example Solution
1 meter

2 mm diameter

Murat Fahrioglu 17
 Example Solution
1 meter

2 mm diameter

Murat Fahrioglu 18
 Example
Determine charge entering a terminal between t=2 s and t=4 s if
the current through the terminal is defined by the function:

i (t 2 2t 1) A

Solution:

Murat Fahrioglu 19
 Example
Determine charge entering a terminal between t=2 s and t=4 s if
the current through the terminal is defined by the function:

i (t 2 2t 1) A

Solution:
4 4

Q
t 2
idt
t 2
(t 2 2t 1)dt

t3 4
t2 t | 8.667C
3 2

Murat Fahrioglu 20
 Voltage : V or v(t) if time varying
Voltage, or electromotive force (emf), or potential difference
between two points a and b is the energy needed to move a
unit charge from point a to b: dw
vab
dq
Unit of Voltage: Volt (V)
1 V = 1 Joules/Coulomb = 1 Newton-meter/Coulomb

Conventions:
A

+ +

vo vAB

- -

B 21
Murat Fahrioglu
 Voltage : V or v(t) if time varying
Voltage, or electromotive force (emf), or potential difference
between two points a and b is the energy needed to move a
unit charge from point a to b: dw
vab
dq
Unit of Voltage: Volt (V)
1 V = 1 Joules/Coulomb = 1 Newton-meter/Coulomb

Conventions: Energy Consumed by Energy Delivered by

the Circuit Element: the Circuit Element:
A
I I
I - I -
+ + + +

vo vAB V V V V
+ +
- - - -

B 22
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 Mechanical vs. Electrical Energy

Equivalance
Mechanical Work = Electrical Work

Mechanical Energy = Electrical Energy

1 Meter 1 Newton
Current (I)

Wagon Wagon +
Voltage
(V) 1 Joule

Mechanical Work (Energy) = 1 Joule Electrical Work (Energy) = 1 Joule

23
 Mechanical vs. Electrical Energy

Definition 1 Joule = 1 Watt - second

1 Joule / second = 1 Watt 1 Horse Power = 746 Watts

(Spends 1 Joule within 1 second)

1 sec
(1 sec)
1 Meter 1 Newton Current (I)

Wagon Wagon
Voltage +
(V)
Power = 1
Joule/sec

1 Joule / sec = 1 Watt 1 Joule / sec = 1 Watt

24
 Electrical Power Definition
Definition Power = Voltage x Current

P = V x I
(Watt) = (Volt) x (Ampere) Current (Ampere)

+
DC Voltage
(Volt) Power (Watt)

25
 Power : P or p(t) if time varying
Power is the rate at which work is being done:
dw dw dq v.dq
p v.i
dt dq dt dt
Unit of Power: Joules/s (J/s) or Watts (W)

Energy delivered to an element between time t1 and t2:

t2 t2

wtotal p d
t1
vi d
t1
w(t 2 ) w(t1 )

Murat Fahrioglu 26
 Power : P or p(t) if time varying
Power is the rate at which work is being done:
dw dw dq v.dq
p v.i
dt dq dt dt
Unit of Power: Joules/s (J/s) or Watts (W)

Energy delivered to an element between time t1 and t2:

t2 t2

wtotal p d
t1
vi d
t1
w(t 2 ) w(t1 )

Conventions: The element is The element is

consuming power (+) delivering power (-)
- I - I
In a circuit: + I + I

p0 V
-
V
+ V
-
V
+
Murat Fahrioglu P V I P V I 27
 Passive Sign Convention
When the current through an element is in the direction of
the reference voltage drop across the element, a positive
sign should be used in expressions relating the voltage to
the current.

Standard Prefixes for Powers of 10

Prefix Symbol Power Prefix Symbol Power
atto a 10-18 deci d 10-1
femto f 10-15 deka da 10
pico p 10-12 hecto h 102
nano n 10-9 kilo k 103
micro 10-6 mega M 106
milli m 10-3 giga G 109
centi c 10-2 tera T 1012

Murat Fahrioglu 28
 Electrical Energy Definition

1 KiloWatt = 1000 Watts

Definition 1 Hour = 3600 seconds

Energy = Power x Time

(Watt-sec) (Watt) (second) Current (I)

Energy = Power x Time

(KiloWatt-hour) (KiloWatt) (hour)
DC Voltage
(V) +

x 1000 x 1000 x 3600

1 KiloWatt - hour = 1000 x 3600 Watt seconds

= 3 600 000 Joules Energy = Power x Time

29
 Example

Calculate the monthly payment for the energy

consumed by the lamp shown on the RHS
Source voltage is 220 Volt
Current drawn by the lamp is 5 Amp
Price of electrical energy is 12 Cents / kWh
V = 220 V

I = 5 Amp

30
 Example

Calculate the monthly payment for the energy

consumed by the lamp shown on the RHS
Source voltage is 220 Volt
Current drawn by the lamp is 5 Amp
Price of electrical energy is 12 Cents / kWh
V = 220 V
Power = Voltage x Current
P = V x I
P = 220 x 5 = 1100 Watts

I = 5 Amp

31
 Example

Calculate the monthly payment for the energy

consumed by the lamp shown on the RHS
Source voltage is 220 Volt
Current drawn by the lamp is 5 Amp
Price of electrical energy is 12 Cents / kWh
V = 220 V
Power = Voltage x Current
P = V x I
P = 220 x 5 = 1100 Watts
Energy = P x t
= 1100 Watts x ( 24 hours /day x 30 days/month)
= 792000 Watt hours = 792 kWh I = 5 Amp
Monthly payment = 792 x 12 Cents / month
= 95.04 USD / month

32
 Example 2
A stove draws 15 A when connected to a 120-V line. How long
does it take to consume 30kJ ?

Murat Fahrioglu 33
 Example 2
A stove draws 15 A when connected to a 120-V line. How long
does it take to consume 30kJ ?

Solution:
P V I 120V 15 A 1800W 1.8kW
Energy 30kJ
Time 16.667 s
Power 1.8kW

Murat Fahrioglu 34
 Example 3
A notebook computer has a total power consumption of 70 W
when running an average application. The battery used in
this notebook has a capacity of 300 WH (Watt-hours). What is
the average battery life of this notebook?

Murat Fahrioglu 35
 Example 3
A notebook computer has a total power consumption of 70 W
when running an average application. The battery used in
this notebook has a capacity of 300 WH (Watt-hours). What is
the average battery life of this notebook?

Solution:

Battery Capacity 300 W - hr

Time 4.3 hrs
Power 70 W

Note how Watt-hours is sometimes used as the unit of energy

instead of Joules.

Murat Fahrioglu 36
 Resistance (Mechanical Analogy)

Definition Resistance R1 R1 > R2 Resistance R2

Resistance is the
reaction of a pipe
against water flow

Pump I1 Pump
I2

Current I1 I2 > I1 Current I2

37
 Resistance

Definition Resistance R1 Resistance R2

Current I1 Current I2
Resistance is the reaction of a
conductor against electrical current

R1 > R2 I 1 < I2
(for a given voltage drop)

38
 Resistance

Resistance Formula
Resistance of a cable is proportional to the length and
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the
cable

R=l/A

where, R is the resistance of conductor,

is the resistivity coefficient,
= 1 / 56 Ohm-mm2/m (Copper)
1 / 32 Ohm-mm2/m (Aluminum)
l (m) is the length of the conductor
A (mm2) is the cross sectional area of
the conductor

39
 Example
ACSR Conductor
Resistance Formula (Aluminum Conductor Steel
Reinforced)
Example
Calculate the resistance of a copper
cable with length 3200 meters and
cross section 240 mm2

l 3200 A = 240
(m) (mm2)

40
 Example
ACSR Conductor
Resistance Formula (Aluminum Conductor Steel
Reinforced)
Example
Calculate the resistance of a copper
cable with length 3200 meters and
cross section 240 mm2

Solution
R = (1 / 56) 3200 / 240 = 0.238 Ohms

l 3200 A = 240
(m) (mm2)

41
 Color Code For Carbon Resistors
4-band-code:

a b c % tolerance

R (10a b) 10c %tolerance

Or another way is R = ab * multiplier (c) % tolerance (4 band)
R = abc * multiplier (d) % tolerance (5 band) (for more accuracy)
Every component has a tolerance. Good designs can tolerate variations !
It is a good practice to verify specifications empirically before using
components to better match modeling/hand-analysis/simulations and
the actual results obtained from the design.

Murat Fahrioglu 42
 Color Code For Carbon Resistors

Murat Fahrioglu 43
 Ohms Law
The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through the resistor.

R : Resistance in Ohm ()
v Ri R0
i

+
v
-

Power consumed by a resistor:

v2
p vi Ri 2
R 44
 Ohms Law

Two circuits with different Resistances

Resistance R1 R1 > R2 Resistance R2

Current (I1) Current (I2)

+ +
Voltage Resistance Voltage Resistance
(V) (R1) (V) (R2)

V / R 1 = I1 I1 < I2 V / R 2 = I2

45
 Resistor V-I Characteristics
30,0
Current I (Amp)

Voltage (Volts)
25,0
Voltage (Volt)

+ 20,0

Resistance
(R) 15,0

Slope = V / I = R
10,0

5,0
V = R x I
V varies linearly with I
(Volt) (Ohm) (Ampere)
0,0
0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0
Current I (Amp)

Note in reality metals have nonlinear I-V characteristics. i.e. resistance

increases with temperature.
46
 Conductance (G)

1
G

Unit: Siemens (S) or Mho ( )
R

i Gv

i2
p Gv 2
G

Murat Fahrioglu 47
 Example
i) Calculate the value of v and i in the following circuits. ii)
Determine the power dissipated in each resistor.

Murat Fahrioglu 48
 Example
i) Calculate the value of v and i in the following circuits. ii)
Determine the power dissipated in each resistor.

Solution
i) va = (1)(8)=8 V ; ib = (50)(0.2)=10 A ; vc = -(1)(20)=-20 V ; id = -50/25= -2 A

ii) p8
82
8 W ; p0.2 S 50 (0.2) 500 W ; p20
2 202
20 W ; p25 22 (25) 100 W
8 20
Murat Fahrioglu 49
 Ideal Independent Sources
The terminal voltage of a ideal voltage source is
constant, regardless of the current flowing in OR
those terminals. The voltage source is
independent if it establishes a voltage across vs v
its terminals without relying on voltages or
currents elsewhere in the circuit.

The current of an ideal current source is +

constant, regardless of the voltage across its
terminals. The current source is independent v is
if it establishes a current without relying on
-
voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit.

Murat Fahrioglu 50
 Independent Sources

A simple Rule:
This current is assigned such a
direction that it always leaves the
+ side of the voltage or current
source.
Voltage Source DC Voltage Source
V = 24 Volts

+ +
V = 24 V V = 24 V

Murat Fahrioglu 51
 Dependent Sources
The terminal voltage of a dependent (controlled) voltage source
depends on a voltage or a current defined at some other
location in the circuit. Two types are:
VCVS : Voltage-controlled voltage source vS
+
-
CCVS : Current-controlled voltage source

The current of a dependent (controlled) current source depends

on a voltage or a current defined at some other location in the
circuit. Two types are:
VCCS : Voltage-controlled current source
CCCS : Current-controlled current source

Murat Fahrioglu 52
 Dependent Sources (Linear Controlled)
VCVS: CCVS:
+ + +
+ v=v1 + v=ri1
v1 i1
- v - ri
1 1
- - -

: voltage gain (dimensionless) r : transresistance (ohms)

VCCS: CCCS:
i=gv1 i=i1
+

v1 i1
gv1 i1
-

g : transconductance (siemens) : current gain (dimensionless)

Murat Fahrioglu 53
 Series Voltage Sources
i
vs1 A chain of series voltage sources
+ +
i is equivalent to a single voltage
v vs2 v vs
source whose source function is
- -
the algebraic sum of the series
source functions.
vsN
vs vs1 vs 2 ... vsN

Murat Fahrioglu 54
 Series Voltage Sources
i
vs1 A chain of series voltage sources
+ +
i is equivalent to a single voltage
v vs2 v vs
source whose source function is
- -
the algebraic sum of the series
source functions.
vsN
vs vs1 vs 2 ... vsN

Series Current Sources

+
i
The series current source
i
is1 v is functions have to be all equal in
+ - a chain of series current
v is2
sources, in which case the chain
-
is is1 is 2 is equivalent to any one of them.
isN ... isN Otherwise there is a
Murat Fahrioglu
mathematical inconsistency. 55
 Parallel Current Sources
i

+
i
+ A set of parallel current sources
is equivalent to a single current
v is1 is2 isN
v is
source whose source function
-
-
is the sum of the parallel source
is is1 is 2 ... isN functions.

Murat Fahrioglu 56
 Parallel Current Sources
i

+
i
+ A set of parallel current sources
is equivalent to a single current
v is1 is2 isN
v is
source whose source function
-
-
is the sum of the parallel source
is is1 is 2 ... isN functions.

Parallel Voltage Sources

i

+
+
i A set of voltage sources in
v vs1 vs2 vsN
v vs parallel must have equal
-
-
source functions in which
case any one of them is
vs vs1 vs 2 ... vsN equivalent to the entire set.
Otherwise there is a
Murat Fahrioglu
mathematical inconsistency. 57
 Example
For the circuit shown, a) what value of vg is required in order for
the interconnection to be valid? b) For this value of vg, find
the power associated with the 8 A source.

Murat Fahrioglu 58
 Example
For the circuit shown, a) what value of vg is required in order for
the interconnection to be valid? b) For this value of vg, find
the power associated with the 8 A source.

Solution
a) ib = -8 A and vg = ib /4 = -2 V
b) P = V . I = -2 V . 8 A = -16 W (16 W delivered or generated)

Murat Fahrioglu 59
 Example 2
If the interconnection in the below figure is valid, find the power
developed by the current sources. If the interconnection in
not valid, explain why.

Murat Fahrioglu 60
 Example 2
If the interconnection in the below figure is valid, find the power
developed by the current sources. If the interconnection in
not valid, explain why.

Solution
There are no inconsistencies (different voltage sources
connected in parallel, or different current sources connected
in series).
The total power of the current sources is:
10A.100V + 5A.140V=1700 W
Murat Fahrioglu 61
 Example 3
If the interconnection in the below figure is valid, find the total
power developed by the voltage sources. If the interconnec-
tion in not valid, explain why.

Murat Fahrioglu 62
 Example 3
If the interconnection in the below figure is valid, find the total
power developed by the voltage sources. If the interconnec-
tion in not valid, explain why.

Solution
The 4 A and 5 A current sources connected in series create an
inconsistency. This interconnection is not valid.

Murat Fahrioglu 63
 Short Circuit
A short circuit is a perfect conductor or conductor with zero
resistance. Two node can be short circuited by connecting
them with a wire. A short circuit can sustain current without
any voltage drop. [In reality, there always is a max. current
limit after which damage occurs to the material.]

Open Circuit
An open circuit is a perfect insulator or resistor with zero
conductance. An open circuit can sustain any voltage without
any flow of current. [Again there is always a max. practical
limit after which breakdown occurs.]

Murat Fahrioglu 64
 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
The sum of the currents entering any node equals the sum of
the currents leaving the node.
(The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit
equals zero.)
N

i
n 1
n 0

+
-

Murat Fahrioglu 65
 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
The sum of the currents entering any node equals the sum of
the currents leaving the node.
(The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit
equals zero.)
N Our convention:
i
n 1
n 0 + for currents exiting the node
- for currents entering the node
i2

i1 i2 + ( i1) = 0
i5

+
-

Murat Fahrioglu 66
 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
The sum of the currents entering any node equals the sum of
the currents leaving the node.
(The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit
equals zero.)
N Our convention:
i
n 1
n 0 + for currents exiting the node
- for currents entering the node
i2 i3

i1 i2 + ( i1) = 0
i4
i3 + i4 + ( i2) = 0
+
-

Murat Fahrioglu 67
 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
The sum of the currents entering any node equals the sum of
the currents leaving the node.
(The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit
equals zero.)
N Our convention:
i
n 1
n 0 + for currents exiting the node
- for currents entering the node
i2 i3

i1 i2 + ( i1) = 0
i5
i4
i3 + i4 + ( i2) = 0
+
- i5 + ( i3) = 0

Murat Fahrioglu 68
 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
The sum of voltage drops around any closed path is zero.

v
n 1
n 0

+ v2 -

+ + +
+
v1 v3 v4
- - - -

Murat Fahrioglu 69
 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
The sum of voltage drops around any closed path is zero.

N Our convention:
v
n 1
n 0 + if traversing + to terminal clockwise
- if traversing to + terminal clockwise

+ v2 - (-v1) + v2 + v3 = 0
+ + +
+
v1 v3 v4
- - - -

Murat Fahrioglu 70
 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
The sum of voltage drops around any closed path is zero.

N Our convention:
v
n 1
n 0 + if traversing + to terminal clockwise
- if traversing to + terminal clockwise

+ v2 - (-v1) + v2 + v3 = 0
+ + +
+
v1 (-v3) + v4 = 0
v3 v4
- - - -

Murat Fahrioglu 71
 Example
An electric circuit was built as below. Use KCL and KVL to solve
for unknown current and voltages:
+ 1V - i1
+ v2 -

2A
i2
- +
+
4V v1 v3
-
+ -
1V
- + i3

i4 + v4 -

Murat Fahrioglu 72
 Example
An electric circuit was built as below. Use KCL and KVL to solve
for unknown current and voltages:
+ 1V - i1
+ v2 -

2A
i2
- +
+
4V v1 v3
-
+ -
1V
- + i3

i4 + v4 -

Due to lumped-parameter assumptions, wires are perfect

conductors. Therefore, v2= v4 = 0. v3 =- v1 . i1= i3=0, because
there is no closed circuit loop for current to flow. i2= i4=2 A
using KCL, and v1 =-2V using KVL.
Murat Fahrioglu 73
 Example 3
a) Use Kirchhoffs laws and Ohms law to find the voltage v0 as shown below.
b) Show that your solution is consistent with the constraint that the total
power developed in the circuit equals the total power dissipated.
2

iS i0 +
6 + 3 v0
10 V - 3is -

Murat Fahrioglu 74
 Example 3
a) Use Kirchhoffs laws and Ohms law to find the voltage v0 as shown below.
b) Show that your solution is consistent with the constraint that the total
power developed in the circuit equals the total power dissipated.
2 Solution:
iS i0 + a) 3 unknowns need 3 eqns.
6 + 3 v0 KVL @ the left loop : - 10 6is 0 ... (1)
10 V - 3is -
KVL @ the right loop : - 3is 2i0 3i0 0 ... (2)
Ohm' s Law : v 0 3i0 ... (3)
5
From (1) : is A ; From (2) : i0 1A ; From (3) : v 0 3 V
3

Murat Fahrioglu 75
 Example 3
a) Use Kirchhoffs laws and Ohms law to find the voltage v0 as shown below.
b) Show that your solution is consistent with the constraint that the total
power developed in the circuit equals the total power dissipated.
2 Solution:
iS i0 + a) 3 unknowns need 3 eqns.
6 + 3 v0 KVL @ the left loop : - 10 6is 0 ... (1)
10 V - 3is -
KVL @ the right loop : - 3is 2i0 3i0 0 ... (2)
Ohm' s Law : v 0 3i0 ... (3)
5
From (1) : is A ; From (2) : i0 1A ; From (3) : v 0 3 V
3

b) Calculate power delivered to each element :

50
p10V is .10 W ; p3is i0 .(3is ) -5 W (- sign indicates power is generated)
3
50
p6 (6)(i s2 ) W ; p2 (2)(i 02 ) 2 W ; p3 (3)(i 02 ) 3 W ( sign indicates power is consumed)
3
total power dissipated total power generated
76
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example 4
The current i in the circuit shown is 2 A. Calculate:
a) vs ; b) The power absorbed by the independent voltage source,
c) The power delivered by the independent current source,
d) The power delivered by the controlled current source,
e) The total power dissipated in the two resistors.

2i

10
i

5A 30 vs

Murat Fahrioglu 77
 Example 4
The current i in the circuit shown is 2 A. Calculate:
a) vs ; b) The power absorbed by the independent voltage source,
c) The power delivered by the independent current source,
d) The power delivered by the controlled current source,
e) The total power dissipated in the two resistors.

2i Solution:

a) 2 unknowns need 2 independen t eqns.

KCL : i1 i 2i - 5 0 ... (1)

i i1
10 KVL : - 30i 10i1 v s 0 ... (2)
Since i is given as 2A,
5A 30 vs
From (1) : i1 5 3i 1 A
From (2) : v s 30( 2) 10( 1) 70 V

Murat Fahrioglu 78
 Example 4
The current i in the circuit shown is 2 A. Calculate:
a) vs ; b) The power absorbed by the independent voltage source,
c) The power delivered by the independent current source,
d) The power delivered by the controlled current source,
e) The total power dissipated in the two resistors.

2i Solution (continued):
b) KCL : is i1 2i -1 2( 2) 3 A
- v + p v s (70 V )(3 A) 210 W

10
c) v1 (30 )(i ) 60 V
i i1 is
+ p5A (60 V )(-5 A) - 300 W
5A v1 30 vs d) v (i1 )(10 ) 10 V
- p2i ( 2i )(10 V ) - 40 W
e) p resistors v1i v i1
(60 V)(2 A) ( 10 V)(-1 A)
130 W
Murat Fahrioglu 79
 Subcircuit Equivalence
Any two-terminal subcircuit (portion of a circuit) has a
terminal law that relates terminal v and i.
terminal i Terminal Law for a:
+ Resistor: v=f(i)=R.i or i=g(v)=G.v
terminal v Independent Voltage Source: v=vs
Independent Current Source: i=is
- etc.

Murat Fahrioglu 80
 Subcircuit Equivalence
Any two-terminal subcircuit (portion of a circuit) has a
terminal law that relates terminal v and i.
terminal i Terminal Law for a:
+ Resistor: v=f(i)=R.i or i=g(v)=G.v
terminal v Independent Voltage Source: v=vs
Independent Current Source: i=is
- etc.

2 two-terminal subcircuits are equivalent if they have

the same terminal law.

Using simpler equivalent circuits to replace the more complex

ones saves time and resources in circuit analysis.
The above test will be applied to check equivalence.
Murat Fahrioglu 81
 Series Connected Resistances
Equivalent Resistance Formula R1 = l 1 / A1
R2 = l 2 / A2

A1 = A2
Hence
l total = l 1 + l 2

Rtotal = l total / A
= (l 1 + l 2 ) / A
= l1 /A+ l2/A
l =3200 A = 240 l =3200 A = 240
(mm2)
= R1 + R2
(m) (mm2) (m)

R1 R2 Rk
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rk
82
 Ohms Law
& Series Connected Resistances
Current I (Amp)

+ V = R1 x I + R2 xI
(Volt) (Volt) (Volt)
V1 (Volt)
+
V (Volt)
V = V1 + V2
+ (Volt) (Volt) (Volt)
V2 (Volt)

83
 Series Equivalents and Voltage Division
Two adjacent elements are in series if they share a
common node that has no other currents entering it.
Nonadjacent elements are in series if they are each in
series with the same element.
Using KVL and Ohms Law:
+
i
v1 R1 vs v1 v2 v3 R1i R2i R3i
- ( R1 R2 R3 )i
vs v
vs +
i s
v2 R2 R1 R2 R3 Rs
-
+
Therefore, equivalence is maintained if the
v3 R3 resistors are replaced by a single equivalent
- resistance: Rs R1 R2 R3
N

Murat Fahrioglu
In general for N series resistors: Rs R
i 1
i
84
 Series Equivalents and Voltage Division
A chain of series resistors is equivalent to a single
resistor whose resistance is the sum of the series
resistances.

+ i
i
v1 R1
vs
- Rs
+
vs
v2 R2
-
+
v3 R3
-

Murat Fahrioglu 85
 Series Equivalents and Voltage Division
A chain of series resistors is equivalent to a single
resistor whose resistance is the sum of the series
resistances.

Principle of Voltage Division:

+ i
i
R1 vs R1
v1 v1 R1.i R1. vs
vs Rs Rs
- Rs
R2
vs +
Similarly: v2 vs
v2 R2 Rs
- R
+
v3 vs 3
Rs
v3 R3
- The voltage across series resistors divides
up in direct proportion to their resistances.
Such a circuit is called a voltage divider.
Murat Fahrioglu 86
 Example
A reference circuit has been built, as shown below, to
generate a reference voltage, Vr=1V, at the negative input of
an operational amplifier (opamp).
Given the negative input of the opamp does not draw current,
find the values of R1 and R2 that work for this application.

+
R1 v1
+
-
5V -
+ ir=0
R2 vr
-

Murat Fahrioglu 87
 Example
A reference circuit has been built, as shown below, to
generate a reference voltage, Vr=1V, at the negative input of
an operational amplifier (opamp).
Given the negative input of the opamp does not draw current,
find the values of R1 and R2 that work for this application.

Using KCL & Ohms Law:

i1 +
v1 5V 1V
R1 + i1 i2
-
-
R1 R2 R2
5V
i2 + R2 1
R2 vr
ir=0
R1 4
-

Using KCL & Voltage Division Directly:

R2 R2 R2 R 1
vr vs vs 1V 5V 2
RS R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 4
Therefore, R2 = 1 k and R1 = 4 k would work. This is not a unique solution though.88
Murat Fahrioglu
 Example
Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.4.1 (Page 42)

Reduce the below circuit to two equivalent elements and find

i and the instantaneous power dissipated by the 50-V source.
4 10

50 V 100cos 2t V

i 7 4

Murat Fahrioglu 89
 Example
Johnson & Johnson Exercise 2.4.1 (Page 42)

Reduce the below circuit to two equivalent elements and find

i and the instantaneous power dissipated by the 50-V source.
4 10 25

50 V 100cos 2t V
50-100cos2t V

i 7 4 i

Solution
KVL: 50 100 cos 2t 25.i 0
25.i 50 100 cos 2t
i 2 4 cos 2t A
Since looking for power dissipated, i needs to enter the positive terminal:
p v.i 50V . ( 2 4 cos 2t )
200 cos 2t 100 W
Murat Fahrioglu 90
Shunt (Parallel) Connected Resistances

Equivalent Resistance Formula

V = VT V = VT

I1
R1
I1
R1
I1= VT / R1
I2
ITotal I2
R2 R2 ITotal
I2= VT / R2

Ik
Rk Ik= VT / Rk
Ik
Rk

91
 Shunt (Parallel) Connected Resistances

Equivalent Resistance Formula

I1
R1
I1= VT / R1 I1= VT / R1

I2
R2 ITotal I = V / R
2 T 2 I2= VT / R2

Ik
Rk Ik= VT / Rk Ik= VT / Rk
+
V = VT
Itotal= VT(1/R1 + 1/R2 + ... + 1/ Rk) = VT/Requivalent
Hence,
1
R equiv = -------------------------------------
1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
92
 Shunt (Parallel) Connected Resistances

Example
Find the equivalent resistance of
the following connection

R1=1 Ohm I1

R2= 2 Ohm I2 ITotal

Rk= 4 Ohm Ik

V = VT

93
 Shunt (Parallel) Connected Resistances

Example 1
Find the equivalent resistance of R equiv = -------------------------------------
the following connection 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...+ 1 / Rk
R1=1 Ohm I1 1
R equiv = ---------------------------------
1/1 + 1/2 + 1/4
R2= 2 Ohm I2 ITotal
= 1 / (7/4) = 4 / 7 = 0.5714 Ohm

Rk= 4 Ohm Ik

V = VT

94
 Parallel Equivalents and Current Division
Two elements are in parallel if they form a loop
containing no other elements. Elements in parallel all
have the same voltage across them.
Node A
+ +
i1 i2 i3
i
i v v
R1 R2 R3 Rp

- -

KCL at Node A & Ohms Law: i i1 i2 i3 G1 G2 G3 .v

The equivalent circuit has the terminal law: i GP v
Hence, GP G1 G2 G3
N N

1 1
In general for N parallel resistors: GP Gi
i 1
RP i 1
Ri
Murat Fahrioglu 95
 Equivalent Resistance of 2 Parallel Resistors
The equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is
the product of their resistances divided by the sum.
[This rule ONLY applies to 2 parallel resistors!]

i i
v
R1 R2 Rp

1 1 1 1 1
For N=2,
RP i 1
Ri RP R1 R2

Only for N=2:

R1 R2
RP
R1 R2
Murat Fahrioglu 96
 Principle of Current Division
Node A
+ +
i1 i2 i3
i
i v v
R1 R2 R3 Rp

- -

Ohms Law: i1 G1v G1 i i RP

GP R1
G2 R G3 R
Similarly: i2 i i P ; i3 i i P
GP R2 GP R3

The current through parallel resistors divides up in

direct proportion to their conductances and
inverse proportion to their resistances. Such a
circuit is called a current divider.
Murat Fahrioglu 97
 Example
Find i1 through i5 in the following circuit: i1

3 i2 i3

i4
40V i5
4

1 2

Murat Fahrioglu 98
 Example
Find i1 through i5 in the following circuit: i1

3 i2 i3

Solution: i4
40V i5
4
Using current divider:
1 2
G5 1 / 2 i
i5 i3 i3 3 (1)
G4 G5 1 1 3

1 2
G4 G5 (3 / 2) 6
i3 i1 i1 i1 (2)
G2 G4 G5 3 / 2 1 / 4 7
40V 40V 40V
Ohms Law: i1 11.2 A
Req Req [1 / G2 G4 G5 ] 3

6
From (2): i3 i1 9.6 A KCL: i2 i1 i3 1.6 A
7
i
From (1): i5 3 3.2 A KCL: i4 i3 i5 6.4 A
3
Murat Fahrioglu 99
 Example 2
Use KCL and KVL to solve for unknown current and voltages:

6A - 9V + 2A + 5V -

i5
i3 1A
i4
+ - +

v2 v1 3V
- + -

- 11 V + i6 - 2V +
-3 A
i8 10 A
i7

8 unknowns : Require 8 equations to solve

Murat Fahrioglu 100

 Example 2 (continued)
8 unknowns : Require 8 equations to solve
KVL: Eqn1 : v 5V 3V 2V 0
1

Eqn 2 : v2 9V v1 11V 0

KCL: Eqn3 : i3 6 A ( 3 A) 0
Eqn 4 : i8 ( 3 A) i7 0
Eqn5 : i4 2 A i3 0
Eqn 6 : i7 i4 i6 0
Eqn 7 : i5 1A 2 A 0
Eqn8 : 10 A i6 1A 0

Solving all:
v1 10V ; v2 12V ; i3 3 A; i4 1A
i5 1A; i6 9 A; i7 8 A; i8 5 A
Murat Fahrioglu 101
 Example 3
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate v.
3 k 8 k 5 k

+
2mA v 10 6 7
k k k
-

Murat Fahrioglu 102

 Example 3 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate v.
3 k 8 k 5 k

+
2mA v 10 6 7
k k k
-

Solution: 11 k

+
2mA v 10 6 12
k k k
-

Murat Fahrioglu 103

 Example 3 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate v.
3 k 8 k 5 k

+
2mA v 10 6 7
k k k
-

Solution: 11 k

+
2mA v 10 6 12
k k k
-

+
2mA v 10 11 k + 4 k
k
-

Murat Fahrioglu 104

 Example 3 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate v.
3 k 8 k 5 k

+
2mA v 10 6 7
k k k
-

Solution: 11 k

+
2mA v 10 6 12
k k k
-

+ +
2mA v 10 11 k + 4 k 2mA v 6
k k
- -

Murat Fahrioglu 105

 Example 3 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate v.
3 k 8 k 5 k

+
2mA v 10 6 7
k k k
-

Solution: 11 k

+ So Req = 6 k
2mA v 10 6 12
k k k
- And using Ohms Law:
v = 2m.6k = 12 V

+ +
2mA v 10 11 k + 4 k 2mA v 6
k k
- -

Murat Fahrioglu 106

 Example 4
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate i.
40 45

50 V
50 30

60 i

Murat Fahrioglu 107

 Example 4 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate i.
40 45

50 V
50 30

60 i

Solution:

150 50 V 75

i

Murat Fahrioglu 108

 Example 4 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate i.
40 45

50 V
50 30

60 i

Solution:

150 50 V 75

i

50 V 50

i

Murat Fahrioglu 109

 Example 4 (continued)
Find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the
following circuit. Calculate i.
40 45

50 V
50 30

60 i

Solution:

150 50 V 75

i

So Req = 50
50
50 V
And using Ohms Law:
i i = -50 V / 50 = -1 A

Murat Fahrioglu 110

 Measurement Devices
Digital Meters: Measure analog signals at discrete points in time (sampling) and
convert to digital form. They in general have less resistance than the analog
meters, are easier to connect, and have higher precision due to the readout
mechanism.

Readout in Analog Meters (dArsonval meter): Current in coil creates torque

under the magnetic field, causing it to rotate together with an attached pointer
across a calibrated scale. A sample commercial rating is 50mV at 1mA. This
means when the coil carries 1mA, it is deflected to full scale position and has a
voltage drop of 50mV.

Murat Fahrioglu 111

 Measuring Devices - Ammeter

An ammeter is a measuring instrument

used to measure the flow of electric
current in a circuit. Electric currents are
measured in amperes, hence the name
The word "ammeter" is commonly Coil Magnet
misspelled or mispronounced as
"ampmeter" by some
The earliest design is the D'Arsonval
galvanometer. It uses magnetic deflection,
where current passing through a coil
causes the coil to move in a magnetic field
The voltage drop across the coil is kept to Spring forcing
arm to come
a minimum to minimize resistance in any back to zero
position
circuit into which the meter is inserted

Murat Fahrioglu 112

 Measuring Devices - Ammeter

An ammeter is always series connected in the

circuit measured
Internal Resistance of Ammeter

Ammete Ramp
r

+
RL

Murat Fahrioglu 113

 Ideal Ammeter

Ammet
Definition er
Ramp 0
I
An ideal ammeter is the one with zero
internal resistance (Short Circuit)
+
An ideal ammeter behaves as a short
circuit, i.e. Ramp 0. Vs RL
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
so that the measured current is not
influenced

No ammeter can ever be ideal, and

hence all ammeters have some internal
resistance

Murat Fahrioglu 114

 Ideal Ammeter

An ammeter should not

influence the current measured
I = Vs / ( R + Ramp )
Ramp 0
Hence,
I = Vs / ( R + Ramp ) Vs / R
Ammete
r
Ramp 0

+
RL

Murat Fahrioglu 115

 Non-Ideal (Real) Ammeter

Non-ideal Ammeter
Definition
Ammeter

No ammeter can ever be ideal, and hence Ramp

all ammeters have some internal resistance I

A real (non-ideal) ammeter has always an

Vs +
internal resistance in series
RL
A non ideal ammeter behaves as a series
resistance with: Ramp 0
Hence the the measured current is
influenced (reduced)

Ireal = Vs / ( R + Ramp )
I ideal = Vs / R } Ireal < I ideal

Murat Fahrioglu 116

 Measuring Devices Clamp Ammeter

The Need for Clamp Ammeter

Sometimes the electrical service
carried out by the circuit may be so
vital that it can not be possible to
break it for a series connection of
the ammeter
Ammeter shown on the RHS is a
particular design for such circuits to
measure current flowing in the
circuit as well as resistance without
braeaking the circuit

Murat Fahrioglu 117

 Measuring Devices Voltmeter

A voltmeter has a high internal resistance so that it passes only a

small current
An ideal voltmeter has a very large resistance so that the circuit in
which it has been placed is not disturbed
An ideal voltmeter is an open circuit
However, no voltmeter can ever be ideal, and therefore all
votlmeters draw some small current

A voltmeter is always parallel

connected to the device
measured
Murat Fahrioglu 118
 Measuring Devices Voltmeter

A voltmeter has a high internal Red lines are not an integral part of
resistance so that it passes only a small the circuit
current I Source
I Voltmeter
A voltmeter is always shunt (parallel) (negligible)

connected in the circuit that it measures Rm

R1 I Load Voltmeter
Measured voltage; +
Vs RL
RL
Vo = Vs ------------ Vo
R1 + RL

A voltmeter is always parallel connected

to the device measured

Murat Fahrioglu 119

 Ideal Voltmeter

I Source
Definition Im
(negligible)

An ideal voltmeter is the one with infinite Rm

R1 I Load
internal resistance (Open circuit) Voltmeter

+
An ideal voltmeter has a very large Vs RL
resistance, Rm . i.e. it behaves as an Vo
open circuit, so that the the measured
circuit is not influenced
However, no voltmeter can ever be ideal,
and therefore all voltmeters draw some
current
A real voltmeter has a certain internal
resistance so that it passes a certain
current
Murat Fahrioglu 120
 Ideal Voltmeter

I Source
No voltmeter can ever be ideal, and Im
therefore all voltmeters draw some (negligible)
Rm
current. R1 I Load Voltmeter

Rm i.e. Rm >> RL +
Vs RL
I m << I Load
Vo
ISource = ILoad + Im I Load

Vo = RL ( Isource Im )
= RL I Source RL Im
RL I Source
}

Negligible

Murat Fahrioglu 121

 Example

Problem Ideal Voltmeter, Im 0

Non-ideal Voltmeter
Calculate the internal admittance Ig
gm of a voltmeter, if it reads 11.81
Volts when connected to a 0.48 + Ig Im
Amp current source with an Vread = 11.81 V (negligible)
internal admittance of Voltmeter

gs = 4 x 10-5 Siemens
IS=0.48 mA gs= 4 x 10-5 S gm = 1/Rm
Siemens = 1/

Murat Fahrioglu 122

 Example

Problem Ideal Voltmeter, Im 0

Non-ideal Voltmeter
Rs = 1 / gs = 1 / (4 x10-5) Siemens Ig

= 105 / 4 = 25 k
+ Ig Im
Is x Req = Vread = 11.81 Volts Vread = 11.81 V (negligible)

Hence, Voltmeter

Req = Vread / Is = 11.81 / (0.48 x 10-3)

= 24607.17 IS=0.48 mA gs= 4 x 10-5 S gm = 1/Rm

Req = Rs // Rm
Hence,
Req =(Rs x Rm) / (Rs + Rm) = 24607.17

Rm = 155.39 M

Murat Fahrioglu 123

 Measurement Devices
An ideal measurement device does not disturb the circuit it is
validating.
Ammeter: Measures the current flowing through its terminals.
An ideal Ammeter has zero voltage drop across it (low
impedance). It gets connected in series with the component it
is trying to characterize.
Voltmeter: Measures the voltage across its terminals. An ideal
Voltmeter has a terminal current of zero (high impedance). It
gets connected in parallel to the component it is trying to
characterize.
Ohmmeter: Measures resistance connected between its
terminals. An ideal Ohmmeter delivers zero power to the
resistance it is measuring. It gets connected in parallel to the
component it is trying to characterize. Remember to turn off
power in the circuit when characterizing resistance.
Murat Fahrioglu 124
 Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone Bridge is an electrical circuit Rb Rx R1 R2

used to determine an unknown resistance Rx
by adjusting the values of known resistances,
so that the current measured in the line
connecting the terminals C and D is zero
A

I=0
C D

Murat Fahrioglu 125

 Wheatstone Bridge

Principle

Adjust the resistances R1, R2

and Rb such that the ammeter
connected between the
terminals C and D reads zero
current
Hence the voltage difference
between the terminals C and D is
zero
V CD = 0
or
VC = VD
Murat Fahrioglu 126
 Wheatstone Bridge

A
Principle
x
VC = VD +
I=0
VC = Vs Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) Vs C D
VD = Vs R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
Vs Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) = Vs R2 / ( R1 + R2 ) A
or B

Rb / ( Rx + Rb ) = R2 / ( R1 + R2 )
Rb ( R1 + R2 ) = R2 ( Rx + Rb )
Rb R1 + Rb R2 = R2 Rx + R2 Rb
or

Rx = Rb x R1 / R2

Murat Fahrioglu 127

 Wheatstone Bridge
Basic Rule

Cross multiplication branch

A
resistances must be equal at
balance condition
x

Rx x R2 = Rb x R1 +
I=0
Vs C D
Please note that voltage Vs
is neither used, nor needed
in the above equation, i.e.
its value is arbitrary

Therefore, a wide range of Rx values can be measured by making Rb/R2

coarsely adjustable and R1 finely adjustable.
Normally Rb/R2 can be varied between 0.001 to 1000 with 10x steps.
R1 is adjustable between 1 to 11,000 .
Murat Fahrioglu 128
 Wheatstone Bridge

Example

Calculate the value of

unknown resistance Rx in the
balanced Wheatstone Bridge
shown on the RHS
Cross multiplication of branch
resistances must be equal at
balance condition:
Rx x R2 = Rb x R1
Rx = Rb x R1 / R2
= 100 x 100 / 20 = 500 Ohm

Murat Fahrioglu 129

 Switch-Circuit Breaker

Switch or Circuit Breaker Switch or circuit breaker is a

device used to open an
electrical circuit manually or
automatically by an electronic
relay system
Switch
I Load

R1
+
Vs R1

Open Closed
Off On

Murat Fahrioglu 130