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Buddhism and Science:

Confrontation and Collaboration


B. Alan Wallace
Presented at:
International Conference on Buddhism and Science
Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi

Introduction
Confrontation
After 2500 years of being assimilated into multiple, diverse, traditional societies of Asia,in the twentieth century
for the first time Buddhism began to spread throughout the rest of the world. By and large, Buddhisms first
exposure to modernity was through its encounter with European imperialism as it spread through much of South
and East Asia during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Then, in the twentieth century, it was subjected
to what was tantamount to a holocaust at the hands of multiple communist regimes, which waged war on
religions of all kinds. The conflict between Buddhism and communism is not rooted in the economic principles
and ideals of communism, which are, on the whole, quite in harmony with Buddhist ideals. Rather, communists
have waged an ideological war against Buddhism in large part because of its fundamental incompatibility with
the basic tenets of scientific materialism, which many Marxist regimes have militantly promoted with extreme
intolerance and brutality.

While some materialists rail against religious creeds of all kinds, many embrace their own dogma with all the
closed-minded intolerance of religious fanatics. By dogma I mean a coherent, universally applied worldview
consisting of a collection of beliefs and attitudes that call for a persons intellectual and emotional allegiance. A
dogma, therefore, has a power over individuals and communities that is far greater than the power of mere facts
and fact-related theories. Indeed, a dogma may prevail despite the most obvious contrary evidence, and
commitment to a dogma may grow all the more zealous when obstacles are met. Thus, dogmatists often appear
to be incapable of learning from any kind of experience that is not authorized by the dictates of their creed.
Dogmatism is the primary obstacle to fruitful collaboration between Buddhism and science, and the antidote is
the restoration of an authentic sense of empiricism and a willingness to put ones own most cherished beliefs
and assumptions to the test of experience.

Galileo, the father of modern science, revolted against the dogma of medieval scholasticism, which insisted on
the following hierarchy of belief and types of knowledge:

Theological belief based on authority



Philosophical, rational inference

Perceptual experience by way of the five physical senses

With regard to understanding the objective physical world, he insisted that the above hierarchy needed to be
reversed:
Observation and experimentation

Theoretical and mathematical analysis

Religious and metaphysical beliefs

With the rise of modernity, natural scientists took on the role of authorities regarding the objective, physical
world; philosophers were regarded as authorities regarding the mind; and theologians retained their
authoritative status regarding the supernatural dimensions of existence, such as the nature of God and the
immortal human soul. By the closing decades of the nineteenth century, natural scientists had made
tremendous progress in understanding the objective, physical world, while philosophers had come to no
consensus regarding the subjective world of the mind, and theologians were on the defensive, as an increasing
number of their central beliefs were discredited by science.
Thus, three hundred years after the beginning of the Scientific Revolution, scientists turned their attention to the
study of the mind by way of its behavioral expressions and its neural correlates.

The modern disintegration of the unified worldview of medieval scholasticism has given rise to a series of
conflicts between science and religion. Such conflict began in the sixteenth century with the revolution in the
physical sciences, it dramatically increased in the nineteenth century with the Darwinian revolution in the life
sciences, and it has now intensified in the twenty-first century with the rise of the behavioral sciences and
neuroscience. The cognitive sciences are particularly dominated by the metaphysical beliefs of scientific
materialism, which center on the belief that the only things that exist in nature are physical phenomena and their
emergent properties and functions. Consequently, a new hierarchy has come to dominate science as a whole:

The metaphysical beliefs of scientific materialism



Reason

Direct perception

In other words, the dogma of scientific materialism has now replaced the dogma of medieval scholasticism, and
advocates of this new creed insist that those who do not exclusively embrace their metaphysical beliefs and
methods of inquiry are irrational, and all experiential evidence that contradicts their metaphysical beliefs is
deemed invalid. While the great progress of the natural sciences has been fueled by sophisticated, precise,
replicable observations of natural phenomena, when it comes to the mind, scientists have developed no
rigorous means of observing mental phenomena themselves, such as states of consciousness, thoughts,
emotions, desires, dreams, and so forth. This is a fundamental reason why there has not yet been a true
revolution in the mind sciences. Researchers have never empirically or rationally demonstrated the truth of their
belief that the mind is nothing more than a property or function of the brain; they have simply taken this as an
unquestioned assumption underlying virtually all of their research.

The metaphysical views of materialism are in fundamental conflict with the Buddhist worldview, for if
materialism were correct, then the Buddhas claims of direct knowledge of past lives, karma, and nirvna would
be invalid. Thus, Buddhism refutes the current materialistic hierarchy of knowledge and proposes instead a
hierarchy that is much more in accordance with that of the pioneers of the Scientific Revolution:

Direct perception

Logical inference

Inference based on belief

Buddhism therefore challenges the scientific establishment to question its own dogma of scientific materialism
and to return to and broaden its earlier commitment to direct experience. The challenge is for science to go
beyond the realm of experience of the five physical senses and the objective measurements of instruments of
technology and to incorporate into its methodology perceptual knowledge by way of mental awareness. For it is
only by way of such observation that the origins, nature, and potentials of the mind as well as its relation to the
rest of the universe can be fathomed.

Collaboration
In light of the preceding discussion, it is crucial to note that not all assertions or beliefs of scientists are
scientific, nor are all assertions and beliefs of Buddhists thoroughly based on and corroborated by valid
experience. Science began with a primary emphasis on direct experience, but over time it has become
entrenched in the dogma of materialism. Buddhism likewise began with the direct experiences of the Buddha,
but dogmatic elements have crept in, making it at times strikingly similar to medieval scholasticism and
therefore incompatible with science. Especially since the beginning of the twenty-first century, there has been a
rapidly growing interest among scientists to conduct research into Buddhist theories and practices, especially
pertaining to the effects of meditation. Likewise, a growing number of Buddhists, both Asian and Western, are
expressing interest in learning more about science. As such cross-cultural exchanges continue, it is important to
be sensitive to both the common ground and legitimate differences between the starting assumptions, methods
of inquiry, and conclusions of the scientific and Buddhist traditions.

Buddhist Ethics and Modern Science

Confrontation
All the great pioneers of the Scientific Revolution were devout Christians, so their inquiries into the nature of the
physical world were imbedded within the Christian worldview. Men such as Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Galileo
Galilei (1564-1642), and Ren Descartes (1596-1650) all believed, in accordance with Christian doctrine, that
salvation is granted by an act of divine mercy, which one receives by faith, by surrendering oneself to the will of
God, and by applying oneself to a life of virtue in accordance with Gods commandments. According to Bacon,
scientific inquiry is a means to understand Nature in order to gain power over it and exploit it for human
purposes. This goal, he believed, was divinely sanctioned and was to be accomplished with religious zeal.1
Descartes, too, predicted that by knowing the forces and the actions of material bodies, we can make
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ourselves the masters and possessors of nature. Thus, faith was seen as the key to inner happiness, and
scientific knowledge was seen as the key to outer success and prosperity. While many advocates of science
continue to believe that science is value-free, this has never been true and can never possibly be true. The
kinds of research scientists conduct have always been guided by their values. Moreover, especially since the
twentieth century, such research requires significant funding, so money is granted to issues that are valued by
governments and business, largely for economic purposes. Therefore, nowadays the values that determine the
goals and methods of scientific research are largely materialistic, whereas at the dawn of the modern era they
were largely Christian. Sciencedespite its claims and attitudes-has never been value-free.

Looking back on the impact of science on the modern world, the German physicist Carl Friedrich von
Weizscker (1912 2007) has argued that the scientific and technological world of modern times is the result of
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mans seeking knowledge without love. This approach to scientific inquiry, largely devoid of ethics and altruism,
has played a major role in the great enigma of the twentieth century. On the one hand, this century has
produced an unprecedented growth of scientific knowledge and technological power, but it has produced the
greatest inhumanity of man against man and the greatest degradation of the natural environment in human
history.

The lack of correlation between scientific progress and human flourishing stems in part from the belief that the
domains of science and religion do not overlap: science deals with the world of objective facts, while religion is
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concerned with the world of subjective values. Albert Einstein (1879-1955), however, expressed a much
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deeper insight when he proclaimed, Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind. Facts
and values have never existed independently of each other, and the domains of science and religion have
always overlapped, especially when it comes to the nature of the mind and human identity. Because Buddhism
has both scientific and religious elements to it, and because these elements are thoroughly integrated,
Buddhism may provide a vital and much needed role in mediating between science and the worlds religions in
the modern world.

Today ethics plays a marginal role in modern science, and it focuses primarily on two themes: scientists must
be honest regarding their collection and reporting of data, and they must abide by ethical norms in their
treatment of human subjects and, to a lesser extent, animals used for research purposes. In contrast, ethics has
always been of fundamental importance in Buddhism, and is indispensable for social and environmental
flourishing in this and future lifetimes. On an individual level, living an ethical life provides an essential
foundation for the cultivation of samdhi, and that, in turn, is a necessary prerequisite for realizing the wisdom
that results in nirvna. While science has historically been aimed at knowledge as a means to power, Buddhism
has always emphasized integrating the pursuit of understanding, virtue, and genuine happiness. Knowledge,
therefore, is not viewed as an end in itself, but is seen as a means to the ultimate bliss of liberation through the
cultivation of virtue. Without ethics, there is no Buddhist path to enlightenment, but history has shown that
science and technology have developed, especially since the twentieth century, within a materialist framework
that is virtually devoid of ethics. The contrast between the two could hardly be stronger.

Collaboration
With the rapid growth of technology, scientists and the general public have been forced to grapple with ethical
issues such as stem cell research, cloning, the artificial prolongation of life, and genetic engineering. Many seek
answers to these questions based not on religious authority, but on empirical evidence and sound reasoning.
Ethics has always played a central role in Buddhism, and direct experience and logical reasoning have always
been strongly emphasized, together with reliance on the authority of the direct knowledge of the Buddha and
other enlightened sages in the Buddhist tradition.

The mistaken belief that there is an absolute divide between facts and values has influenced all branches of
science, including clinical psychology. Especially over the past sixty years, it has focused primarily on
understanding and treating mental illnesses, rather than exploring the relation between behavior and mental
health. During this same period, depression has increased tenfold, especially among young people, while many
medical treatments for mental imbalances target only the symptoms of the diseases, without addressing their
underlying causes. This situation highlights the importance of seeking out behavioral and psychological causes
of mental distress, and this requires that ethics be introduced into the understanding and treatment of mental
illness. With the introduction of ethics into science, two criteria may be used for evaluating any scientific
research: (1) What is its potential value in terms of alleviating physical and mental illness, and how might it
contribute to the development of exceptional degrees of physical, psychological, and spiritual well-being? (2) To
what extent is the knowledge yielded by the proposed research for development likely to be useful in cultivating
human virtues such as wisdom and compassion?

Over the past ten years, a growing number of psychologists have begun asking: How can we understand
mental health in positive terms, and not simply as an absence of mental disease? This has given rise to the new
field of positive psychology, which seeks to better understand mental health and to devise methods to increase
psychological wellbeing beyond levels that are considered to be normal. Some researchers in this field
recognize the importance of ethics in this regard, and this opens up the possibility of a rich collaboration
between scientists and Buddhists for developing an evidence-based science of ethics focused on
understanding what kinds of behavior of body, speech, and mind are conducive to our own and others genuine
happiness and what kinds are detrimental.

Our global community is now beset with unprecedented environmental, economic, and social crises, and the
sources of many of these problems can be traced to the three root mental afflictions of attachment, hatred, and
delusion. While it is vital to seek solutions to these problems by means of scientific and technological advances,
the underlying causes within the human mind must also be addressed. Science has contributed greatly to our
knowledge of the universe and to our material well-being, while the cultivation of virtue and genuine happiness
has largely been left to religion.

Buddhism, on the other hand, focuses primarily on knowledge that contributes to the cultivation of virtue and
genuine happiness. The collaboration between scientific and Buddhist approaches to healing our world may
prove to be vital to our human survival and flourishing. As long as societies adopt materialistic views of reality
and human existence, they are bound to seek happiness and security through the insatiable exploitation of
natural resources. With the rapidly growing human population and the equally rapid depletion of natural
resources, this has proved to be a formula for global conflict and disaster. Clearly, our global community must
embrace a richer and deeper understanding of the roots of suffering and of genuine happiness so that as a
society and as individuals we can learn to be content with moderate degrees of material prosperity, while
seeking ever greater happiness by drawing from our inner, spiritual resources, instead of through ever
increasing consumption of external, material resources. Given the interconnectedness of todays world, it is
equally imperative that we move away from an ego-centered view of reality to embracing a sense of universal
responsibility, which His Holiness the Dalai Lama has been championing for many years.
The Buddhist Concept of Mind and Modern Sciences
Confrontation
Since the time of Galileo, science has progressed by observing and experimenting on objective, physical
phenomena that can be witnessed by multiple individuals. After three hundred years of great success at using
this scientific method, researchers then turned their attention to the scientific study of the mind. But instead of
developing means to carefully observe and experiment on mental phenomenawhich cannot be observed
objectively with the instruments of technologythey have confined their inquiries to the study of behavioral
expressions of consciousness (including verbal reports of other people speaking about their mental
experiences) and the neural correlates of the mind. Moreover, virtually all scientific research on the mind has
been focused on the minds of ordinary individuals or those who are psychologically ill or brain-damaged. This
means that the methods used by scientists for studying the mind are confined to physical phenomena
associated with ordinary states of consciousness. Because of the materialist limitations of this methodology,
scientific thinking about the mind has been overwhelmingly materialistic. That is, most cognitive scientists
assume without question that all possible states of consciousness are nothing more than functions or emergent
properties of the brain. Many neuroscientists go so far as to assert that the mind is nothing more than the brain,
although they have no evidence to verify this hypothesis. While the study of the mind began very late in the
evolution of modern science and is still largely focused on the brain and behavior, in Buddhism understanding
the mind has always been a central concern. Moreover, Buddhist methods for investigating, transforming, and
liberating the mind rely heavily on the refinement and utilization of samdhi, which in terms of carefully
observing the mind may be likened to an inwardly focused telescope. The Buddhist experiential investigation of
the mind has not been confined to ordinary states of consciousness but rather has probed to the level of a
subtle mind-stream that carries on from one lifetime to another and beyond that to a very subtle dimension of
consciousness, known as the innate mind of clear light, that transcends all conceptual frameworks.

Although Buddhists acknowledge that there are invariably physiological correlates to every mental state of a
living human being, and that ordinary mental and sensory processes are heavily dependent on physical
processes, this does not imply that mental processes are physical processes or that all possible states of
consciousness depend on the brain. It is important to recognize that when objective neural correlates of mental
processes are observed, they display no mental characteristics; and when subjective mental events are
observed, they exhibit no physical properties. Moreover, observing the brain alone yields no knowledge of the
mind, and observing the mind alone yields no knowledge of the brain. Indeed, if brain scientists could not
consult anyones first-person experience, they would have no idea that brain processes were correlated with
mental states. And if contemplatives, carefully observing the mind, did not consult brain scientists, they would
not likely identify specific brain activities that contributed to their mental experience. During the course of a
human life, specific brain functions are necessary for the generation of specific mental states, and it is also clear
that certain mental processes influence the brain.6 However, there is no compelling evidence that the mind and
brain are identical or that mental events are physical properties of the brain.

The materialistic methods and theories of modern science stand in stark contrast to the experiential methods
and non-materialistic theories of Buddhism. Scientific methods of inquiry include the careful observation of
physical phenomena only, whereas Buddhist contemplative methods of inquiry include the careful observation
of both physical and non-physical phenomena. Given the materialistic methodology of science, it was inevitable
that scientists would take a materialist view of the mind. But since Buddhist methods of inquiry are not confined
to observing physical processes only, its interpretations of the mind-body relationship are not confined to
materialistic hypotheses. This is a fundamental incompatibility between scientific and Buddhist views of the
mind.

Collaboration
Cognitive scientists are rightly proud of their discoveries about the mind gained by studying it indirectly on the
basis of behavior, neural correlates, and interrogation of others regarding their subjective experience. Such
sophisticated, quantitative measurements and analysis have yielded many important insights into the nature of
a wide range of mental processes. A growing number of cognitive scientists, however, are recognizing the
importance of observing the mind directly, by way of first-person experience. Recognizing that this is not a
strength of the scientific tradition, they are open to the possibility that the mind and brain (and indirectly the rest
of the body) may be transformed through rigorous, sustained mental training, and that the ability to observe the
mind may be enhanced through specific forms of meditation, such as amatha and vipayan. Moreover, a
rapidly growing number of clinical psychologists are recognizing the value of Buddhist meditative practices
involving mindfulness, introspection, and the cultivation of loving-kindness and compassion for overcoming
mental problems, enhancing positive attitudes, and realizing genuine happiness. Although many sophisticated
methods of amatha and vipayan meditation are taught in multiple schools of Buddhism, relatively few
Buddhists are familiar with the classic literature on amatha and vipayan, and fewer still put these into
practice with the same dedication that is common in scientific research. By collaborating with mind scientists,
Buddhists may be inspired to take a much more experiential approach to their own meditative traditions, moving
away from scholastic approaches to more empirical approaches to their own tradition. Thus, the engagement
with science may revitalize the truly scientific elements that are already present, but often overlooked, within
Buddhism.

Many psychologists and neuroscientists have come to the conclusion, based on their empirical research, that
there is no independent self in the mind, the brain, or anywhere else inside or outside of the body. While there is
widespread agreement among cognitive scientists regarding the nonexistence of such an unchanging, unitary,
autonomous self that controls the body and mind, there is little agreement among them as to how the self does
exist. Some believe the self does not exist at all, while others believe it is simply a function of the brain; but
there appear to be few therapeutic benefits from these theories of the self as formulated within science. The
disadvantage of such nihilistic and materialistic views of the self is that they undermine any sense of moral
responsibility, and this is bound to have a profoundly detrimental effect on societies that adopt such beliefs. As
Buddhists collaborate with scientists, they may find further evidence that the self does not inherently exist within
or apart from the body and mind. And as scientists collaborate with Buddhists, they may find a middle way
between the materialistic and nihilistic views of the self. Such a middle way, of asserting the conventional nature
of a relatively existent self, may provide a scientific foundation for moral responsibility. The original theories and
practices taught by the Buddha and the early masters of the Buddhist tradition have gradually been adapted to
a wide range of cultures throughout Asia over the past two millennia. Over this long history, distinctive forms of
Theravda, Mahyna, and Vajrayna Buddhism have developed and evolved in the process of being
assimilated by different Asian civilizations. Especially during the past century, these Buddhist traditions have
suddenly confronted the views, values, and way of life of the modern world, and this process of globalization is
increasing at a growing rate. This means that if these diverse Buddhist traditions are to remain vital and relevant
to their host societies and to the world at large, they must adapt to this rapidly changing social environment.

For Buddhism to retain its own integrity and vitality, its core principles and practices must be preserved, and for
that to happen, they must be practiced in ways that are effective in the modern world. The primary responsibility
for seeing that Buddhist practices remain effective lies with Buddhist teachers and students, but objective
methods of scientific inquiry may also be useful for determining what methods are most effective for bringing
about the results for which they were designed. For example, scientists may employ their measurements of
behavior and brain activity to determine what meditative practices are most effective in the modern world for
counteracting destructive emotions, for stabilizing the mind through the practice of amatha, and for cultivating
virtues that are the heart of the Buddhist path to enlightenment. Over time, such collaboration could give rise to
a true revolution in the mind sciences and to a renaissance in the Buddhist tradition.

Buddhist Philosophy and Physics


Confrontation
By the late nineteenth-century, the scientific principle of the conservation of mass and energy implied that it was
impossible for any nonphysical processes to exert any influences in the physical world: only physical entities
could influence other physical entities. This, together with the nineteenth-century formulation of the theory of
evolution, has resulted in a materialistic view of humans as being nothing more than biologically programmed
robots, whose behavior is entirely determined by physical causes. This view is fundamentally incompatible with
Buddhist views of causality, karma, and dependent origination.
However, such mechanistic materialism has been in decline since the late nineteenth century, and twentieth-
century physics has questioned the absolute conservation of mass and energy. This is evident in the
Heisenberg energy-time uncertainty principle, which allows for short violations of energy conservation. On the
quantum level, unknown causal agencies may be posited without violating the conservation principle if, for any
given system of measurement, (1) one does not specify the complete, exact initial conditions of the system to
be measured; and (2) one allows for non-local influences. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle, together with
the physical impossibility of absolutely isolating any finite system of measurement, make it impossible to
determine the complete initial conditions of any system; and there are now strong empirical grounds for
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asserting the reality of non-local interactions.

Many physicists believe that at the quantum level, effects occur without any preceding causes. This view is
incompatible with the Buddhist view that all effects arise in dependence on prior causes. However, the only kind
of causes that physicists can measure are physical, so when they declare that physical effects may occur
without prior physical causes, this leaves open the possibility that nonphysical influences are at work.
Consequently, it is possible in principle for a nonphysical mind to influence matter. Whether there such non-
local, nonphysical quantum effects occur in mind-matter interactions remains an open question, but it is
unscientific to assume without question that they do not exist.

The metaphysical realism of classical physics, which was initially based on the biblical belief of a God who
created an absolutely existent objective world, continues to dominate the life sciences and mind sciences.
According to metaphysical realism, (1) the world consists of mind-independent objects; (2) there is exactly one
true and complete description of the way the world is; and (3) truth involves some sort of correspondence
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between an independently existent world and a description of it. Although this view is compatible with the
Vaibhsika and Sautrntika views, it is incompatible with the Cittamtra and Madhyamaka views of Buddhism.

A fundamental problem of metaphysical realism is that it assumes that invisible physical entities in the objective
world, existing independently of any system of measurement, can be inferred on the basis of their measured
effects. But according to Buddhist epistemology, it is impossible to infer a specific cause on the basis of an
effect in cases where the cause itself and its production of the effect are undetectable. For instance, if one could
never perceive fire, one could never infer that smoke must be caused by fire or that fire must always precede
the appearance of smoke.

According to metaphysical realism, the entire objective universe consists of causes that produce the effects that
are measured by human beings, but contents of the objective world as they exist independently of all
measurements are invisible. Therefore, one can never infer the contents of the absolutely objective world, which
are invisible, on the basis of perceived measurements, which always arise relative to systems of
measurements. So the belief in metaphysical realism, which underlies much of modern physics, biology, and
the mind sciences, is incompatible with a central tenet of Buddhist epistemology. And the belief that the whole
of reality consists only of physical entities and their emergent properties and functions is incompatible with
Buddhism as a whole.

Collaboration
It is widely accepted among both cognitive scientists and physicists that the appearances to our physical
sensessuch as colors, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensationsdo not inherently exist objectively but
only in relation to our sensory experiences of them. Such appearances do not inherently exist in external
objects, in the space between those objects and our sense organs, or inside the sense organs themselves.
Some physicists have concluded that such interdependence holds true for all of scientific knowledge: the
subjective researcher and the objective field of research are always interrelated and exist only relative to each
other. Especially on the basis of discoveries in quantum physics, some leading scientists have concluded that
physics says nothing about the world as it exists independently of our methods of inquiry.

The renowned experimental physicist Anton Zeilinger, for instance, commented, One may be tempted to
assume that whenever we ask questions of nature, of the world there outside, there is reality existing
independently of what can be said about it. We will now claim that such a position is void of any meaning This
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implies that the distinction between information, that is knowledge, and reality is devoid of any meaning. All
configurations of mass and energy as measured by humans are empty of any objective existence independent
of the systems by which they are measured; and the very categories of mass, energy, particles, and fields are
empty of objective existence independent of the minds that conceive of them. In this regard, the measured
objects, the system of measurement, and the observer-participant who designs and uses the system of
measurement are all mutually interdependent. This suggests that not only our ordinary experience, but all
scientific observations of the physical world are illusory in the sense that the objective world appears to be
inherently existent, independent of all modes of observation and conceptualization, whereas it actually exists
only relative to our methods of observation and ways of conceptually making sense of experience.

According to classical physics, space, time, matter, and energy are all thought to exist absolutely in the
objective world. A growing number of modern physicists, including the eminent theoretical physicist John
Archibald Wheeler, have recognized that scientific definitions of each of these entities are creations of the
human mind, not discovered in the pre-existing, objective world of nature. Wheeler claimed that the universe
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consists of a strange loop, in which physics gives rise to observers and observers give rise to physics.
According to his view, the conventional view of the relationship between observers and the objective world is
that matter yields information, and information makes it possible for observers to be aware of matter by way of
the information produced by measurements. Wheeler, on the contrary, proposes that the presence of observers
makes it possible for information to arise, for there is no information without there being someone who is
informed; and that matter is a category constructed out of information. Succinctly put, the traditional view is:
matter - information - observers, and Wheeler inverts this sequence: observers - information - matter. This
interdependence between subjects and objects is a central theme in the Middle Way (Madhyamaka)
philosophy, despite the great differences in methodologies of physicists and Buddhists. Such parallels suggest
that meaningful theoretical collaboration could take place between physicists and Buddhist philosophers and
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contemplatives, and in fact such collaboration has already begun.

Some physicists have taken the principles of quantum physics and applied them to the universe as a whole,
creating the field of quantum cosmology. According to this mathematical description of the cosmos, the
observer-participant plays a fundamental role in the very creation and evolution of the universe. Without such
an observer participant, time is said to be frozen, implying that the universe does not change or evolve without
the intervening role of the observer. The pastincluding the 13.7 billion years since the big bangdoes not
exist independently of the observer, and the same is true of the present and future. The universe evolves only
when an observer-participant divides it into two parts: a subjective observer and the rest of the objective
universe, and the mathematical description of the rest of the objective universe depends on the time measured
by the observer. In short, the evolution of the universe and everything in it, including life itself, is possible only
relative to an observer-participant.

This implies that time itself has no inherent reality of its own. John Wheeler wrote in this regard: It is wrong to
think of that past as already existing in all detail. The past is theory. The past has no existence except as it is
recorded in the present. By deciding what questions our quantum registering equipment shall put in the present
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we have an undeniable choice in what we have the right to say about the past. Stephen W. Hawking likewise
declares that every possible version of a single universe exists simultaneously in a state of quantum
superposition. When you choose to make a measurement, you select from this range of possibilities a subset of
histories that share the specific features measured. The history of the universe as you conceive of it is derived
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from that subset of histories. In other words, you choose your past.

According to contemporary cosmology, empty space throughout the universe now has much less symmetry
than the original, high-temperature vacuum shortly after the big bang, much as ice is much less symmetric than
liquid water. Physicists believe that as the universe cooled down, transitioning from the state of the melted
vacuum to the current frozen vacuum, the initial symmetry was broken in various ways. The Nobel Prize
winning physicist Steven Weinberg declares in this regard that the vision of the world we see around us is only
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an imperfect reflection of a deeper and more beautiful reality.

The metaphor of the universe shifting from a melted to a frozen state finds a striking parallel in the teachings
of the Dzogchen (Great Perfection) tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. The nineteenth-century Dzogchen master
Ddjom Lingpa, for instance, wrote, This ground is present in the mind-streams of all sentient beings, but it is
tightly constricted by dualistic grasping; and it is regarded as external, firm, and solid. This is like water in its
natural, fluid state freezing in a cold wind. It is due to dualistic grasping onto subjects and objects that the
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ground, which is naturally free, becomes frozen into the appearances of things. Likewise, H. H. the Dalai
Lama recently commented in the context of the Dzogchen view, Any given state of consciousness is
permeated by the clear light of primordial awareness. However solid ice may be, it never loses its true nature,
which is water. In the same way, even very obvious concepts are such that their place, as it were, their final
resting place, does not fall outside the expanse of primordial awareness. They arise within the expanse of
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primordial awareness and that is where they dissolve. A number of other similar themes between the
Dzogchen school and quantum cosmology suggest that this, too, may be a fruitful area for collaborative
research.

A major difference between the above theories of distinguished physicists and similar Buddhist theories is that
Buddhism presents methods of meditation for putting its theories to the test of experience. The insights gained
through such contemplative inquiry liberate the minds of those who become accomplished in these advanced
practices, and such realizations also profoundly transform the body as well. These are extraordinary claims
from the Buddhist side, and the collaboration with scientists in the exploration of these practices and their
related theories could be of great benefit to humanity.

Conclusion
One of the greatest potentials of the interface between Buddhism and science is that Buddhists may encourage
scientists to question their materialistic assumptions and incorporate sophisticated systems of contemplative
inquiry within the scientific community. This may give rise to the first true revolution in the mind sciences, which
is bound to have profound repercussions for the rest of science and humanity at large. Likewise, scientists may
encourage Buddhists to question their own assumptions, to revitalize their own traditions of contemplative
inquiry, and to integrate them with the empirical methods of modern science. In short, Buddhists and scientists
may help each other in overcoming their tendencies to dogmatism and replace this with a fresh and open-
minded spirit of empiricism.

The twentieth-century disengagement of ethics from scientific inquiry, based upon an illusory division between
facts and values and the myth of value-free science has been disastrous for humanity. Not only for the sake of
human flourishing, but for the very existence of human civilization, we are now faced with the challenge to
evolve spiritually so that we can adapt to the rapid changes in the social and natural environment so that we
may survive and possibly flourish as never before in history.

A growing number of scientists are open to Buddhist claims about the nature and potentials of consciousness,
but they wish to see empirical evidence of the truth of such claims. This requires collaboration with expert
Buddhist contemplatives who are able to demonstrate by means of their own experience the truth of Buddhist
assertions about such themes as past-life recall, extrasensory perception, other paranormal abilities, and the
realization of emptiness and Buddha nature.

To help train such contemplative scientists who are expert in Buddhist theory and practice and are willing and
able to collaborate with modern scientists, it is important to establish contemplative research centers, where
intensive training is offered that integrates Buddhist theory and meditative practice. In the spring of 2010, such a
center, called the Phuket Mind Training Academy (one of three facilities in the Phuket International Academy),
will begin operating on the island of Phuket, off the west coast of Thailand. This will be a forty-room retreat
center where a series of eighty-day intensive retreats will be offered each year. These will cover basic training
in three phases: (1) the cultivation of renunciation, the four immeasurables, and amatha, (2) the cultivation of
the bodhicitta, namely, the altruistic motivation to achieve perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient
beings, and mind training (blo-sbyong) (3) practices of vipayan, specifically the four applications of
mindfulness (dran pa nyer gzhag bzhi) according to both the rvakayna and Mahyna traditions of
Buddhism. The central aim of this series of trainings is for students to achieve the Mahyna Path of
Accumulation (tshogs lam), thereby setting out on the Bodhisattva path to enlightenment.

On that basis, more advanced training will be offered in Vajrayna theory and practice, including Mahmudr
and Dzogchen. Obviously, eighty days is generally too short a period to master any of the above practices, we
who are developing this retreat center are in correspondence with individuals and groups around the world who
are establishing long-term retreat centers where people who already know how to meditate can continue in full-
time, single-pointed practice for months or years on end for only the cost of their food and utilities. So people
may come to the retreat center in Phuket for intensive, eighty-day trainings, then move to one of these satellite
centers for as long as necessary to master the practices they are following. Eventually, we hope that the
Phuket International Academy will also be able to provide accommodation and guidance for contemplatives to
continue their training for months and years on end.

This center will also have a scientific laboratory where scientists will conduct research on the psychological and
physiological changes that take place as a result of such intensive, sustained, meditative practice. Scientists will
also be welcome to participate in the meditation courses, just as Buddhists will be encouraged to learn as much
as they wish about scientific theories and practices. In this way we hope to train a new generation of
contemplative scientists who are well versed in both science and Buddhism. Such individuals may take a
seminal role in bringing about a renaissance in Buddhism and a revolution in the mind sciences.

Notes
1 Francis Bacon, Novum Organum. Trans. and ed. P. Urbach and J. Gibson. Peru, IL:
Open Court Publishing Company, 1994.
2 Ren Descartes, Discourse on the Method, Laurence J. Lafleur, trans. (New York:
Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc., 1960) VI-62, 45.
3 Carl Friedrich von Weizscker, The History of Nature (London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1951), 179; Klaus Michael Meyer-Abich, Science and Its Relation to Nature in
C.F. von Weizsckers Natural Philosophy in Time, Quantum and Information, Lutz
Castell and Otfried Ischebeck, eds. (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 2003), 173-185.
4 Stephen Jay Gould, Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life
(NewYork: Ballantine Pub. Group, 1999.
5 Science, Philosophy and Religion: a Symposium, 1941.
6 Sharon Begley, Train Your Mind, Change Your Brain: How a New Science Reveals Our
Extraordinary Potential to Transform Ourselves (New York: Ballantine Books, 2007).
7 http://www.quantum.univie.ac.at/links/sci_am/teleportation.pdf
8 Hilary Putnam, Realism with a Human Face, ed. James Conant (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1990), 30.
9 Anton Zeilinger, Why the Quantum? It from bit? A participatory universe? Three
far-reaching challenges from John Archibald Wheeler and their relation to experiment in
Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity, honoring
John Wheelers 90th birthday, John D. Barrow, Paul C. W. Davies, and Charles L.
Harper, Jr., eds. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 201-220; 218-219.
10 Paul C. W. Davies, An overview of the contributions of John Archibald Wheeler in
Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity, honoring
John Wheelers 90th birthday, John D. Barrow, Paul C. W. Davies, and Charles L.
Harper, Jr., eds. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 32;10.
11 Arthur Zajonc, ed., The New Physics and Cosmology: Dialogues with the Dalai Lama
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
12 John Archibald Wheeler, Law without law in Quantum Theory and Measurement,
John Archibald Wheeler and Wojciech Hubert Zurek, eds. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1983), 182-213; 194.
13 Stephen W. Hawking and Thomas Hertog, Populating the landscape: A top-down
approach Physical Review 3 73, 123527 (2006); Martin Bojowald, Unique or not
unique? Nature, Vol. 442, Aug. 31, 2006, 988-990.
14 Jim Holt, Where Protons Will Play, New York Times, Jan. 14, 2007.
15 Ddjom Lingpa, The Vajra Essence: From the Matrix of Pure Appearances and
Primordial Consciousness, a Tantra on the Self-originating Nature of Existence. B. Alan
Wallace, trans. (Alameda, CA: Mirror of Wisdom, 2004), 255.
16 H. H. the Dalai Lama, Dzogchen: The Heart Essence of the Great Perfection, Geshe
Thupten Jinpa and Richard Barron, trans. (Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications, 2000),
48-9.

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