2016 Eleventh International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER)

Comparison of Coil Topologies for Inductive Power

Transfer under the Influence of Ferrite and Aluminum
Katharina Knaisch, Markus Springmann, Peter Gratzfeld
KIT - Karlsruhe Institute of Technology
Chair of Rail System Technology
Karlsruhe, Germany
E-mail: katharina.knaisch@kit.edu, markus.springmann@kit.edu, peter.gratzfeld@kit.edu

Abstract - In recent years, there has been growing
interest in inductive power transfer (IPT) systems for
electric vehicles (EVs). Wireless power transfer
systems consist of complex coil systems made up of
current-carrying litz wires varying greatly in shape
and in material for confining and guiding magnetic
flux. A large number of geometric degrees of freedom
and variables must be defined and optimized in
designing a coil system. Against this background, this
paper points out first the fundamental role of
materials for shielding and flux guidance and their
influence on the main quantities of an IPT system.
Furthermore, variations in size of the materials show
their significance for wireless power transfer systems.
Based on these findings, various magnetic couplers are
analyzed and evaluated. The specific strengths and
weaknesses of the geometries are highlighted in terms
of previously defined evaluation criteria, and the
optimal field of application of the couplers is
identified. It is shown, how ferrite and aluminum
influence the characteristics of the various coupler
topologies.
Keywords-Inductive power transfer (IPT); Electric
Vehicle (EV); Coil design; Ferrite; Aluminum
I. INTRODUCTION
Inductive power transfer (lPT) systems developed
rapidly in the last years. Inductive charging was first
applied in many industries, for instance in factory
automation systems in which relatively low powers of a
few kilowatts are transferred across a small air gap [1].
As inductive power transfer offers numerous
advantages such as convenience, durability, and charging
safety, inductive they were soon used to charge electric
vehicles (EVs). Such applications, however, make higher
demands as much higher power has to be transferred
across a considerably larger air gap. Nowadays, IPT
systems are widely used in a broad range of applications.
Currently, passenger vehicles can be charged inductively
in a power range between 3.3 kW and 22 kW. For
instance, a racing car from Drayson Racing is charged
wirelessly at 20 kW [2]. Beyond that buses [3, 4] also are
equipped with inductive power transfer systems.
Stationary charging is further developed to semi-dynamic
charging for slow-moving vehicles [5] and to fully
dynamic charging, as for on-line electric vehicles [6, 7].
Wireless power transfer systems consist of two
independent electrical systems with mutual coupling. The
current in the primary coil generates an oscillating
magnetic field, which flows through the coil of the
receiving device. Thus, an electrical voltage is induced in
the secondary coil. The voltage then is converted and used
to power the device, Fig. l.
The coil system itself consists of current-carrying litz
wires and ferrite and aluminum for flux guidance and
shielding. Currently, various coupler topologies are used
for charging EVs, such as circular, planar coils or
polarized single-sided flux couplers, as double-D-pads
(DD), double-D-quadrature-pads (DDQ) and coplanar,
partially overlapping coils [8-12]. An optimum must be
found in the design of ferrite and aluminum where, on the
one hand, weight and costs are minimized and, on the other
hand, magnetic stray fields are reduced and sufficient
efficiency is ensured at the same time.
The general influence of ferrite so far has been
investigated only in part in existing research. For instance,
various geometries, such as plates, pot-cores, bars or
additional plates [13-16] or variations in size of materials
t:
o
.
8-
E
8
Fig .l. Inductive power transfer system .

978-1-5090-2464-3/\6/$3\'0020\6 European Union

for shielding and flux guidance [10, 17, 18] have been TABLEr. D IMENSIONS OF THE REFERENCE COIL

studied. However, the fundamental role of materials for Coil diameter 550mm
shielding and flux guidance and their influence on the
main parameters of an IPT system have not yet been Cross section of coil 50mm'

pointed out clearly. Furthermore, no research has been Number of turns 5

found to provide a comprehensive overview and a
Distance between windings 20mm
comparison of various magnetic coupler topologies. Only
in [19] a comprehensive comparison was made, albeit one Air gap 150rnm
limited to air core coils.
Lateral misalignment Omm
This paper highlights the basic influence of ferrite and
Ferrite 0650mm x5 mm
aluminum on an inductive power transfer system. In
addition, it contains a comparison and evaluation of Aluminum o 700mm x5 mm
various coupler topologies with respect to ferrite and Aluminum vehicle o 1400mm x2mm
aluminum. Moreover, a comparison to the characteristics
of air cored coils is drawn. dimensions and input values, as shown in Table I, are
First, the fundamental effects of ferrite and aluminum based on the state of the art and the current standards of
in a coil system are explained. The materials added are the DKE (German Commission for Electrical, Electronic
& Information Technologies of DIN and VDE) [20].
then varied in size and their impact on the main parameters
of an IPT system is shown. In chapter 3 various coupler The coil model was simulated with a frequency of
topologies are analyzed and evaluated, and an optimum 85 kHz and 22 kW of power to be transmitted. As only the
field of application is defined for several groups of coils. effects of flux guidance and shielding will be shown here,
Chapter 4 compares the previous findings with the results the current was kept constant. The fact is deliberately
of the evaluation of air core coils in [19]. It can be seen ignored that a higher coupling factor at constant power
which geometries improved considerably when ferrite and transfer allows also lower currents to be impressed, and
aluminum were added and which aspects exhibit thus a lower magnetic field to be produced. The
significant improvement. simulations were carried out with the simulation tool
ANSYS Maxwell, which is based on finite element
A verification and validation is made in chapter 5 to
method. Ferrite is defined as a linear material.
estimate the quality of the results of numerical simulation.
Furthermore, a fully compensated system is assumed.
The quantification of the numerical error is based on three
evaluation criteria covering the quality of the magnetic The results of the introduction of ferrite or aluminum,
field calculated and the quality of the inductances as well and ferrite and aluminum, respectively, are shown in Table
as the spatial simulation region from the coil center to the II.
outer area beyond the coils. For validation, an
experimental prototype of an inductive charging system TABLE II. RESULTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF F ERRITE AND
A LUMlNUM
was built and compared to the simulated results. A
conclusion summarizes the fmdings and identifies further With
Air core With With
areas of research. coil ferrite aluminum
ferrite &
aluminum

II. EFFECTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF FERRITE AND

Self-inductance
ALUMI NUM 13. 59 25. 39 2. 54 22. 91
[uH]
A reference model will be used to study first in general
the effects of the introduction of ferrite and aluminum in a Mutual
3. 58 9. 94 0. 06 7. 55
inductance [uH]
coil system. The material introduced is then varied in size.
This shows the effects of an increased size of shielding and
flux guidance on the quantities studied before. Coupling factor 0.26 0.39 0.02 0.33

A. Introduction in a Reference Model Magnetic flux

This chapter contains an analysis showing to what density at vehicle 10. 74 12. 04 0. 09 1. 74
body [uTI
extent the introduction of ferrite and aluminum as flux
guidance and shielding devices in an inductive energy .-

transfer system influences its main quantities. This .... -

analysis covers the inductances, the coupling between the .. >-

,-

two coils and the magnetic fields. The coil model chosen .-

was a simple circular planar coil. The geometric

 The size of the coils is identical in all four images. The
magnetic flux density at the body is the result of the mean
square of flux density at a distance of 900 mm from the
center of the coils. The field images of the coils show the
magnetic field with the phase angle at which the field
exhibits its maximum strength on the outside of the vehicle
body.
It can be seen that the ferrite increases self-inductance
and mutual inductance. Moreover, the magnetic flux
density at the vehicle body is increased slightly. This is
due to the ferrite collecting the flux and conducting it in a
specific way, thus giving rise to better coupling. The
introduction of aluminum decreases both self-inductance
and mutual inductances significantly, hence making the
coupling factor very low. The pronounced shielding effect
of aluminum strongly shields the magnetic field. In a
combination of ferrite and aluminum, the characteristics
found above are also combined. In this way, inductances
increase compared to the air coil, and the magnetic field is
shielded much more strongly than in the case of the
introduction of ferrite only. Generally, the shielding effect
can be explained by the magnetic alternating field of the
coils inducing eddy currents in the shield. These eddy
currents, in tum, generate an opposing magnetic field,
which thus attenuates the external magnetic field.
In summary, it can be said that ferrite and aluminum in
a coil system are indispensable both to obtaining a good
coupling factor and also to meeting the guidelines of the
International Committee on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP) [21, 22].
B. Variation of Ferrite and Aluminum
After showing the need for ferrite and aluminum in a
coil system it is now the influence of the magnitude of
shielding and flux guidance on the quantities studied
before which will be analyzed. Again, the boundary
conditions established in the subchapter above (see
Table I) will apply. The coil pad consisting of ferrite and
aluminum is assumed to be enlarged step by step, with the
diameter of the aluminum always being 50 mm larger than
that of the ferrite. The vehicle underbody is always kept
constant.
As can be seen from Fig. 2, the inductances move
towards a final value as the pad diameter increases. This
also applies to the coupling factor, which converges from
a pad diameter of 1100 mm onwards. Starting from a pad
size of 1100 mm, the coupling changes less than 5 % in
each step of enlargement. The magnetic field rises
quadratically as the pad becomes larger. This shows that
pad size has a major influence on the magnetic field. This
effect is demonstrated in the diagram in Fig. 2 below.
The pad diameter exerts a major influence on the
magnetic field especially with a view to the boundary
0.05
0.00
Paddameler[nm'l
_Self_inW c tan c e(uHj _h.ualin duc(an celuHJ _Coupln
Paddi.meler[nm1
i gfaCl<x -..I\lagne(icOu.densi(YluTI
Fig . 2. Inductances and magnetic field with variation of pad diameter .
effects. As shielding and flux guidance become more
pronounced, the field becomes smaller in the z-direction
and is expanded in a concentrated fashion in the x-y
direction. When the pad diameter reaches the size of the
vehicle underbody, the field lines couple back around the
vehicle underbody.
III. STUDIES OF VAR IOUS COIL TOPOLOGIES
As mentioned in the introduction, this paper analyzes
and evaluates various coil topologies with ferrite and
aluminum. Publication [19] is used as a basis, in which air
cored coils are analyzed and their optimum field of
applications are pointed out. In analogy with the approach
in [19] coil geometries are first introduced briefly.
Subsequently, Chapter 3B explains the boundary
conditions of simulations and of topologies as well as the
criteria for evaluation of the geometries. Chapter 3C
finally contains an evaluation of the results of simulations;
correlation analyses and cluster analyses are used for this
purpose. In Chapter 4, the findings are then compared with
the findings obtained with air cored coils.
A. Description of Coil Topologies
As can be seen from Fig. 3 below, 16 different coil
geometries were studied, which also were subject of
investigation in [19]. Geometries are made up, on the one
hand, of simple geometric elements, such as the circular
planar coil [11]. On the other hand, polarized single-sided
flux couplers, such as double-D pads (DD), double-D
quadrature pads (DDQ), and coplanar, partly overlapping
coils, as in [8, 9, 11, 12] are analyzed. On the basis of these
geometries studied in the literature, other topologies were
investigated as well, such as the triangular geometry made
up of two triangles in mirror symmetry. The geometries
with a compensation winding have an outer winding with
an opposed direction of current to the inner windings. This
is studied both for the primary and for the secondary sides
as well as for both sides.
 Circular
Square
Rectangular :::8== Two Squares
Compensation
Winding Primary
Compensation
Winding
Secondary
Compensation
Winding Both
Sided
Triangular
DO
Fig . 4. List ofthe geometry models studied . [18] For better clarity, ferrite and
aluminium are not shown .
B. Definition of Boundary Conditions and Evaluation
Criteria
The dimensions of the geometries also follow the
quantities listed in Table I. Individual matching of the
specific geometries in an effort to obtain an optimized
result in each case deliberately was not performed so as to
ensure comparability of geometries. Optimization would
be then the next step after this study. Also in this study, a
constant current was imposed, and a fully compensated
system was assumed.
As can be seen from Fig. 2, the size of shielding and
flux guidance has a significant influence on the behavior
of the coil system. For this reason, a diameter of 1400 mm
each is chosen for the size of the ferrite and of the
aluminum. This ensures that the coupling factor changes
only slightly as a result of the size of the materials, and
comparability of geometries is guaranteed.
The criteria used for evaluation are those defined in
[19]. On the one hand, these are the absolute coupling
factor at a nominal air gap and zero misalignment, and the
gradients of the coupling factor with a variation of air gap
and misalignment The air gap is varied between
a 50 mm and a 200 mm in steps of 50 mm in order, for
= =
instance, to assess the change in the coupling factor when
the vehicle is charged and discharged. Faulty parking
causes misalignment in a horizontal direction between the
coils, which was modeled by simulations with displaced
coils of dx dy 0 mm, = = dx dy 71 mm, = =
dx dy 100 mm, and dy dy 150 mm. The gradient
= = = =
is calculated explicitly as a relative change in variation
with respect to the nominal position.
On the other hand, the power to be transferred of the
coil system is evaluated. When the lateral misalignment or
the air gap is exceedingly large, the coupling factor
becomes very low. To ensure constant power to be
transmitted of 22 kW in this case, very high currents must
be imposed. As this would not be feasible in a real case the
secondary-side currents are limited for this criterion.
Moreover, the copper masses are included in the
evaluation so as to take into account weight and cost
aspects.
It is not possible in this case to compare the magnetic
field, as the field, as shown in Fig. 2, is influenced mainly
by the boundary effects of shielding and flux guidance.
This would distort the comparison of the magnetic flux
density.
C. Summarizing the Evaluation Criteria
As the evaluation criteria of the gradients of the
coupling factor and the power to be transmitted were
defined for variations of misalignment and air gap in each
case, it will be studied first of all to what extent these
evaluation criteria can be summarized across the
variations. As is evident from Fig. 4 below, the coupling
factor of a geometry at a specific air gap seems to behave
similar to the coupling factor at a different air gap.
To examine dependence, if any, among the different
variations, a correlation analysis is carried out for each
evaluation criterion. First of all, it is analyzed whether
there is linear behavior of the variables. At a determination
coefficient, R2, larger than 0.7, next the Pearson-Product
Moment-correlation, P, is calculated. The Pearson
coefficient measures the strength of the linear correlation.
If the strength of the linear correlation exceeds 0.7, and the
level of significance of the correlation is at least 0.01, a
significant correlation among the variables will be
assumed. As an example, results of the correlation of the
1.0
" 0.8 air gaps
2
..E 0.6 __ 50 nun
0.4 .. 4 ...... ______--... __ 100mn
il .. 150mn
U 0.2
.............. ; ::::
-.- ..... -e-" 1, -
..... -_ .. -e
- .....
..... :,. -: -:. ::. . 200ml1
-
Fig . 3. Coupling factors of different coupler topologies with several air gaps
at nominal position .
gradient of the coupling factor for air gap variation, are
shown in Table III.
After completion of all correlation analyses, the o Coupling factor absolute
in nominal p osi[ion
evaluation criteria shown in Table IV result. o Gradient of coupling with
variation of a ir gap

D. Simulation Results o Gradient of coopiing with

lateral m isalig nment
The results of evaluations of the geometry models are o Transferred power
highlighted in Fig. 5. In this case, each geometry was
o Mass of copper
assigned, separately for each evaluation criterion, a point
score between 0 (lowest score) and 1 (highest score). In
this way, the geometry with the highest level of fulfillment
scores one point, while the geometry with the lowest level
Fig . 5. Scores of the coupler topologies, clustered .
of fulfillment scores zero. The other geometries score a pro
rata number of points depending on the level of squares or circular quartered. One reason for this pattern is
fulfillment. In analogy with [19], also in this case a cluster the ratio of sub-coil size to air gap which, under these
analysis was carried out with the method of average boundary conditions, is more suitable for the simple
linkage between groups and the squared Euclidean geometries. However, it must be observed that magnetic
distance as a measure of distance. The input quantities flux density is not taken into account in this evaluation.
used were the z-transformed evaluation criteria. The The magnetic flux density decreases more quickly towards
results of the cluster analysis are also shown in Fig. 5 by the outside as the number of sub-coils increases.
the dashed lines and Roman numerals. For comparability Comparison of the compensated geometries with the
with [19] the clusters were numbered in an analogous way. simple round geometry shows the compensated
It is evident from Fig. 5 that the overall score decreases geometries to perform clearly worse. The reason is the
as the number of part coils increases. This means that the reduction in the effective number of windings by the outer
simple geometries with one coil (such as circular, square, compensated winding. This effect is prominent especially
rectangular) come off best. The lower end of the scale in a compensation of both coils. The reduction of effective
features the geometries with four sub-coils, such as four windings on both sides causes a clear decrease in energy
transfer performances, which makes this geometry
TABLE III. C ORRELATION A NALYSIS FOR GRADI ENT OF C OUPLI NG perform worse than the geometries compensated on one
WITHVARIATION OF A IR GAP side.
a=50mm a=lOOmm a=150mm a=200mm When considering the group of polarized geometries, it
is seen that the DDQ geometry lends itself particularly
R' p R' P R' P R' P
well to very high powers. Less good results in this criterion
a=50mm I I . 926 . 962" . 846 . 920" . 791 . 888" are obtained for the "square" geometries, such as
triangular and two squares. The reason is that the magnetic
a=lOOmm . 926 . 962" 1 I . 978 . 991" . 949 . 977" field within the sub-coils is distributed more
homogeneous. When looking at the gradient of the
a=150mm . 846 . 920" . 978 . 991" I I . 990 . 997"
coupling factor with misalignment present in this group,
a=200mm . 791 . 888" . 949 . 977" . 990 . 997" 1 1
especially the triangular geometry is seen to differ from
the other geometries. The main reason is that the direction
** Correlation is significant at the 0. 01 level ( 2-tailed )
of the sub-coil is diagonal, whereas the direction of the
other sub-coils is vertical.
TABLE TV . S UMMARIZED EvA LUA TlON CRITERIA
Comparison of the surfaces of the sub-coils shows the
No Criteria Variations Included Objective
results obtained to be the better the rounder the geometries
1 - Max
are. On the one hand, this is due to the more homogenous
Coupling factor absolute
field distribution with more uniform geometries. On the
Gradient of coupling with other hand in round coils there is less copper used.
2 all variations of air gap Min
variation of air gap
Gradient of coupling with all variations of lateral E. Magnetic Field over the Coil Cross Section
3 Min
lateral misalignment misalignment
As the magnetic field has not been included III
all variations of air gap
4 Transferred Power
and lateral misalignment
Max evaluation so far, this subchapter will be devoted to
analyzing the distribution of the magnetic field over the
5 Mass of Copper - Min coil cross section. This is shown in Fig. 6, with the
geometries arranged already on the basis of the results of
 to the zero passage of the field line direction in the center
of the coils.
The best result for the absolute magnetic flux density
is obtained for the DDQ geometry. On the one hand, this
geometry produces the highest magnetic flux density
above the coil and, on the other hand, the ratio of the two
areas is relatively low. The high plateau-shaped magnetic
field should be emphasized which is exhibited by all
Position of primary coil [nun]
polarized couplers.
DD
- - - ____ Circul,..QuartCl"cd __ Cirwl ,.. __ Compcns>tion Winding The group of simple geometries throughout shows the
T\\IJSqlk1fCS Circul,..QuartCl"cdOvCI"I",pcd Squ,..c

largest shares in magnetic flux density outside the coil.

__ __

----. JdeaI bd"",ior

___

DD O\erlappcd ___ Four Squ,..cs Rcchngular

___T\\O SquarcsO\'er\apped Four SqUlre< Overl",rOO

- -- lDQ This is due to the lack of field compensation existing in

Tnang.llar
other geometries, which also becomes clear in comparing
Fig . 6. Distribution of the magnetic field over the cross section ofthe primary
coil .
the compensated geometries with the round simple
geometry.
clustering. A field distribution is desired which shows the
highest possible and most uniform flux density over the IV. CO MPARISON OF FINDINGS WITH THE AIR CO RE COIL
coil diameter in order to ensure high coupling in the RESUL TS
nominal position and in case of misalignment. A minimum This chapter is to explain the extent in which the
stray flux towards the outside must be attempted in order addition of ferrite and aluminum affects the individual
to meet the guidelines of the ICNIRP. A model of an ideal criteria of evaluation for the respective geometries. For
field distribution is shown here as a curve whose peak this purpose, the percentage change produced by the
corresponds to the peak field strength of the geometries. introduction of flux guidance and shielding for each
To quantify this situation, i.e. the highest possible evaluation criterion was calculated. The maximum overall
magnetic field over the cross section of the coil and the change was normalized to 1, and the individual criteria of
lowest possible field outside the coil, the respective areas evaluation are plotted in the diagram with the appropriate
under the curves of the magnetic flux density were pro rata shares.
calculated. On the one hand, the area right above the coil Fig. 8 compares the results of this paper with the results
(black) and, on the other hand, the area outside the coil of [19]. It is evident that the introduction of ferrite and
(grey) were calculated, see Fig. 7. The percentage values aluminum contributes to a large increase in power transfer
indicate the ratios of the two bars relative to each other. in all geometries. Moreover, the introduction of both
The objective is the lowest possible ratio, as in the case of materials achieves a lesser decrease of the coupling factor
"ideal behavior". in case of misalignment.
As far as the absolute level of magnetic flux density A deterioration of the coupling factor in the nominal
right above the coil region is concerned, the geometries position can be observed only for the geometries of cluster
with four part coils perform worst. On the one hand, this 2. The reason lies in the design of the coil geometry with
is due to the small size of part coils and, on the other hand, four part coils and the property of flux guidance of the

-0..2 DO. 0.2 0..4 0.6 0..8 1.0.

]E 0.9 2S.3%30.4% Cluster I
g 0.8 (DD I DDQ I Two Squares I
0.7 Triangular ".)
0.6
o Coupling faclor absolute in
0.5 _Area above the coil Cluster 2 nominal position
'g 0.4 (Four Squares I Circular
OGradient of coupling with
0.3
_Area beyond theooil
Quartered I )
variation of air gap
..
E' 0.2
OGradient of coupling with latel
1l 0.1 misalignmelll
0 Cluster 3
i (Circular ISquare I Rectangular)
Transferred power

Clusler 4
(Comp.::nsation Windings)

Fig . 7. Area enclosed by the magnetic fluxdensity ofthe primary coil . Fig . 8. Change in evaluation criteria as a result of adding ferrite and
aluminum .
ferrite. Ferrite concentrates the magnetic flux in the center
of the coil, but the coils show a zero passage of the field
direction precisely at this point. Consequently, there is a
reduction in the absolute coupling factor in this case.
All things considered, it can be said that the order of
evaluation of geometries has not changed as a result of the
introduction of aluminum and ferrite. The introduction of
ferrite and aluminum thus reinforces all properties studied
here of the coil geometries. When looking at the scoring,
it is seen that these materials result only in a wider spread
of the findings, while evaluation on the whole does not
change. Fig . 9. Planes for calculation ofthe discretization error . [18]

V. VERIFICA TION AND VALIDATION
A. Verification
Three different quality criteria were defined for
estimating the quality of the findings of numerical
simulations. These quantify the numerical error, on the one
hand, with respect to systems quantities, such as
inductances, and field quantities, such as magnetic flux
density. On the other hand, the numerical error can be
described with respect to its behavior in space (from inside
the coil up to the environment outside the vehicle).
To obtain high quality in the electromagnetic
quantities, the percentage error in overall energy and the
percentage error in energy relative to the previous pass of
the adaptive meshing was calculated. All simulations
selected for this purpose as, on the one hand, it produced
excellent results in the studies covered in this paper. On
the other hand, this model is relatively simple to build. The
dimensions of the prototype and the points of
measurement with variation in air gap and horizontal
misalignment can be found in Table V.
As is evident from Table VI, both the average
differences between the experimental and the numerical
results and the maximum deviations are small as they are
always well below 10 %. Moreover, the standard deviation
for all three measured quantities is small. For this reason,
a validated simulation model may be assumed.
TABLEVl. DIMENSIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL PROTOTYPE

carried out show deviation of less than 0.5 % of the energy

error. On top of that, the mesh is always made up of at least Coil diameter 510mm
400,000 tetrahedra. This ensures that the deviation in self
inductance will be less than 2 %. Number of turns 7

Nevertheless, convergence, is treated mainly with the primary: 850 mm x 850mm x 6mm
focus on the interior of the coil system, this being the Ferrite
secondary: 570 mm x 570mm x 4mm
location of the highest energy of the system. A third
primary: 940 mm x 940mm x 5mm
criterion of evaluation is defined to estimate further the Aluminum
secondary: 600 mm x 600mm x 5mm
quality of the mesh in the external region. Thus, the error
of the magnetic field can be estimated. Aluminum vehicle o 1000 mm x I mm

As all simulation models have at least one plane of Variation of air gap 120mm; 135mm; 150mm
symmetry, the deviation of the magnetic field between
Variation of lateral
symmetrical planes can be calculated. For this purpose, misalignment in x- and
Omm; 25mm; 50mm; 75mm;
100mm
eight different planes were defined for each simulation at y -direction
which the magnetic field was compared, as it can be seen
in Fig. 9 on the right hand side. In a circular symmetrical TABLEVI. RESULTS OF V ALIDAnON

model, the planes in addition were rotated by 45 0, Fig. 9

left hand side. Average Maximum Standard
deviation in % deviation in % deviation
A maximum deviation of individual statistical outliers
by 20 % and an average absolute deviation by a maximum L\ 4. 22 5. 20 0. 97
of 3 % are assumed for all topologies simulated.
L2 -3. 66 4. 28 0. 30
B. Validation
To validate the simulations, a prototype was built and k -6. 93 8. 17 0. 56
measured as an example. The circular planar coil was
 VI. CONCLUSION
This paper contains an analysis of the current state of
the art and explains the main features of the functioning
principle of an inductive energy transfer system.
The influence of adding ferrite and aluminum on the
main quantities of an inductive power transfer system is
shown. It is obvious, that material for shielding, guiding
and confining magnetic flux is essential to ensure good
coupling as well as to meet the magnetic field absorption
limits defmed by ICNIRP.
Variation of ferrite and aluminum has revealed that the
size of both materials significantly affects the coupling
factor and the magnetic field. Especially edge effects have
a major influence on the behavior of the magnetic field.
Based on these findings, the dimensions of shielding and
flux guidance are defined for analyses in which various
coil geometries are compared. Five evaluation criteria
were defined for evaluation of these coupler topologies,
taking variations of lateral misalignment and air gap into
account. Correlation analyses allowed these evaluation
criteria to be summarized. A cluster analysis grouped the
geometries with similar characteristics.
The strengths and weaknesses of the topologies were
evaluated for an analysis in terms of the coupling factor,
the power to be transmitted, the copper mass used, and the
distribution of magnetic flux density. As the boundary
areas of shielding and flux guidance exert considerable
influence on the behavior of magnetic flux, the magnetic
field was studied and evaluated separate from the other
evaluation criteria. On the basis of these fmdings it was
possible to identify the optimum areas of application of the
geometries.
Comparison of these findings with the geometries
studied in [19] showed that especially the power to be
transmitted is improved considerably. On the whole, the
result is enhanced greatly by the introduction of ferrite and
aluminum. This means that the respective positive
properties that were found with the air coils are improved
even further. The weaknesses of the coils identified before
are also reinforced on the whole by the shielding and flux
guidance.
Validation and verification for the numerical
simulations is performed. The numerical error is estimated
with the help of several quality criteria. The numerical
error and the difference between measurements and
simulations are small. For these reasons, simulations can
be considered, validated and verified.
Further research has to be performed to analyze the size
and shape of ferrite and aluminum in detail. Optimizing
these materials is to achieve a high coupling factor, small
leakage fields and low losses. Moreover, the geometric
parameters of the coupler topologies must be varied and
optimized.
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