(ona 22-2 aes 3 APPLIED HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS Second Edition M. Hanif Chaudhry, Ph.O. Wa ALT. LIBRARY VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD COMPANY New York —____eer 1287 Yan Nowa Retell Company ie ISBN Ge CORES Caalog Cart Number: Bee ISBN: 0-442-215102 ahi, leon, of mechanical. melee ‘hotocopying, witout fomaton soe an emcee egg without permission of the publi Printed inthe United Stes of America Tis raed DN Nos Reinhold Company te HS Fifth Avenue New York, New York 10003 Nan Nostrand Reinbold Company Limited Molly Millats Lane Wokingham, Beeshire RG11 2PY, Eagand Van Nostand Reinhold 480 La Trobe Steet, Meltoume, Vici 3000, Australia. *acmilan of Canada Division of Csnads Publiching Corporation ‘64 Commander Boulevard ‘eincour, Onin MIS 307, Canada SMB DW 8 esas a, cy of Congress Ci Chandy, M- Hanae Applied hydraulic transient, Includes bibliographies ant indexes, loing-in-Publicaion Data Hydevulic wansents. ‘Tae RpeR.C83 1986 620.1061" e6.rna09 ISB 04642-21514.2 TO SHAMIMCONTENTS PREFAC 1 INTRODUCTION Definitions Historical Background Pressure Changes Caused by an Instantaneous Cha Flow Velocity Wave Propagation and Reflections in a Pipe Classification of Hydraulic Transients, Causes of Transients ‘System Design and Operation ‘Summary Problems Answers References 2 CLOSED-CONDUIT TRANSIENT-FLOW EQUATIONS: 2a 22 23 24 Introduction Reynolds Transpon Theorem Continuity Equations ‘Momentum Equation General Remarks on Continuity and Momentum Equations Simplified Equations Velocity of Waterhammer Waves Methods for Solving Continuity and Momentus Equations Case Study Summary ProblemsDIFFERENCE METHODS: Answers 48 References 48 Additional References 50 'HODS OF CHARACTERISTICS AND FINITE- 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Characteristic Equations 51 3.3 Boundary Conditions 58 Constant-Level Upstream Reservoir, 59 Constant-Level Downstream Reservoir, 61 Dead End at Downstream, 62 Valve at Downstream End, 62 Orifice at Lower End, 64 Series Junction, 64 Branching Junction, 64 Centrifugal Pomp at Upstream End, 65 Francis Turbine at Downstream End, 66 3.4 Convergence and Stability 66 Diseretization Error, 67 Truncation Error, 67 Consistency, 67 Convergence, 67 Stability, 67 3.5. Method of Specitied Intervals 70 3.6 Selection of Time Increment for a Piping System n 3.7 Explicit Finite-Difference Method B Interior Nodes, 74 Boundary Conditions, 75 3.8 Implicit Finite-Difference Methods 15 3.9 Comparison of Numerical Methods 76 3.10 Analysis of a Piping System 7 3.11 Case Study 80 3.12 Summary 84 Problems 84 References, 85 Additional References 87 4 TRANSIENTS CAUSED BY PUMPS 89 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2. Transient Conditions Caused by Various Pump Operations 0 4.3 Mathematical Representation of a Pump 90 Quadrant 1, 91 Quadrant 11, 91 Quadranc III, 91 Quadrant IV, 93 44° Boundary Conditions for Pump Failure 95 Equations for Pump Representation, 97 Differential Equation of Rotating Masses, 99 Characteristic Equation for Discharge Sines i 46 47 5.9 5.10 Pipe, 100 Continuity Equation, 100 Solution ot Governing Equations, 100 Boundary Conditions for Special Cases nz Parallel Pumps, 102. Series Pumps, 105 Example no Verification of Mathematical Model Mm Plant Data, 111 Tests and Insirumentation, 111 Mathematical Model, 112 Comparison of Computed and Measured Results, 113 Pump Stan-Up lig Design Criteria for Pipelines us Normal, 115 Emergency, 116 Exceptional, 116 Case Study 6 Water-Supply System, 117 Discussion, 120 Summary Problems References Additional References Analysis, 117 Results, 119 TRIC POWER PLANTS. Introduction Schematic of a Hydroelectric Power Plant Upstream and Downstream Conduits Simulation of Hydraulic Turbines Hydraulic Turbine Governors Components, 138 Operation, 141 Stability, 141" Governing Equations, 143 Actuator, 145 Dashpot, 145 Permanent Drop, 145 Distributing Valve, 145. Gate Servomotor, 146 Computational Procedure I Causes of Transients WT Verification of Mathematical Model 7 Prototype Tests, 150 Prototype Data, 152 Computed and Measured Results, 152 Terminology, 138 Types, 140 Compaison of Design Criteria for Penstocks - 156 Normal, 156 Emergency, 156 Exceptional, 157 7 Governing Stability 157 General Remark: Inenia, 161 157 Terminology, 157 Generavwr5.11 Stability of Small Oscillations General Remarks, 163 Differential Equations of the System, 163 Criteria for Stability, 166 Transient Speed Curve, 168 Governor Parameters, 170 Transients in Pumped: Optimum Values of the Example 5.2, 171 5.12 jorage Schemes 5.13. Simulation of Pump Turbine 5.14 Case Study 5.15 Summary Problems References Additional References © TRANSIENTS IN COOLING-WATER SYSTEMS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Description of Cooling-Water Systems Once-through Systems, 187 Recirculating Systems, 187 Combined Once-through and Recirculating Systems, 188 Layout, 189 Components, 191 6.3 Causes of Transients 6.4 Analysis Procedures 6.5 Boundary Conditions Condenser, 195 Entrapped Air, 197 6.6 Summary Problems References Additional References 7 TRANSIENTS IN LONG OIL PIPELINES 1 Introduction 2 Definitions 3. Causes of Transients 7.4 Method of Analysis 7.5. Design Considerations General Remarks, 209 Devices, 210 7.6 Summary Problems References Additional References Control and Surge Protective 163 Example 5.1, 168 m 174 176 182 182 184 186 187 187 187 191 193 199 199 199 200 203 204 206 207 209 8 RESONANCE IN PRESSURIZED PIPING SYSTEMS 8.1 tnoduction 8.2. Terminology Steady-oscillatory or Periodic Flows, 215 ‘and Mean Discharge and Pressure Head, 216 Period, 216 Resonant Frequencies, 217 Freedom, 217 8.3 Forced Oscillations Forcing Functions, 219 Self-Excited Oscillations, 219 8.4 Development of Resonating Conditions 8.5. Methods of Analysis Analysis in Time Domain—-Method of Characteristics, 226 Analysis in Frequency Domain, 226 Impedance Method sfer Matrix Method, 227 Matrices, 228 8.6 Block Diagrams 8.7 Derivation of Transfer Matrices Field Matrices, 232 Example 8.1, 235 8.8 Frequency Response Fluctuating Pressure Head, 252 Oscillating Valve, 256 Procedure for Determining the Frequency Response, 257 Example 8.2, 258 8.9 Pressure and Discharge Variation along a Pipeline 8.10 Location of Pressure Nodes and Antinodes Series System, 264 8.11 Determination of Resonant Frequencies Normal Modes, 268 Example 8.3, 268 8.12 Verification of Transfer-Matrix Method Experimental Results, 272 Energy Concepts, 279 8.13 Studies on Pipeline with Variable Characteristics 8.14 Case Sudy 8.15. Summary Problems References Additional References Degiee of Example 8.4, Method of Charactesistics, 2 9 TRANSIENT CAVITATION AND COLUMN SEPARATION 9.1 Introduction 9.2 General Remarks 9.3 Causes of Reduction of Pressure to Vapor Pressure Theoretical State Vectors and Transfer Point Matrices, 241 Fluctuating Discharge, 25% 289 289 289 2959.4 Energy Dissipation in Cavitating Flows 293 294 296, 298 299 304 304 304 306, 309 309 310 310 228 329 333 333 334 336 337 337 338, 338 9.5 Wave Velocity in a Gas-Liquid Mixture 2.6 Analysis of Cavitating Flows with Column Separation 9.7. Design Considerations 9.8 Case Study Project Details, 299 Field Tests, 300 Mathematical Model, 301 Comparison of Computed and Measured Results, 302 9.9 Summary Problems References Additional References 10 METHODS FOR CONTROLLING TRANSIENTS 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Methods for Controlling Transients 10.3 Surge Tanks Description, 310 Boundary Conditions, 310 10.4 Air Chambers Description, 312 Boundary Conditions, 313. 10.5 Valves Description, 315 Boundary Conditions, 319 10.6 Optimal Control of Transient Flows 10.7 Case Study Design, 329 Mathematical Model, 330 Results, 331 10.8 Summary Problems References Additional References 11 SURGE TANKS ThA Introduction 2 Types of Surge Tanks 11.3 Derivation of Governing Equations Simple Surge Tank, 340 Dynamic Equation, 340 Continuity Equation, 341 Orifice Tank, 342 Description, 342 Dynamic Equation, 342 Differential Surge Tank, 344 Description, 344 Continuity Equations, 344 Closed Surge Dynamic Equation, 345 Dynamic and ranks, 345 Continuity Equation, 346 2 n IL ul n hao 1 maz naa 1M ‘TRANSIENT FLOWS IN OPEN CHANNEI Ra 12.2 23 D4 Numerical Methods for Solving Dynamic and Continuity Equations Period and Amplitude of Oscillations of a Frictiontess System Stability Normalization of Equations Phase-Plane Method Stability of a Simple Tank Constant-Gate Opening, 354 Constant Power, 355 Constant Power Combined with Constant-Gate Opening, 360 Stability of a Closed Surge Tank Multiple Surge Tanks Design Considerations Necessity of a Tank, 365 Case Study Project Details, 368 Program of Investigations, 369 Sclection of Range of Various Variables, 370 ‘Tank Size, 372 Summary Problems Answers References Location, 366 Sire, 366 Introduction Definitions Causes of Transients Surge Height and Celerity Rectangular Channel, 384 Derivation of Equations Continuity Equation, 387 Methods of Solution Method of Characteristics Explicit Methods Boundary Conditions, 397 Computational Procedure, 403 Initial Conditions implicit Finite-Difference Methods Description, 406 Available Implicit Schemes, 407 Preissmann Scheme, 407 Boundary Conditions, 408 Dynamic Equation, 389 Stability Conditions, 402 M6 M7 349 351 352 353, 361 365 365 368 Selection of x2 372 v5 375 a7 x79 379 381 381 386 31 32 396 404 406,Systems Having Branch and Parallel Channels, 410 Stability, 411 12.11 Second-Order Explicit Schemes au MacCormack Scheme, 412 Predictor Part, 412. Corrector Par 412 Lambda Scheme, 413 Gabutti Scheme. 414 Boundary Conditions, 415 “Antficial Viscosity, 415 Stability, 416 Mustrative Example, 416 12.12 Comparison of Explicit and Implicit Finite-Difference Methods a7 12,13 Special Topics 419 Dan-break, 419 Tidal Oseillations, 420 Secondary Oscillations or Favre's Waves. 421 Free-Surface-Pressurized Flows, 422 Landslide-Generated Waves, 423 12.14 Case Study 428 Mathematical Model, 429 Prototype Tests, 429 Comparison of Computed and Measured Results, $31 12.15. Summary 435 Problems, 435 Answers 442 References 442 Appendix A: Formulas and Design Chans for Preliminary Analysis 49 ‘Appendix B: Computer Program for Analyzing Transients Caused by Opening or Closing a Valve 369 Appendix C: Computer Program for Analyzing Transients Caused by Power Failure to Pumps 475 ‘Appendix D: Computer Program for Determining Frequency Response of a Series Piping System 483 Appendix E: Computer Program for Computation of Water Level Oscillations in a Simple Surge Tank 487 Appendix F: Data for Pumping Systems 493 Appendix G: SI and English Units and Conversion Factors 497 AUTHOR INDEX 499 SUBJECT INDEX 505 PREFACE The use of divital computers for analyzing hydraulic transicuts hiey increased: Considerably in recent years and sophisticated numerical methaxly have been introduced for such analyses. These methods have permitted the computation of more precise results and have made the analysis of comple systems possible Applied Hydraulie Transienas presents such methods of analyses in ialdition to providing a comprehensive discussion of hydraulic transients. ‘The buh is suit. able as a reference for practicing engineers and researchers and ws a textbook {or senior-level undergraduate and graduate students. The field «af application ‘of the book is very broad and diverse, and covers areay such as hyiimelectic Power plants, pumped-storage projects, water-supply schemes. contin systems, oil pipelines, and industrial piping system, Each chapter of the book is developed in a systematic manner thon basic principles. Practical applications are strongly emphasized. Several case studies Problems of applied nature, and design criteria are ineluded. These features will be useful to design engineers and will introduce students 0 real-life situations Solved examples are given, extensive lists of upto-date references are included at the end of each chapter. and sample computer programs and flowcharts are Presented (o familiarize the reader with digital-computer applications. Design charts are appended to the text for quick and approximate computations for the preliminary design SI (Systeme Internationale) units are used throughout the bok. However, values of empirical or numerical constamts in the English units ate given in foomnotes. With these footnotes and the conversion table of Appendin G. Ea- alish units may’ be used without much difficulty. In this second edition, several chapters are revised, references are updated throughout, and corrections are macle where needed. The sequence af presen- tation is essentially the same as that of the first edition. In Chapter 1. funda- ‘rental concepts are introduced. Chapter 2 is rewritten; in it he continuity and momentum equations for flows in closed conduits are derived. The details of the method of characteristics and explicit and implicit finite-ditference methods are presented in the revised and updated Chapter 3. The nest four pioblencrea, antes discuss tansens in pumping systems (Chapter 4), in hydro: Si ctte power plants (Chapter 5), in cooling-water systems (Chapier 6) vag an ees mater Dn Chapce 4, sections on the simulation of pose inden te analysis of transients during pump sta-up are revised fon te oe cing tng, ChaPle# Sy sections on hydraulic tnbine poverors and gos Sore ty ate expanded and updated, anda section on tansiems in pureed. seas atames is add. The chapter on transients in nuclear power plang tracted Instead, @ chapter on transients in cooling-water systems idea 4 Fig ath qiesanance in pressurized piping system is discussed in Chenu Tra hich addtional material on mode shapes and case study oe inching rare ea cavitation and Fguid-column separation are discussed in Chapter 9, Ini various methods for controlling transients and their analyses are proc in Caer 10, Pans of Chapters 9 and 10 considered unsuitable for rents raped dete from this edition. The analysis of surge tanks wen & jamped-system approach is presented in Chapter II, whichis reowanined ag in which a section on closed surge tanks is added. Revised Chapter 12 dcasnn atts it apen channels and presents details of explicit and implicit hene. Sree ace methods and higher order aecurate metho. A number of deton Dom and sample computer programs ate presented in Appendixes A throneh D. 7 aula tke to thank British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority, Canada, {or emission to include the tes results and design studies fora nomecsat ae, prvsets and fo thei engineers: R. E. Johnson, for devising the instrumeniaten 1 rotorype tests of Sections 3.11, 5.8, and 10.7; RM. Rockwell wat to sey: fF preparing Figures 5.11 and 3.27; and G. Vandenburs for Pras Keke Bacal thanks are extended to Drs, C. 8, Martin, D.C. Wigeeny, Bw ana And to my former ad present pradute students for supgesine Sever Kesulcations, Pemissions granted by Professor F. M. Wood and Ohesfent a Depa Lt. Scotland, to ince materia from thie publications apd bythe Depariment of Water Resources, State of California for supplying the ey dn Tem GAT ae gratefully acknowledged. Assistance of my graven cae tenga sf dimenes-Raminez and S. M. Bhallamual in proofcading the asa favcbres geeciated. Yam thankful to my wife, Shamim, our son Aut ad {usher Sola for many hours that should have been spent with them ber mone ‘equired in the preparation of this edition M. HANIF CHAUDHRY INTRODUCTION rratis chapter. 3 number of commonly used terms are defined, and a bret histon, of the development of the knowledge of hydraulic tensions pre Sorted, The basic waterhammer equations for the change in pressure causes tp an instantaneous change in Now velocity are then derived. A description of the propegation and reflection of waves produced by closing a valve at the dawn Stream nd of a single pipeline is presented, This is followed by « Of the classification and causes of hydraulic transients 1.1 DEFINITIONS eM conimonly: used are defined in this section; less common tenn ae de: fined in the text wherever they appear for the first time. Steady and Unsteady Flow. Ifthe flow contitions. such as pressure ant ve Jocity. ata point do not change with time, them the flow is suid to be stenay Ty {he Conditions change with time, the flow is termed unsteady. Strictly speaking {urbulent flows are always unsteady since the conditions ata point in thece face are changing contiouously. However, by considering temporal mean valines ovey & shon period, these flows are considered as steady if the temporal mean core {tions do not change with time. When referring tothe steady or unstealy tars bulent flows herein, we will use the temporal mean conditions, Transient-State or Transient Flow, The intermediate-stage low, when the flow conditions are changed from one steady-state condition to anther sents state, is called sransient-state flow or sransient flow [iiform and Nonuniform Flow. W the velocity is constant with respect to distance at any given time, the flow is called uniform flow. wheres if the ve locity varies with distance, the flow is called nonuniform Steady-Oscllatory or Periodic Flow. It the flow conditions are vatying with time and if they repeat after a fixed time interval, the flow is ealled perinulc or Steads-osillarory flow. The time interval at which consitions are repeating is‘elerred 10 as the period. It T isthe period in seconds, then the frequency of Secillations J, in eycles/s und in radi is L/T and 24/7, especti ly. Frequency “rpressed in rad/s called circular frequency and is usualy designated nee Column Separation pressure oF may sep: IF the Pressure in a closed conduit drops to the vapor a then cavities are formed in the liquid and the liquid colon Wateriammer. In the post. terms such as wuterhamner, eithanmer and j[eumhuumer relered 10 the pressuwe fluctuations caused by a flow a ange depending upon the Mid involved. Nowatlays, however, the wenn hydraulic sransient is used more frequently Pressure Surges. In Noth America, transients involving slowly varying pres- howeiltions are referred to as pressure surges or surges. In Greve Britain, however, the term pressure surge inedes both rapid (Le watethammer) and slow transients. In this book, we shall follow the North Ammerean practice The following discussion will be helpfl in clarifying the receding defini 172s, Lets assume thatthe downstream valve of the pipeline shows Fig Fe Lully open, the ster is Rowing with velocity Pec and at tree & ihe valve is suddenly closed, As a result ofthe valve closure the fn through ret instantly reduced to zero, and because of the conversion ne ee Rinetic energy into elustic energy pressure mses at the Valve, wa pressure aa ee pine upstream direction. This wave is reflected from the weeronne ind tmvels back and forth between the valve and the reservoir, Dus te losses {nthe spstem, this wave is dissipated as it travels inthe pipeline, ah finally— {ct us say, at time t,—the pressure in the entite pipeline bocomee equal to the reservoir head, and flow is completely stopped. Based upon the definitions given previously, the flow is steady when the reaitions are constant with respect (0 time (ie., fort < 1, and’? > 4); and the intermediate low fie... = 1 13) when the conditionsane changing from the intial steady state to the final steady state is transient Now Now let us consider another situation. Let the valve be ‘opened and closed Periodically at a frequency, wy. After a number of cycles, the Mey conditions, crnieg eine will become periodic 100, having frequency 4p. This flow is called steady-oscillatory flon 1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND* The study of uid transients hep. sound waves in aie, the props ‘with the investigation of the propagation of ation of waves in shallow water, and the flow of ‘Most af the material prescued i Section 1.2 is based on Ret ot hydeulis shoul see Ret 3 dee interest in she hestory Initial steady ata ytrouie grat ine cone wou tom Tow Reservoir % Ye tav Po et op Presse py pe tap (a) Unsteady tow Stationary wove front Reservoir | Voto | eee ee Velocity Vita Vt Vea Density pg pat op Pressure py tap (d) Unsteady tiow converted to steady tow by superimposing velocity a Fite 11. Pressure rise fn pipeline dive to instantaneous reduction of fu elas ip peat10 desermine the velocity of pressure waves in water and in mercury and con: luded that the wave velocity’ was independent of the amplile othe pressure tothe clecaet ries greater in mercury than in water: and was propononel ip.s elasticity of the tube. Resal" developed the continuity and dynamic equa ve cecnl g ecand-onder wave equation, He used Mares" expeiitental inn studi tit ahalstcal studies, In 187, Lond Rayleigh summarized the cerhey Studies and his own research in his book on the theory al sound. Koreweg!” was the frst to determine the wave velocity considering the elas sa co barh the pipe wall and the Mud; easier investigate hd eomeade od only one of the 10 at a time. blood in arteries. Newton? studied the propagation of sound waves in air and {he propagation of water waves in canals. Both Newton and Lagrange obtained theoretically the velocity of sound in air as 298.4 m’s as compared to thar experimental value of 348 mis, Lagrange erroneously attributed this difference ‘o experimental ert, whereas Newton explained that the theoretical velocity we incomect and that this discrepancy was due to spacing ofthe solid particles Ghar and the resenee of vapors in air. By comparing ihe oscillations of guid in a U-tube to that ofa penduluns, Newton derived an incorrect expression tae the celenly of water waves ina canal as x VL/g, where L = the watelength and = acceleration due to gravity fihoush Wood! tists Michaul"” as the fist deal with the problem of wa ule derived the following pantal differential equation for wave propaga- tcrbarmer, recent investigations by Anderson'” have. shown tine sctuully tion Benabrca’ was the fit to study ths problem, Michaud stalled the prebiec, ay _ ay Of Ssterhammer, and the design and use of air chambers and safe en ox (ta) tomeki included the fiction losses™ in the analysis of waterhammr fore {tot time. He assumed, however, that the liquid was incompresable and tne ‘he friction losses were directly proportional tothe flew velocity Weston and Carpenter." tah American enginees. conducted a nub of Fir + a) + fix — an) aay experiments 0 develop a theoretical relationship berween the reduction of fie Yelocay in a pipe and the corresponding pressure rise. However, neither ove suesecded because their pipelines were som. Friel!” presented an analvate a inwhich a = wave speed. He also developed a general solution ofthis equation in which F and fae the travelling waves. Euler also tned, but failed, 0 obtain 4 solution for the flaw of blood through arteries. > {asrange analyzed” the flow of compressible and incompressible fluids. For for the Ogden hydroelectric development in Utah. This power plant hea dtage ths purpose, he developed the concept of velocity potential. He also derived « mong penstock, Frizeil developed expressions for the velaciy of waver, Comet pxpression for the celerity of waves in a canal as ¢ = Vd, in which d rer waves and forthe pressure rise due to instantaneous reduction ofthe Man seal depth, le 1789, Monge developed «graphics! methnd of integrating the paral differential equations” and introduced the (erm method of character {sick About 1808, Laplace’ pointed out the reasons forthe difference between ihe theoretical and messured values ofthe velocity of sound in at, He explained ths the elationships derived by Newton and Lagrange were hased on Boyles Haw and that this law was not valid under varying pressures since the air ee perature did not remain constant. He reasoned tht the troretca velocy wold increase by about 20 percent ifthe adiabatic conditions were used ingiead ay the isothermal conditions ‘Young” investigated the propagation of pressure waves in pipes. Helmholtz {appears to be the fits to point out thatthe velocity of pressure waves in ware ostained in pipe was less than that in unconfined usier. He cortctly ari, luted this difference to the elasticity of pipe walls. In 136, Riemann!” devel Gped and applied athee-dimensional equstion oF motion and ite simplified one, dimensional form to such fields as vibrating rods and sound waves Weber!” Stued the flow of an incompressible Mid in an elasie pipe and conduced He suche the effects of air chamber surge tanks, and spr satty valvon ea Sphcmie ang termine the velocity of pressure waves. He also developed the ‘waterhamnmer pressures, He found that the pressure rise wis a masimum fer dynamic and continuity equations. Marey'? conducted extensive series of tests Hie ssted that the wave velocity would be the same as that of sound in uncon, Fined water if the modulus of elasticity of the pipe walls were infinite Heaney discussed the effects of branch tines, wave reflections, and successive ware on speed regulation. Unfortunately. Prizell’s work has not heen appreciated se much as that of his contemporaries, Joukowski and allievi in 1897, Joukowski conducted extensive experiments in Moscow on pipes that were, respectively, 7620 m long and 50 nim in diaracte {01.5 mm in diameter, and 305 m tong and 152.5 mm in diameter, Raced ne fis experimental and theoretical studies, he published his classic sepon’™ om the ace theory of waterhammer. He developed a tonmuta for the wave velocity, taking info consideration the elasticity of both the water und the pipe walle Ie also developed the relationship hetween the reduction of flow velocity and the iesulting pressure rise by using two methods: the conservation of ener ani the continuity condition. He discussed the propagation ofa pressure wore along the pipe and the reflection of the pressure waves from the open end of a hignek 305 my long andclosing times, 7, < 2L/a, in which L = length ofthe pipeline and a = wave speed. Alice published the general theory of waterhammer in 1902." The dynamic al’y. Con Stantinescu” described a mechanism to transmit mechanical energy by using the waterhammer waves. In World War I, British fighter planes were caulpped with the Constantinescu ge for firing the machine guns. Based on Jouko eee theory. Gibson” presented a paper that included, for the first time, nonlinear friction losses in the analysis. He also invented an apparatus” 10 measure the turbine di wg the pressure-time history following a load rejection Stow ger and Kerr presented" a step-by-step computational procedure to de- tering the speed changes of a hydraulic turbine caused by load changes tn which watethammer pressures, changes in the turbine efficiency a varus pate Openings, and the uniform and nonuniform gate movements were cenroecn Mile discussing Ref. 34, Wood" introduced the graphical method tor water- hammer analysis, Lowy independently developed and presented an Horie Erphical method in 1928. Schnyder” included complete pump character tis analysis of Waterhammer in pipstines connected 10 centifugal pune Bergeron™ extended the Braphical method to determine the conditions at the inlermediate sections of a pipeline, and Schnyder was friction losses in the graphical analysis, Me mpasia were held in 1933 and 1937 on sstethaniner analysis Since then, several books**** have heen published on the subeen First to include the 1S PRESSURE CHANGES CAUSED BY AN INSTANTANEOUS CHANGE IN FLOW VELOCITY {et us consider the piping system of Fig, 1.1. in which «ut iy ov ing with Xelocty ¥., and the initial pressure upsteam of the \shw ic pr valve ar eat Changed instantaneously at time 1 = 0, the veiacty changes to Hes Abe the pressure atthe valve becomes p, + Ap. the Hluid density mi chagect cela etl 2 Pressure wave OF magnitude App travels in the upaieen idisation. Let us designate the velocity of propagation of the pressue man Commonly called waterhaminer wave velocity) by a, and. to simplify the da, ation, let us assume thatthe pipe is rigid, i.e, is diameter dies net chars due to pressure changes. Let us consider a segment of Tid ay ehonn se Fig Mw ‘The unsteady flow sitation of Fig. 1.10 may be convened into 4 stead condition by superimposing, on the segment of uid, velocity a in the dee aueam direction. This is equivalent to assuming that an nbserver is te eh the upstream direction with velocity a. To this observer. the munving weave hae Shpears stationary (Fig. 1-10), and the inflow and outflow velocities from the Segment of fluid ae (V, + a) and (Y, + AV + a), respectively Let us consider distance, x. and velocity, Vas positive inthe downstream ireetion. Then the rate of change of momentum in the postive w-dineeron PAV, + WALLY, + AV +a) ~ (K, = ah AV, + aaa aay Neglecting friction, ment in the posit resultant force, F, acting on tbe fluid in the Mu seg. fe xeditection, is p,A ~ (p, + Spd. iw Fe apa aay Acconling to Newton's second law of motion, the time rate of chanse of max {Tamum is equal to the resultant force. Hence, it follows from Egs. 13 and to th Ap = 90, + wav Te) We will see in Chapter 2 that in most of the transient Now in metal or vonerete Pipes oF in the Fock tunnels, a (approximately 1000 m/s) is nich greater thanVo (<10 mis), Hence, ¥, in Eq. 1.5 may be neglected, Also, since P= esl, a6 in which 11 is the piezometric head, Eq. 1.5 may be written as Ap = ~aa8¥ an an a io Jan=-far] as ee ‘| Ne gabe The negative sign on the right-hand side of Eq. 1.8 indicates that the pressure increases (i.e, AH is positive) for a reduction in velocity (i.e., for negative AV’) and vice versa. Also note that Eq. 1.8 was derived for the case of velocity changes occurring at the downstream end of a pipe and for the wave front mov- ing in the upstream direction. Proceeding similarly, it can be proved that, if the velocity was changed at the upstream end and the wave Was moving in the downstream direction, then TS Ze Ungate oa Note that there is no negative sign on the right-hand side of Eq. 1.9. This shows that, in this case, the pressure increases for an increase in velocity and the pressure decreases with a decrease in velocity {twas assumed previously that the fluid density changes to p, + Ap as a result of the change in pressure. For the segment of fluid of Fig. 1.1b, Rate of mass inflow AY, + a) (1.10) Rate of mass outflow = (p, + AD)AV, + AV Fa) (HAL) The increase in the mass of fluid segment due to density change is small and may be neglected. Therefore, the rate of mass inflow is equal to the rate of ‘mass outflow. Hence, PoAUy + a) = (9, + ADIAYY, + AV + a) a2) ‘hich upon simplification becomes avs Bus ave a3) Since (V, + AV) << a, Eq. 1.13 may be written as aut The bulk modulus of elasticity, K, of a fluid is defined” as WAP. Bei. ke I follows from Eqs. 1.14 and 1.15 that av Ap (6 (On the basis of Eq. 1.7, Eq. 1.16 becomes a= a7 which may be written as ae | fe Note that the expression of Eq. 1.18 is the Velocity of waterhammer waves in a compressible fluid confined in a rigid pipe. In the next chapter, we will dis cuss how this expression is moditied if the pipe walls are elastic Example 1.1 Compute the velocity of pressure waves in a 0.5-m-diameter pipe conveying oil from a reservoir to a valve. Determine the pressute rise if a steady flow of 0.4 ‘m/s is instantaneously stopped at the downstream end by closing the valve. Assume that the pipe walls are rigid; the density of the oil, p = 900 ke/m*s and the bulk modulus of elasticity of the oil, K = 1.5 GPa. Solution: 0.577 = 0.196 ms? Ot 0.196, 2. mis LoL ms = 900 ALT. LIBRARYAS the flow is completely stopped, AV = 0 — 2.04 2.08 m/s; therefore, aH = ~fav & emore| = 2.04) = 268.5 m Since the sign of 11 is positive, it is a pressure rise 14 WAVE PROPAGATION AND REFLECTIONS, ‘A PIPE, Let us consider the piping system shown in Fig. 1.2, in which flow conditions are steady and at time 1 = 0. the valve is instantaneously closed. If the system is assumed frictionless, then the initial steady-state pressure head along the length of the pipeline is H,. Let the distance x and the velocity V be positive in the downstream direction, ‘The sequence of events following the valve closure can be divided into four parts (Fig. 1.2) as follows: 1. 0<1< Lia (Fig. 1.20 and by ‘As soon as the valve is closed, the flow velocity at the valve is reduced to zero. which causes a pressure rise of SH = +(a/eW,, Because of this pressure rise, the pipe expands (in Fig. 1.2, the initial steady-state pipe diameter in the expanded or contracted parts of the pipe is shown by dotted lines), the Muid is compressed thus increasing the fluid density, and a pos- itive pressure wave propagates toward the reservoir. Behind this wave, the flow velocity is zero, and all the kinetic energy has been converted into elastic energy. If a is the velocity of the waterhammer waves and is the length of the pipeline, then at time ¢ = L/a, along the entire length of the pipeline. the pipe is expanded, the flow velocity is zero, and the pressure head is H, + AH. 2. Ma <1 < 21a (Fig. 1.2c and d) As the reservoir level is constant, the conditions are unstable at the res ervoir end when the wave reaches there hecause the pressure on a section fon the reservoir side is H,, while the pressure on an adjacent section in the Pipe is H, + SH. Because of this pressure differential, the fluid stants to Row from the pipeline into the reservoir with velocity ~¥,.. Thus, the ve- locity is changed from zero to ~¥.,, which causes the pressure to drop from H, + AH to H,. In other words, a negative wave travels toward the valve such that the pressure behind the wave (i.e., on the upstream side) is H, and the Muid velocity is ~¥,. Att = 2L/a, the pressure head in the entire pipe- line is #,, and the fluid velocity is ~V, Irate pt C a Reservoir Votre (0) Conditions ot + PMverovlic grade tne b} Conditions ot 4+ & (0) Conditions ot 1+ & phrdrevi grode tine (2) Consitions at tet ve Propagation of pressure waves caused by instantaneous closure af sabe.Reservoir Mydroulic grode line 3 (1) Conditions at t= 3 Figure 12. (4) Conditions ot 4 2b (Continued) a L Mydrovic ore tne jaa jee FF = Mydravtie grade tine Reservoir () Coneiions ot 1+ 4 Figure 1.2. (Continued 3. La <1 < 3L/a (Fig, 1.2¢ and fy Since the valve is completely closed, a negative velocity cannot be main tained at the valve. Therefore, the velocity is instantaneously changed trom ~¥, 40 O. Because of this, the pressure is reduced 10H, — MH, negative da ‘we propagates in the upstream direction, Behind this wave. the Dressure is H, ~ AH, und the uid velocity is zero. At time 1 = 3k. the Dpressure head in the entire pipeline is H, — SH, and the Huid velocity is zero, 4. 3Lla <0 < ALla (Fig. 1.2¢ und hy ‘As soon as this negative wave reaches the reservoir, an unbalanced! con= dition is created again at the upstream end. Now the pressure is higher on[Reservoir tovt ( 4 Figure 1.3. Press Variation at valve Eietion loses neglected. the reservoir side than in the pipeline. Therefore, the fluid stans to flow fowands the valve with velocity F,, and the pressure head is restored 10 H,, Attime ¢ = 4L/a, the pressure head in the entire pipeline is H,,, and the flow velocity iy ¥,, Thus, the conditions in the pipeline are instantaneously the sume as during the initial steady-state conditions ‘As the valve is completely closed, the preceding sequence of events starts again at ¢ = 44a, Figure 1.2 illustrates the sequence of events along the pipeline, white Fig. 1.3 shows the pressure variation at the valve end with time. As we assumed the system is frictionless, this process continues and the conditions are repeated at an interval of 4L/a. This interval after which conditions are repeated is termed the theoretical period of the pipeline. In ‘eal physical systems, however, pressure waves are dissipated due to friction /oPesecvoin level 7 oS Pressure hod Vlyure 14. Pressure variation at valve; frition loses considered, losses as the waves props ary after a shomt time IN the friction losses are taken into consideration, then the pressure varie ation at the valve with time will be as shown in Fig. 1-4 ate in the pipeline, and the Nid becomes station- IFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS. snsients may be clusstied into the following three eatepories 1. transients in elosed conduits 2. transients in open channels 3. combined free-surface-pressurized transient flows, The analysis "transients in closed conduits may he fither subdivided into two ‘ybes: distributed systems and lumped systems. fn the former vase. the transient Phenomenon occurs in the form of traveling waves. Examples in which such tmansients occur are water-supply pipes, power plant conduits, und sas-trane mission lines. In the analysis of lumped systems, any change ia the flow eon ditions is assumed to take place instantaneously throushout the system, ie the Muid is considered as a solid borly, An example of such a systert 16 the slow oscillations of water level in a surge tank following a load chanve on the te bine. Mathematically, the transients in the distributed systems are represented by Pattal differentia! equations, whereas the transients in the humped systems sre lescribed by ordinary differential equations, If s:l/« is much less than 1. then the system may be analyzed as a lumped system": otherwise, the system must be analyzed as a distributed system. In the preceding exprcssion. w= fre quency, L = length of the pipeline, and @ = wave velocity “Transients in open channels may be divided into wo types depending upon {he rate at which they occur: (1) gradual, such as flood waves in nvers, and (2) Tapld, such as surges in power canals, Ifthe wave fromt in the rapidly varied low is steep, itis referred ta as a hore Sometimes a free-surface flow becomes pressurized due 1 priming of the Conduit during the transient-state conditions. Such flows ate called combined free-surface-pressurized flows, Examples of such lows are Mow in sewers fol lowing rainstorm, and flow in the tailrace turn Plant following rapid acceptance of load on turbines, of a hydmelectric power 1.6 CaUSI OF TRANSIENTS As defined previously, the inteninediate-stage Now, when the coutitions are changed from one steady state to another, is termed transien-state flow. tnother words, the transient conditions are initiated whenever the steady-state conditions are disturbed, Such a disturbance may be caused by changes. planned oF accidental, in the settings of the control equipment of a man-made system and by changes in the inflow or outflow of a natural system, Common examples of the causes of transients in engi ering systems are: Opening, closing, or “chattering” of valves in a pipeline Starting oF stopping the pumps in a pumping system Statting-up a hydraulic turbine, accepting or rejecting load Vibrations of the vanes of a runner or an impeller, or of the blades of a fan Sudden changes in the inflow of outflow of a canal by opening or closing the control gate 6, Failure or ec se of a dam 7. Sulden increases in the inflow to a river or a sewer due to flash storm runoft 1.7 SYSTEM DESIGN AND OPERATION To design a system, the system layout and parameters are first selected, and the system is analyzed for transients caused by various possible operating con: itions. If the system response is not acceptable, such as the maximum and ‘winimum pressures are not within the prescribed limits, then either the system {ayout or the parameters are changed, or various control devices are provided and the system is analyzed again. This procedure is repeated until a desired response is obtained, For a panicuiar system, a number of control devises may be suitable, or it may be economical either to modify the operating conditions, if possible, or to change the acceptable response, However, the final aim iy always to have an overall economical system that yields an acceptable response The system must be designed for various normal operating conditions ex ected to occur during its life. And, similarly, it is mandatory that the system be operated strictly according to the operating guidelines. Failure to do so has caused spectacular accidents"*** and has resulted in extensive propery damage ‘and many times in loss of life. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show the burst and the collapsed sections of the penstock of the Oigawa Power Station" caused by Operating errors and malfunctioning equipment; Figure 1.7 shows the burst see ton of the penstock of Big Creek No. 3 Hydropower Plant, United States: Fig. 1.8 shows the burst pump casing of Azambuja Pump Station, Pongal Tithe date for a system are not precisely known, then the system should be analyzed for the expected range of various variables During the commissioning of a newly built system or after major modifica: tions, the system should be tested for various possible operating conditions. To Figure 1.8. View af burst penstock of Ogawa lent pressures caused by operating ervurs and Courtesy of Ehaseo Seevices tne, New York) bwer Staton, Japan, due to eeessve tan atfunctioning of equipment. (after HiFigure 16. View by vacuum apes New York f collapsed section of penstock of Oigawa Power Station. Japan, caused * af the burst setion. (After Bonin" Courtesy uf Fhasco Servite tan avoid catastophes, itis usually advisable to conduct th tanner. For example, if there are four parallel pump tests. for pow Is in a progressive sets on a pipeline, the et and progressively lure should begin with one pumpit ase 10 al fuse, 18 SUMMARY Io this chapter, ts most commonl: used terms were first defined. A bret his wchenun? ofthe devetoprrent ofthe knowledge of hydraulic tuamients ag inserted. ail expressions were derived forthe pressure rise or dmip dus cae a tances inerease or decrease in the flow velocity. The chapter was nded by a cxcusston of the classification and causes of hydraulic tm Figure 16. tCominuedFigure. 1.7. Crack in the (ake from Ret. 65) Penstack of ig Creek No. 3 Hydropower Plant, United States Figure 1.8. View of burst pump easing, Azuma Pamp Station, Portugal (Courtesy of AB. de Almeiday PROBLEMS 1.1 Derive Bq. 1.9 from first principles 12 Derive Ey. 1.8 assuming thatthe pipe is inclined to the bvizomtal at an angle @ 1.3 Compute the wave velocity iv 2un-diameter pp. the pipe is rigid conveying seawater. Assim 1.4 What would be the pressure rise if an initial stead stantancously st 1.8. valve is suktenty op the dowastrean end that the Mas velocity is increased as Liquid i AW in which & respect to tine, (int: Apply Ne edt = the 0's secon law ALT. LIBRARY1,7 Plot the pressure variation with time a the midlength of the pipeline shown in Fig 1.2 following instantaneous closure ofthe valve, Assume the system i fietionless 1.8. pipeline has a pump at the upstream end and a constant-level reservoir atthe downstream end. IF the pump instantaneously stops pumping water at time r= 0, plot the pressure variation with respect to time at the upstream ern. at the mi: Fength, and at quarter points. Assume the system is frictionless 1.9 A gave atthe downstream end of a rigid pipeline is unifommly closed in T seconds. thus changing the flow velocity from V, 40 Vj. Ifthe liquid in the pipeline is as sumed to be rigid and frictionless and the eoetTicient of discharge of the gate re ‘mains constant, prove that the maximum pressure rise (3 Fp atthe gate ty the expression (Mga, = HIOSE + EF OBE} initial steady-state head at the gate, & = {LVy/gH,TV. and L = length of the pipeline. (Hint: Write an equation for the flow velocity through the gate in terms of the head on the gate, Solve this equation simultancously with that fof Problem 1,6 and note that when His maximum, (Eide = 0.) . ANSWERS 1.31488 mis 14 482.81 1.5 301.86 0 REFERENCES. 1. Wood, FM. “History of Waterhamimes,"" Report No. 65, Deparment of Chit Engineering, Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, Apa 1970, Rouse. H. and nce, S., History of Hydraulics, Dover Publications. New York. 1963, [Newion. I. The Prinepia, Royal Soc. Landon, Book 2, Propositions 44-46, 1687 Euler, L., "De la Propagation du Soa,” Mémoire de FAcad.d. Miss. Besln. 1799. ler, L "Principia po Motu Sanguinis per Aneras Dstemninan. "Opera Poste Toxnis Alter, SUL, 1775, Lagrange, 1 L., Mecanique anatigue, Pri, Hentand’s ed. 1788. p. 192. Monge, G.. "Graphical Integration.” Ann, des ig. Sots des Ecoles de Gam. 789, Laplace. P.S.. Celia! Mechanics, 4 volumes, Bowditch wanslation Young. T..“Hydhanlic vestigations," Pal. Tran.. Roya Sorters. London, 1808, pp, 164 186 10. Riemann, W. Pariete Differenitghichungen, Braunschweig, 1869 HL Weber. W.. -Thaie der durch Wasser eer andere sasompressible Fissipheten in cas tischen Roheen fongepfanaen Welle.” Berichte aber die Verhundlungen der Kinislichen Suctoischen Gestelchat der Wissensshsion su Leipsig. Lsipeig. Germans. Mathematact Physische Kise, 1866, pp. 353-357 8 1 5 3s. Marcy, M., “Mouvement des Ondes Liides pour Serir la Théove J Poul," Travaue (i Labortaine de Mt. Marey, 1875 Resi. H “Note or les petits soeveinens dun fhe icomprssibe sans en ya ea Vive." Aourial de Muthematigues Pures et Appligues, Pais, Fas, Sed Seton wl 2 1876, pp. 32-344, Rayleigh, J. W.S., Meors of Sound, 1877 Koneweg, D. J.. “Ucber die Fompfanzungsgeschwiningheit des Schatles in clasischen Rohren.™ Annaten der Phnsik wad Chemie, Wiedemann. «8. New Sere nt 1878, pp. 535-543, Michaud, J, "Coupe de baer dans ts conduits. Ete des mous cmployds pout en ate ‘eur les effets." Buterin deta Société Vaudoise des Ingenicrs vt des archincien Lascenne Switzerland, 4° année, nos. 3 and 4, Sept. and Dee, 1878. pp. $6-61, 06.97 Anderson, Ay “Menabrea's Note vin Wateranimer: 1858" Jour Hu Div ten, Soe Gi. ingrs. vol 102, Jan. 1976, pp. 29-39, Menabrea LF, “Note sures effects de chos de Veau das les cond," Compues Rene Hebdomadires des Seances de UAcudente des Sciences, Pats, Fras vo. #1 Den 838, pp. 221-204 Gromeka, 1 S., “Concering the Propagation Velocity of Watethammer Waves in Ela pes,” Scientific Soc. of Univ. of Kuzan, Koean, USSR. May the Weston, E. H.. “Description of Some Experiments Made on the Frewidence, eb, Water Works ta Asceain the Force of Water Rat i Pipes,” Trim. ner. Sue Cl Eng vol 14, URRS, p. 238 Camenter, RC. “Experiments on Watrharner.” Thun. dmer. Sie. af Mech: Engrs 1895-1855, Frzell, J. P.. “Pressures Resulting from Changes of Velocity of W Amer. Soc. Chl Engr. vol. 39, Jane 1998. pp. 1-1. Joukowshl, N.E.. Men: Inperial Academy Sut ofS. Petersburg. vo. ¥, m0 5. 189, 19M {in Rusisn, trnsited by O. Simin, Proc mer. Hater Morks Aira, 34. DDL pp Bua, Alliev, tas “Teoria generate dst moto perturbed" ane hi it pssione tun Soe Ing. Arch inaliana, 1903 (French tanstation by. Alivi, Revue de Mechomapu i8ite Braun, E., Druckscbvantungen in Rurcinngen, Witece, Sueur, 100, Braun, E., Die Turhine, Organ der rurbinentechnischen Gesell, Hern, 40. Allies, La, “Teoria del colpo d'aviete." ait Collegio fag ch, 191) rE-glish ansttion by E. E. Halos, “The Theory of Waterhammer,” Trans mer Soe. Hoch bags, We Broun, E., “Betmerhungen rur Tori der Dauckschvankungen in Roblctunsem Wasey ‘raft und Wasservirschafi, sol. 29, no. 16, Munich, Germany. 1939, pp ts 1sd Allev,L.. "Air Chambers for Discharge Pipes," Trans. mer Sue. Mev. Engst, vol $9, Nov. 1937, pp. 681-659, michel C., Fydous, D.. an Gail, M., “Eta Théong et Exponent des Couns e Beier” Dun, Paris, France, 1919. Constantinescu, G., Ann. des Mines de Rowinunie, Pe. 1919, Jan, 1924, Gibsoa, N.R., “Pressures in Peastocks Cased by Gras Closing of Turing Gass.” Trams: dame. Soe, Cit Engrs, xol. 83, 1919-1920. pp. 7-775 Gibson, N. R., “The Gibson Meta! and Apparat for Measuing the Flo of Water in Closed Conduits." Trans. aner, Soe. Mech. Engrs. vol. 48, U2 gp, 344905 Stowger,E. Band Kerr, S. L,. "Speed Changes a! Hydeaiie Tushings 1 oF Load." Trans. Amer Soc. Afrch. Engrs, vol AB, 1926, pp, 28m Wood, FM.,lscussion of Ref. 24, Tans. Amer, Soc, Mech. Engrs. wl 48, 926, 2 Phes° Tes. Suiken Changes38 3, 40, 4 2 2. 4s 46 #7 48 ». 9, 6 Lowy. R.. Druckschwaniungen in Druckrofrleinngen, Springer, 1928 NAIL O 2 Druckstss in Punpensegleiungen,” Schwecriche Bucetung, vol 8, NNov.-Dee. 1929, pp. 271-273, 283-286, Ferseron, L-.Vaiatons de regime dan es conduites dean," Comptes Rens des Trou ek Soe: Hurotech de France, 1931 Sptnier 0 “Ueber Drachstisse in Rovetungn,” Wasserea . Wosserninscha, val 27, Hel 5, 1932, pp. 49-54, 64-70 comosiam on Waerarmes" Amer Soe of Mech. Engrs. and Amer. Sc. of il Engrs, Chicago, Minos, une 1933. SYmrosium on Wateshammer, Annu Meeting. mer. Soe. of Mech Engrs. Dee. 1939 Betgeron. L Wanerhanmer in Hedrautics and Wave Surges im Elecrciy,(ousaed aeder { sraneoship ofthe ASME, John Wiley & Sons, Ine, New York, 1961; Origal Fesae ‘Test, Dunod, Pris, 1950, Bich. G. Hhuraulc Transients, MeGrow-Hill Book Co, New York, 1951 Feimabisn. 1. Waterhammer Jnatyis, Prentice-Hall, in., Englewood Chis, NJ. 95 (Dover Reprint, 1963, Ganlel 8. Chambres dE qulbre, Rouge ct Cie. Lausame, Switzerland, 1956 Suecter.V. Land Wyle, E.B., Hydraulic Transients, MeGraw-Hill book Co, New York 1987, Pickfond, J. nals of Surge, Mactaillan, London, 1969, Tuts: J.P. Comrol of Flow n Closed Conduits, Peo. ofthe Institute held at Colorado State University. Colorado State University Press, Fort Collins, 197) ROS A ke Maantc nts of Uneac Fow in Pipe Setworks, Joh Wiley & Sons, te, New York. 1977 Gesee, C- Fld Transients in Hsdretetric Engineering Pratce. Blackie & Sons, Lid, Glasgow and London, 1977 Noli, EB and Sweeter. VL. Fld Transient, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York 1978; ‘eprint by FEB Press, Ann Avior, Ml, 198), Fautbo. NOW. Applied Hsdrautic Transens, Fisted. Van Nostand Reno Co., Paneeton, NJ, 1979, Rates, G. 2.. Mderm anassis and Contol of Unsteady Flow in Pipelines. Ann Arbor sien Publications, Ann Arbor, Ml, 1979, second Es, Bullesrth, Howon, Landon, aes Webb. T. and B. W. Gould, Waterhammer, Books Australia, 1929 Sha. B.B.. Woter Hammer, Problems and Soins, Edward Armd Publishes, Li, Lon- on, 198% SgeeenV. bes ld Mechanic, 4h Ed, MsGrew hil Book Co,. New York, 1966. 15; Chawsh. M- H., “Resonance in Pressurized Piping Systems,” thesis prevented wc senutyof Bosh Colambia, Vancouver, Canada, it patil flillment of ihe reqicmat te deatee wf doctor of philosophy. 1970, p24, Rossel Y “Les Phenomenes d'Auto-Osilation dats es nslationsHydriques. Her ‘mana. Pass, 1937 daczetC.-Water Hammer Etfects in Power Conduit London, sot 23. nos, $00-803, Feb.-May, 1948 Bonin. CC. “Water-Hammer Damage 10 Oigawa Power Station, Power, mcr. Soe. Mech. Engrs. April 1960. pp. 1-119, acter. C.The Theory of Resonance in Hydropower Systems. Discussion of laces Os: Dan A Pressure Systems." Jour, Basic Engineering, mer. So Mech, Engr al, Dec. 1963. pp, 631-640, Chil Engineering Pub orks Rev, Jour. Engineering for 6. 6. Kerenky, G., Discussion of “Te Velocity of Water Inst. of Mech ners sumer Waves.” by Peatsall 1. § Ssmposium om Surges in Pipa, Tandon. wl 180, Pre. 196k 1965, p. 25. Paling, W.T Punts," Report No. WCAP-ATHy. Westinghouse Pe Men Opeaing Sack Power Cortera Pasur Pope Mensa h “Elution of Wer Hammer Eapecence a Near Poses Tre 227, US, Mista eeson Commacnn Wneae Tenis Cbs “Pale of Riszed and Page Welt eee Jer if Eneres Bi Aner Soe: G8. Engrs i ln wp ae Ste ReneCLOSED-CON DUIT TRANSIENT. EQUATIONS 1 INTRODUCTION Eauations forthe conservation of mass and montentun) deverihe the ansient continu closed Conduits, These equations are ususily wlerred he ee Ponty and momentum equations. Some authors have called @ simplified form of the latter the equation of motion oF the dynamic quation, Since the Rov Velocity and pressure in transient Noses may he tunstione of ate asdistance, these equations are set of parial differential eqwanions In this chapter, ved by using the gevnelds transpon theorem." Several simplifying assumpevone ane coe the Seeivation. A brit intrdustion to the Resnolds ranopon thectens ne pre. ented. Generalized forms of these equations ate developed, and a simplified jo is then derived. Expressions forthe wave speed are present ious methods for the solution of these equations ane listed ‘ontinuity and momentum equations ae 2.2 REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM This theorem relates the Mow variables for a specified quantity of fuid masa Galea srstem, to that ofa specitied region, called contro! votune.* Event ng extemal t9 this system is called surroundings, and the svstem boundary sep. Meera ccm from is surroundings. The boundary ot a contol volume oy refered to a the control surface, In fh Hows. systems tovaly hange shape Feces Lave! from one location to other. A contol volunie inually teens ingf, 2.3 location; sthough in some applications, it may travel and/or deta {i shape: For the application in this chapter. we assume cumin valume chee shape with respect to time. due to variation ofthe intemal presen All basic laws of mechanics (@.g., conservation af indee, conservation of Heenan. ete.) apply: to a system, These laws describe the iiertetion be, "een the system and the surroundings and usnally specity the inne rns afchange of some system property. For example, Newton's second law of motion relates the time rate of change of momentum af a system to forces exerted on the system by its surroundings. In the control-volume approach, the boundaries of the system and the control volume are the same at the instant a particular conservation law is applied. In othee words, all of the syst in the control volume. m mass is contained For Muid flows, we are not usually interested in following the motion of a specified panicle ora specified quamtity of mass. Instead, we are usually inter- ested in the flow through a region. Therefore, basic laws are rewritten for ap= Blications to flows in the region. The Reynolds transport theorem is useful for this, Let B be an extensive property (momentum, energy) of a fluid, and let 2 be the corresponding intensive propeny. An intensive property is defined as the amount of B per unit mass of a system: ie., lim 4B a9 Nn ‘The ol amount of inthe cont vole, Ba i then n= | aoa an in which m = mass. p = mass density, and d¥ = differential volume of the uid. Let us now discuss how the flow variables in a control volume are related to the flow variables for a system. Our discussion is confined to one-dimensional lows only, To facilitate understanding, let us assume that the control volume is fixed in space and does not change in shape with respect to time, We are interested in relating the time rate of change of property B of the system to that in the control volume and inflow and outflow of B across the control surface Let us consider the system at times f and 1 + At, as shown in Fig. 2.1. The control surface is shown in dashed lines, and the boundaries of the system ate ‘marked in solid lines. Ar time 1, part of the system is inside the control volume and another part is sbout to move into the control volume. At tinie 1 + At, part ‘of the system is inside the control volume and another part has moved out Property B of the system at time rand ¢ + Af can be written BAO) = Bui) + By Bult +B) = B+ AN ABay where “sys and "ev" refer to the system and control volume, and ‘“in"* and “ont” refer to the inflow and outflow from the control volumie, and AB, and Q Srrevvoure Contrat volume Sytem / Sytem 28,4 Figure 2.1. System and contro volume, Afia are inflow and outow of property B into out of the «ontrol volume during time interval At ‘The time rate of change of property B of the system is a, Substituting expressions for B,, from Eq. 2.2 into Eq, 2. 3nd rvtrangi Ba. Bol + At) ~ Baty Se + tim Ca au arte ar 24) Now, as a approaches zero in the limit, the first term on thy vwehthand side of Eq. 2.4 represents the time rate of change of property Bn she: contol vol Bull + an ~ Ry Qs) pint ar Subsiuing Eq. 2.1 ino Eq. 2.5 gives fig Balt +40 = Bald dT gy 6) on M ii The second term on the right-hand side of Ey. 2.4 ig the rate a! shich property 4 is leaving the contol volume, Similarly, the third term of the uation rep fesenls the rate at which property # is entering the conttol sie. For ane. dimensional flows, we ean write AB, \ lim = PAV nu a ay 38, { lim =" = @pav, tim 3" = (BpavWhere A = cross-sectional area of the conduit and ¥, average flow velocity measured relative to the control surface On the basis af Eqs, 2.6 and 2.7, Eq, 2.4 may be written as . dB , TTT at Je, BP AY + DAM dow ~ (BDAY 2.8) Nove tht the velocity Vi with respsct to the control yurface since i ae. counts for the inflow oF outfiow trom the control valume. Fars ned cea olan. 1, = fi low velocity, V. However, ifthe eon volume sreetey Br comets with respect time, then the contol surface snorted ond ag Fa, 2.8 bs the eelate Mow velocity—ie.s I, = (ra Wy where Wigan Felocity ef the contrel surface at section I for inflow and at section 2 fo ge Tow. Both Vand Hare measured with espect to coordinate ates, Hones a Benera fom of Eq, 2.8 for a expanding or contacting conta vlune having ‘one-dimensional flo. is = 2 ddl tase ~ Wiha ~ topaur ~ Wil, 2.9) This is the Reynolds transport theorem relating the system propenis to those in the corirol volume, 2.3 CONTINUITY EQUATION® To derive the continuity equat we shall apply the law of conservation of mass, Let us consider the flow of a compressible fluid in a conduit having clastic walls, Let the contol surface be composed of sections | und ? and the inside surtace of the conduit walls (Fig, 2.2), Due to pressure changes, the conic! Solus may shorten oF elongate, Let the velocity (with respect tthe Coomdinate axes) of sections 1 and 2 due to this contraction or expansion be W, and Il, respectively. Let us assume that the flow is one dimensional and pres: Mineo ag ptt atthe end seetions ofthe contol volume. The racial velocity {eo mudtal expansion and contraction teing small isnot included inthe apa 2a How sver, the effects of ratial expansion and contraction ate important and are taken into account, The distance x, flow velocity ¥ and discharge Q Will be corsidered positive in the downstream direction, (12 2P0t5 the Reynolds transport theorem for the conservation of mass, the intensive propeny of the Muid is mass/unit mass—ie lim Am/am = 1 Charan er eel Sections 2.3 and 24 based on te collate effows of Prfeane Clason Crome an the auth ee ae Figure 2.2. Detaition shett Un tution, since the mass of a system remains constant, dM, = 0. Hence, applying Eq. 2.9 0 the control volume shown in Fig, 2.2 with = I. we-cbraig fT od dy + pets ~ Wy ~ pau, a Wy) 0 eto Applying Leibnita's rule* to the first term on the left gives By POS BA ait 4 pebalVs — Wo = ayy — Wa 21D Noting that ddr = Wy and dey-dr = W, this equation simplifies to pg Gilad de + (DAV): ~ tay = 0 213 1a” (AV): ~ (wav ey Based on the mean value theorem," this equation becomes a ; Bedi + (nAY)s — A, = 0 2.13 whete Av = xy ~ 4). Dividing throughout by Av and lett we may write Eq. 2.13 us Av approach zero, *Acconling ths se Pro ‘According ths the (= AD, Where 4, cEa a Jay + dav 2.14) 54) + Sav) =0 c Expanding the terms in parentheses gives qn ll lan oe he oa! sph ay 2.15) a Pay tag + a + ave? : Rearranging tera, using expressions for the total throughout by pat gives tives, and dividing Ide 1da av 4 ov 2.16 pdt Adt” 3x ae re eatation in ems ofthe variables oF intrest, presie intensity, Pre nee SAPs the derivatives of p and Ain tems of and Pas ane We define the bulk modulus of elasticity, K, of a Mi by op 1m at ar fo agg 2) di RR ah Ade 7G et Us assume that the conduit walls are linearly elastic tie stress is pro- Pal ca? Smit). This is tre for most common materials sed te conduit walls (x, metal, wood, concrete). Then ae 2.2) where a the derivat hoop siess, 0; = axial stress and = Poisson's ratio To simplify Ther aatme that the conduit has expansion joints throughowr i length. Forothertypes of support conditions, the expressions rete wave speed Sermaellce sighily. these expressions are given in Section 2.7, and their ‘erivation is left as an exercise for the reatey (Problem 2.6), ai Therefore, for a conduit havi 8 expansion joins throughout is length, a, = 0, Hence, Eq. 2.29 econ 2) Now the np asin a inva ant havin ine pee py 7D ae er Inhere e = thickness of the conduit walls and D ‘he time derivative of Eq, 2.24. we obtain Pdd Dap dt 20d * Xe e conduit diameter. By taking doy Based on Eq. 2.23, we can write Eq. 2.25 a5 pe Rd dD de ede 30 Eqs. 2.19 and 2.21, Eq, 2.26 becomes yD de D ay eDde , Dap 26 dt” 26 de 2.27 Dap M follows from Eqs. 2.21 and 2.28 that Dap dda Ady Substituting Eys. 2.18 aod 2.29 imo Bq. 2.16 and simplifying the resulting equation give 2.30)Since p/2 << eE/D in most applications, this equation may be written as avon \dp wetfis++\e-0 230 ark e Jar ' DK, Let us define 2.32) ‘Chapter 3 shows that a is the speed with which pressure waves travel back and fonh in an elastic conduit filled with slightly compressible fluid. Expressions fora for different suppor conditions and for other conduit parameters are given in Section 2.8. Substituting Fy, 2.32 and the expression for the total derivative into Eq, 2.31 “ 0 2.33) 3 This is called the continuity. equation, 2.4 MOMENTUM EQUATION For the conservation of momentum, our extensive propery B is momentum ‘mV, Therefore, the corresponding intensive property B= tim VeAmam) =v ano According to Newton's second law of motion, the time rate of change of mo: ‘mentum of a system is equal to the sum of the forces exerted on the system by its surroundings, i.e., dys 5s de = aan Thus, substituting 3 = Wino Eq, 2.9 and using Eq. 2.34, we obtain at . | Vue + lea — yy — paw Wy, = ZF 2.35) Applying Leibnity's nate to the first term on the left-hand side of this equation and noting that aiyidr = W', and dv,/dt = Ws, we obtain i [Soares + anus ~ eave, + bed — WO), ~ [pA(Y — HV), = EF 02.36) Figure 2.3. Notation for momen Simplifying this equation, applying the mean-val lue theorem to the first term, and dividing throughour by Ac give (eAV i = (pAb), SE ac a a 4 Spa + The fotlowi forves are acting on the control volume (Fig. 2.31 Pressure force at section 1. F. = pia, 38) where p = pressure intensity and the sections subscripts refer to the corresponding Pressure force at section 2. £., = py 2.3% Pressure force on the convergi F, 2.40) Component of the weight of duid along the conduit centerline. F. = pgdurs — x3) sin@ (241) Where @ angle the conduit makes with the horizontal ithe conduit elevation increases in the dewnstream it is considered pasitive direction, Now Shear force. F, = mxDiry — xy) 242) shear stress berween the fluid and the conduit walls If We consider the downstream flow din qs. 2.38-2.42 that iS positive, it follows fromPili — Pods — Mp + py — Ay) ~ pgAGy ~ x)sin 8 romDUx — xy) 2.43) MP = PMAY + A ~ pedtey — xysin 6 ~ roxDoxy ~ xy) 4H Dividing Eq, 44 by Av = xy ~ x, gives oF = PMA, + AQ as 2a ~ ped sin 8 ~ roxD 2.45) Substituting Eq, 2.45 into 2.37 and letting Ax approach zero in the limit give a a ROA + 00d Reliable procedures for computing frequency-dependent friction for practical applications are not presently available, although investigations" have been carried out for this purpose. Therefore, it is an accepted practice to assume that the head losses during the transient state for a given flow velocity are the same as in steady flows at that velocity. Therefore, by the Darcy-Weisbach friction formula of ean where f = Darey-Weisbach friction factor, Note that we are writing Vas VIM] to automatically take care of reverse flows. Substituting this expression into Eq. 2.46 and expanding the terms in parentheses give a woe av Vora) + oA — + pany + pave gd + od B+ Vea) + pay a af Vi +A ped sind + 2.88) ae * 08 Rearranging gives (2 2 inarr| + pa + pav ieee eee came eae ap af Vi + A + pus sing 4 PVM gia 4g Aart ped sing 4 AT 9) According to the continuity equation (Eq. 2.14), the sum of the two terms in the brackets is zero, Hence, dropping the terms inside the brackets and dividing the resulting equation by pA, we obtain wv ae ap c oe sing 4 a Var pa 2D ° 12.50) This is called the momentum equation 5 GENERAL REMARKS ON CONTINUITY AND MOMENTUM UATIONS ‘The continuity and momentum equations (Eis. 2.33 and 2.50) describe tran Sient-state Flows in clos ed conduits. In these equations, there are two indepen dent variables—distance x and time rand two dependent variables Hee era Oat Other caries ao" tandlD ere acn See and usually do not change with respect 10 time, ‘They may, hmever he hance {ins of x. Although wave speed a depends on the characteristics wt the conden Finca an the fluid properties, laboratory tests! have shown that is sip nificantly reduced by a reduction of pressure above the liquid vapor pressure. 7 pressure even when the presstre remains Fiction factor F usually. varies with the Reynolds number. However, the effects of such a variation of f on inane conditions are small and can usually be Equations 2.33 and 2.50 ave a set of first-order partial lifferemtial equations, Mi Shall now determine the type of these equations so that sane qutitatiog observations can be made for their solution, and sw ean be selected for numerically integrating them, In matrix form, Eqs. 2.33 and 2,50 may be written as a(?) pa 5 ah fey ny We J 5 ea 2.53The eigenvalues, d, of matrix B determine the type of the set of equations The charactetistic equation’ of matrix B is vow es Hence, » Via 12.55 Since both eigenvalues are real and distinct, Eqs, 2.33 and 2.50 are a set of hhyperbotic panial differemtiat equations. This type of equation represents the Phenomenon of wave propagation Equations 2.33 and 2.50 are valid for unsteady, nonunifom flow of com: Pressible fluids in elastic conduits. Steady flow is a special case" for which governing equations may be derived from these two equations by dropping the {erms representing the local variation of pressure and velocity with respect to lime 1 ie., dpidr and 31%8r of Eqs. 2.33 and 2.50 are both zero. Therefore for steady flow, Eqs, 2.33 and 2.50 become dp dv on 1236 ac * dy WD cine Mg en aoa D Note that bow we are not using partial derivatives in these equations since p and V are functions of «only, Ht follows from Eq. 2.56 that Wap ae 12.58) & Substitution tion give expression into Eq. 2 1g the resulting equa- Via = Mach number. By substituting Eq. we obtain 9 imo Eg. 2.58 and WAP sin + PYiBIID, 2.601 av 1 For nonzero V, it is clear from Eq. 2.60 that the velocity gradient, dVids. is not zero and the pressure gradient, dpide, is not constant, The reason is that the mass density of the Muid and flow area of the conduit are Functions of x IF itis necessary in s panicular application to include alt the terms of the governing equations, then the initial conditions should be determined from Fags, 2-5) am! 2.60 if the inital conditios ae steady. However, in most engineering problems, some terms af the governing equations are very small compared te mimes ims and muy be dropped. This considerably simplitis the analysis without significantly affecting the accuracy of the computed results. These oy Plified equations are derived im the next section 2.6 SIMPLIFIED EQUATIONS. kn most engincering applications, the convective acceleration terns, Hjplaxy and VOV/de)- are very small compared to the ther terms. Silat. the slope Em {S usually small and may be neglected. Therefore, dropping these tere from the governing equations, we obtain 261) I's 4 common practice in hy draulic engineering to compute pressures in the Pipeline in terms of the piezometric head, H. above a specified datum and use the discharge. Q. as the second variable instead of the flow velovty V. The Dressure intensity p and discharge Q may be written ay vam 2.62) O=va { in which ¢ = elevation of the pipe centerline. Now, let us assume that the fluid is slightly compressible, and the conduit walls are slightly deformable. There fore, we may neglect the variation of p and flow area A due to variation of the inside pressure. However, these small varitions of p and are indieectly taken into account by considering the wave speed a to have finite value, Note that it the Muid is considered incompressible und the conduit walls are assumed rid, then the wave speed becomes infinite. Therefore, a pressure or velocity change §s fet instantaneously throughout the system. For a horizontal pipe. asd ©. Hence, it follows from Eq. 2.62 that, with these assumptions, dp /at ge(0H4/a1) and dp/ax = pg (@H/Ax). Substituting these relationships into Eqs. 2.61 and 2.62, we obtain o 2.63)ae 20. MH , een Soy tons comepontng Fs 26a 2.61 mes obi (2.65) ‘here AH ~ head toss in length + fora flow of Q. This equation isthe same as the Darcy- Weisbach friction formula 1° gutta. steady-state conditions should be computed from Eqs. 2.56 and ©-97 I Eqs. 2.33 and 2.50 are the goveming equations. Howes it Simplified tom of the governing equations (i... Eqs 2.63 and 2.64 i aed The rae atsered as constant along the pipe, and the pleometic head along the ibe ' compuicd from Eq. 2.65. For the inital steady-state contin. ach ro listant discharge and computing the head by using the Darcy. Weis, bach fonnuly wil give erroneous results if complete equations (Eqs, 33 aed 2.50) ate the governing equations Je ve detwvation, we used the Darcy-Weishach formula to compute the fnction losses. Ifa general exponential formula had been used for teens loses, then the lst term of Eq. 2.65 could be written as KOIQI”" DP. with whe Sea A pt-ant b depending on the formula employed. For example, fer rma, m = 0.85 and B = 4,87. If correct values of m ara ? at wed, the results are independent of the formula employed: re. the Rives, Mevshich and the Hazen-William formulas would give comparsbie re sults 1? Ie shall ue Exs, 2.63 and 2.64 herein. However. if any of the above as: EumPtions ate not satisfied. then complete equations, Eqs. 2.33 and 2 50, show be used in the a 2.7 VELOCITY OF WATERHAMMER WAVES An expression for derived in Section A of ais fluid, the velocity of waterhammer waves depends upon the sl rice clade is 88 well as on the extemal constean's. Elastic prop. Eales amsluke the conduit size, wall thickness, and wall material; the extend Sonsteainis nclude che type of supports and the freedom of conduit movement in the longitudinal direction, The bulk modulus of elasticity ot a uid depends ‘upon its temperature, pressure, and the quantity of undissolved gases. Pearsall!” has shown that the wave velocity changes by about | percent per 5°C. The Muid compressibility is increased by the presence of iree gases, and it has been found'* that 1 part of air in 10,0°0 pans of water by volume reduces th by about 50 percent.* Solids in liquids have similar but less drastic influence, unless they are com= Pressible. Laboratory" ara prototype tests'* have shown that the dissolved gases tend to come out of solution when the pressure is reduced, even when it emans above the vapor pressure. This causes a significant reduction in the w locity. ‘Therefore, the wave velocity for & pasitive wave may be higher than thar of a negative wave. Further prototype tests are needed t» quantity the re, duction in the wave velocity due to reduction af pressure Halliwell presented she Following general expression for the wave velocity OO NTE in which 9 is a nondimensional parameter thai depentis upon the clastic prop- enties of the conduit; £ = Young's modulus of elasticity of the conduit walls and K and p are the bulk moclulus af elasticity and density of the fluid, respee= tively. The moduli of elssticity of commonly used materials for conduit walls and the bulk: moduli of elasticity and mays densities of various liquids are fisted in Tables 2.1 and 2,2 Expressions for y for various conditions are as follows: wave velocity (2.66) EW) 1. Rigid Conduits veo 2.67) Thick-Walled Elastic Conduits 4 Conduit anchored against longitudinal movement throughout its length 2.68) the external and internal in which » = the Poisson's ratio and Rand R, radii of the conduit b. Conduit anchored azainst longitudinal movement at the upper end 2.69) “Fora derivation of expressions for he wave Velocity i pas liguid mistres, we Section 9.5.‘Table 2.1, Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio for vari materials. | Modu Table 2.2 Bulk modulus of elas tmospherie pressure, y KL Bulk Madatus of Elasticity, KP Material (GPa) Poisson's Ratio iguia (eat Aluminn alloys os73 0.38 Benzene 1s os Ashesos coment. sansite 4 Et! akohol 6 Brass 26-110 036 Cincenin 15 Cast io 0-170 025 Kerosene > Concrete 130 oous Merny 20 Copper worst oa ou 5 Gus. 46-78 028 Wate, res oy Lead 3817 ous Water se 5 Mild steed 200-212 on a a = Plastics bs: on Nylon Perspex 03s Polyetyene 046 Polystyrene og PVC rigs Rocks Granite 0 028 Limestone 38 21 Quanete 240-448 Sandstone 21548 028 sa 65. Siurcer: Compe rom Res 1-16 “To conven Eto» ail he ves even a this clunn by 148.038 « 1 ©. Conduit with frequent expansion joints RE +R? ¥ (8 oat ) 2.70) 3. Thin-Walled Elastic Conduits 4% Conduit anchored against longitudinal movement throughout its length v-2a-4) en in which D = conduit diameter and e = wall thickness b. Conduit anchored against fongitudinal movement at the upper end”? ¥ D ZU 05) 272 ‘Sources Compe am Re 8, 218 “To Searing the spite wigt wf the lig 9 8 muy the value sen sy cli eure "oom Kine a, mt the ves tenn he clvna by 148.088 4 ©. Conduit with frequent expansion joints ve 7a 4. Tunnels Through Solid Rock Haliwell!* has derived long expressions tor ¢ for lined snd unlined rock tunnels, Usually, the rock characteristics cannot be precisely estimated be cause of nonhomogeneous rack conditions and because of the presence of fissures. Therefore, in our opinion, using Halliwell’s expressions for prac tical applications is unwarranted. Instead, the following expressions based fon Parmakian’s equations” may be used a, Unlined tunnel v=) 74a) F=6) in which G = modulus of rigidity of the rack >. Steel-lined tunnel DE 5 Sees (2.78) °" G+ ke in which e = thickness of the steel finer anal = modulus uf elasticity of ste!. Reinforced Concrete Pipes ‘The reinforced concrete pipe is replaced by an equivalent stel pipe having equivalent thickness?” 4 o> Ee + 7 2.16) in which ¢, = thickness ofthe concrete pipe: A, and /, are the cross-sectional area and the spacing of steel bars, respectively; an E, = ratio of the mod ulus of elasticity of concrete to that of steel. Usually the value of E, vanes from 0.06 t0 0.1. However, tallow for any eracks inthe concrete pipe, valu of 0.05 is suggested.” Having computed e,, the wave velocity may Be erermined HOT ETI.66 using the modulus of elasticity of steel Wood-Stave Pipes ‘The thickness of a uniform steel pipe equivalent to the wood-stave pipe is determined trom Eq. 2.76 using E, = 3, ¢, = thickness of wood staves, and, and are the cross-sectional area and the spacing ofthe steel band, respectively. The wave velocity is then computed from Eq. 2.66. Polyvinyl Chlorite (PVC) and Reinforced Plastic Pipe Investigations repomted in Ref. 21 show that Eq, 2.66 can be used for computing wave velocity in the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and reinforced Dlastic pipes. provided a proper value of the modulus of elasticity for the ‘wall material is used, Noncircular Conduits The following expression for ¢ is obtained from the equation for the wave Velocity in the thin-walled rectangular conduits derived by Jenkner=* by using the steady-state bending theory and by allowing the comers of the conduit 10 rotate Bot _ 27m ised ° in which 2 = 0.516 ~ Sa) + 0.51d'by'I6 — Stbidi"]. ce = [1 + (ib) {1 + (aibi], b = width of the conduit longer side), and d = depth of the conduit (shorter side), Thorley and Guymer™ have included the influence of the shear force on the bending deflection of the thick-walled (He < 20) rectangular conduits while deriving the equations for the wave velocity. From these equations, the following expression is obtained for a thick-walled conduit having a square erass section: 2.78) in which ¢ = wall thickness, (F ~ e) = inside dimension of the conduit, and G = shear modulus of the wall material Based on the equations presented by Thotley and Twyinan,2" the falkow- ing expression is obtained for ¥ fora thin-walled hexagonal conduit. ¢ = 005 (!) (2.79) in which 1 = mean width of one of the flat sides of the hexagonal section 2.8 METHODS FOR Ss EQUATIONS SOLVING CONTINUITY AND MOMENTUM. As demonstrated previously. the momentum and continuity equations are quas linear, hyperbolic, panial differential equations. A closed-form sclution ofthese equations is not available. However, by neglecting or linearizing the nonlinear terms, various graphical” and analytical"®~ methods have been developed These methods are approximate and cannot be used to analyze large system or systems having complex boundary conditions. Since the availability of digital computers, the following methods have heen used for numerically integrating nonlinear, hyperbole pata tferemil equa ‘ions 1. method of characteristics!*?2%" 2. finite-difference methods 3. finite element method"? 4. spectral method™ 5. boundary-integral method*® The method of characteristics hus become quite popular and is extensively used For the solution of one-dimensional, hydraulic transient problems (especially if the wave specd is constant), this method has proven to be superior to other methods in several aspects, such as correct simulation of steep wave fronts, illustration of wave propagation, ease of programming, and efficiency af com Putations. This method is discussed in detail in the next chapter: and its use and necessary boundary conditions are developed in Chapters 4-10. The finite-dif- ference methods may be divided into two categories: explicit and implicit. Both of these categories have several schemes, Implicit methods usually have the advantage that they allow larger time steps. However, if t00 large a step is used then the accuracy of the scheme is adversely affected and sometimes numerical ascillations arc produced that may yield totally incorrect results. Both of these methods are briefly discussed in Chapter 3, The finite element docs aot offer any significant advantage for the solution of one-dimensional problems, and is‘not discussed inthis book, The spectral method has not proven to be very suit able for nonperiodic boundary conditions. The boundary-integral method has hot as Yet been shown to be very successful for efficiently handling the time. dependent problems compared to other available methods, especially if the so lution has shocks or bores. Neither of these methods are discussed further. 2.9 CASE STUDY ‘The data forthe steel penstock ofthe Kootenay Canal hydroelectric poser plan, owned and operated by British Colunibia Hydro and Power Authority are listed in the following table: watt Length Diameter Thickness, Pipe No. (an co ‘oom Remarks 1 2 pansion coupling atone end 2 aos in concrete For conducting a transient analysis. the waterhammer wave velocity in each section of the penstock was determined as follows, The values of E for steel, G for concrete, and K and p for water were taken as 207 GPa, 20.7 GPa. 2.19 GPa, ans 999 kg/m’. spectively Pipe No.1 D_ on P= SI e 0.019 4 As the pipe is anchored at one end, ¥= 2a - 0.0 S31 = 0.15) (Eq. 2.72) 100.05 K fall + «KIENS) = 0.0106 Eq, 2.66) flamer 59517 0.0106 x 300.05 Pipe No. 2 Equations fora stee-Hined tunnel may be used to compute the wave velocity in Pipe No, 2 nae "G+ ke 5.55 x 207 x 10" 20.7 x 10? x 3.55 + 207 x 10x 02 = 9.62 (Eq, 2.75) 219 x10) 99911 + 0.0106 x 9.62) 1410 mis, 2.10 SUMMARY in this chapter, the derivation of the momentum and continity equations were Femeniat and the assumptions used in these derivations were discussed. Wns demonstrated that these equ duits were presented PROBLEMS. 2. Derive the momentuun equ uid is compressible the vonduit walls are rigid aad the 22, Compute the velocity of wateshammer waves in a 3.08. having a wal thickness of 25 mm iti 1. is embedded in a concrete dam 2. is anchored atthe upstream end 3. has expansion joints throughout its length 2.3. Determine the velocity of waterhat mer waves ina reinforced concrete pipe having 125-m diameter, 0.15-m wall thickness, and caring water, The 2h2a, a 23. 2a, RE f facing bors havea spacing 00.5 m, and he pipe hs expansion ois throughout its length, cesar tnmete copper pipe having a wall thickness of 25 mm is conveying kerosene oll at 20°C from a container oa valve, Ifthe valve iselsed nsanthe [i Btat velocity would the pressure waves propagate in the pipe? Assume the pine is anchored atthe upper end Figure 513 shows the power cont an underground by soelecic power on Comte he nave ean nea sa a ee of rigidity of rock = 5.24 GPs Derive the continuity equation if the conduit i Jp anchored against longitudinal movement throughout its length 2 anchored against longitudinal movement at the upper end ‘SWERS 1413 mis 992 mis 978 mis 1 ans 1232 mis -FERENCES Roberson, 1A. and Crowe, C7 in, Boston, 198. White, Fo M., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hil, New York, 1979, Enuinecring Fluid Mechanics, Thine €., Houghton Mit S Noli, © Re Advanced Enuincering Mathematics, Thad ition, McGraw-Hill Book Co, New Yor, tt Toten, Srengh of Mae, Seon Edi, Pam 2. Vn Ns Co Yes . Za, W.,“Freaunsy-Depenent Fron Tans Pipe ow. Jaw, as Engineer fs Amer So. Mech Engrs Mah ie arm J.T. and Leon RG. Simple Vet Teorey Bal Te Doin Mal fe is Transm Line Systems Jr Plas Prensa, Teh ae a ae Engr vl 98. Dee 173: pp. 36-508 Taha, A. Kan Elicit Method frStulating Fegeney-Depentet Fin in Ta New Linvid Flow. Jour Fad Encinorng ner‘ took Ege a Ta 1375, op 97-108 Ho me ““Frequency-Dependent Wall Shear in Transient Fluid Flow ‘Simulation of Un~ Sealy Tren Fw." Mater Thess, Maat of Tein een Ranga, BR. and Te 6. W.. Fly Declpe Fenaie Tuben Ree tee oa Se Experimental Dat and Pitan.” Jour Fd Melo 19 ah he 3 on New i % Remspran. BR. “A Review of Experiments in Pei Turbulent Pe Fh Sei kseads Tarte Boundars Laver and Frevea ae Sinkdt) Amer. Sow. Mech. Engrs. Feb. 1964, on, fie 10. Sweater, VL iu Pa even. DC aii Monin c so 1H Ang, 1 8S-20n8, 1 Pero et oe pay oF Waetamnes Wass" Pre. Sposa en resin Pine: rent Afeh nr. Eagan, vot, Pan senna pp.12-37 We Hatiel&R.“Velcty ofa Wathunmer Ware as hee Pipe. four, Hints Peni, S2, Cel Ene, vB, No HY. ly Toes ep 16 Reena eA of Surg, Maca and Co. ad tae hy IT soar: te Formats for Sess and Sain, th ed Neen Book, New vi 1 fell Mode, Maa of Engnecig Prtine No 25 ge oF Hyd Dy Research, Amer. Soc. Civil Enpincerg, July 1942 ME RRDEM T (6h Sundar Hane for Melani Engineers, tem Book Co., New York, 1967 10, ol EB a Stctet, V.L.. Fluid Tantens, FEB Pros, Br Grmuthian 1 Muterhanmer Anas, Dover Pabloaen a 21 Waters G. 2. Jeppson, W.,and lane forced Plastic Pipe." Jour, Hd. Die Sri Aa Atbor. MI, 1943 New York, 1s Water Hammer in PVC al Rein Amer Soc. Civil Engrs. 0h. 102, ils 1956. ty. aa Jes ae Diession by Gb. sand Sumer A 3 yee a 7% lenhner, W. Ri. “Ober die Drackstosgeschwintien Robrcitngen nit yalatschen oy, MSHHER Querchiten.” Sehveceiche Baacenag ec a an pp 3 38. Thosey, A. R. D. and Guymee,G., DF Rectangular Cross Section Sem. 1976, pp. 455-460, M4 Tholey, A. RD and Tyan, J. W. “Popa Sotium Cooled Fast Reactor." Proc. Second Cont ty Batish Hydromechanics Research Asso. 1997) Rees atertaner isda and Wie Surges in Hea ha Wiley & Sons, tne, New York, 1961 37 REN, GR Hsdrulc Trnsiems, Dover Publications, tne. New Yok, 1963, Meal 6, MT Appcaon of Heavies Operation] Cou’ tn Soliton of Pros ERE Methane" Tram. der. Soe Bech, Engrs vot aoa 1997. pp wR A Lie Me oThe Numeral Soon of tlyperuie Pane oie tN qutions by the Day acta a alo, A and WL HL Sta he a on aon Ganntes loka Wie & Sons, te, ew Ver, hp. a 2%. Smt M. Bs An Introduction w the Method 2) Chars ened “American Elssier. New Fressre Surge Propagation in Thick-Walled Conoie Jou. Flat Engineering, mer. Soc Mech. Eager ct Eaton of Transient Pressure Waves in ‘om Pressure Sarges, Landon. publisher 3. Steet, V. Land Lai, ‘tranlics Die, Amer. Soe ‘Waterhammer Analysis Wicuding Fluid Friction WoL BB, No. HY3, May 1962, pp 11> 3 Pethins. FE, Tediow, "Hyde poser Phan sect Fan Mand I Dept of Civil Engncenme, Madani Repu No 1H, Massachusets Insite of Technology. Sep tee our He Gil Engrs,2 Dian G. D- Numerical Solution of Paral Diferential Equation, Second Ea, Clarendon Press, Oxfork 1978. 28 CUNNE M1 "Numerical Slaton of Tansen Flow Eqns” Frc, dale Spe ciate Con, Amer. Soe. Civ, Engrs. 1983, pp. 653-660. 3 Thauliy, MH. and Yevjevish, V., Clsed:Cond Flow, Water Resources Pubiions, Linctoa, CO, 1981 25 Chasey, MH. and Husaii, M.Y., “Second-Order Explicit Methods for Tansie: Flow Bay it Mimeical Metods or Fluid Transins Analysts, Matin, C- 8. and Chouthoy MW. (eds.), Amer. Soe, Mech, Engr. 1983, pp. 9-18 26; Wetoway, MB. and Chawhy, M, "Stability and Accuracy of Waterhammer Analysis Advincesin Water Resources, vol. 8, Sept 1985. pp. 31-128, 3a, Qiks TJ. Finite Element Analyt in Ftd Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New Yoek, 1978 3 Gu A}. ite Element Computational Fd Mechanics, MsGraw Hil. New Yea Toh 39, Geutteb, D. and Orszag, $. A., “Theory of Spectal Methane for Mined b Val Boundary Pans Vand Ml, ICASE, NASA Langley Reseach Center, Homplon, Van, (10. Lissou, J... “The Boundary Element Method—Some Fluid Application,” in MtulicDic esstomal Fluid Transients, Chaudhry, M. H. and Manin, C. 8. feds). Amer. Soe Mec Eng. Dee, 1981, pp. 1-6 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Jogton se. Ni.“Waterhmmer,” Translated by O, Simin, Proc. Amer. Mater Works Asoc. ok 24, 1966, pps alas Keaniver. H. F.. "Surge Wave Velocity Concrete Pressure Pipe,” Trans. Amer. Sot Meck Ener. Aug, 196, pp. 1323-1328 Tian. Permanente cont pemanent somingen door ledge in Kunst," Thess pe SEG 2th Uniersty of Ghee, Ghent Helgi, inp alfllment ofthe event ee the dese of doctor af engineering, 1960 Mock EL“ Modelitetandlug von Dracistossprobleme mit Hilfe von Kursttotfohre,” Mit {ciluns No. 56 Init for Wasserbau and Wasserwinschat, Techrieal University. Resa ote Relies & sand Lindvall. G. K. E.,""A Laboratory Investigation of Tramien Precsare Wives sy Tone SetConerste Pps," Prac, 104 Inematonal Aso. for Hydvaul Research, Lonion 1968, 5p. 47-83, Ssamimitan.K. V..“Watrhammes Wave Velocy ia Concrete Tunel,* Water Power, March 1908. 17-121 Those A. RD. “Pressure Translens in Hydeaulics Pipelines,” Aimer. Soc. Mech. Engrs Paper No, 68-WiVFE2, Dec, 1968, 8 pp Sepia J Ac The Inlunce of Bends on Fluid Transients Popagted in fcompresile Pipe Ru Proc. Insttuton of Mech. Engrs, wl. 83, Pant L, No 29, 1968-99, psa ola eat itd Funk J... °"A Boundary-Layer Theory for Transiem Viscous howe star RUAN Flow." Jour, Basic Engineering, Trans. Amer, Soc Mech. Engrs, Sores Bray We No 4. Dee. 1970, pp. 865-875, woke ME. Sete VL, and Larsen, PS, “An Investigation ofthe Eee of Cavitation Ma 2a the Momentum Loss in Transient Pipe Flow," Jour lic Engine dno han Mech. Engrs, Match 1971, pp. 1-10, Salat “tH. Measurement of Transient Flow Velocities for Watedammer Appliations,* ter Soe af Mech. Engr. Papet No, 71-FE-2, May 1931, 8p METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS AND FINITE-DIFFERENCE METHODS 3.1 INTRODUCTION 4n the last chapter, it was demonstrated that the equations describing the trin- sient state flow in closed conduits are hyperbolic, partial differential equations, and a number of numerical methods available for their solution were discussed The details of the method of characteristics" ” are presented in this chapter, The equations for simulating a conduit are derived, and the boundary conditions for a number of simple end conditions are developed. The stability und convervence criteria for a finite-difference scheme are then presented. An explicit and an implicit finite-difference method are briefly introduced and a procedure for the analysis of piping systems is outlined, The chapter concludes with the presen. tation of a case study, We will endeavor to keep the derivation of the equations free of advanced ‘mathematics. Readers having an elementary knowledge of partial differential equations should be able to follow the development of these equations: those inierested in a rigorous treatment should refer to Refs. 1 through 3 3 CHARACTERISTIC EQUATIONS To facilitate discussion, let us rewrite the momentum and continuity equations (Eqs. 2.64 and 2.63) derived in the last chapter as a y= 2 cas Roig} =o an <0, aH oy Hog an eae in which R = J12D4), Let us conser u fnear combination of Eq, 3.4 and 32, he, Leb +My sna0 HS ann 2) nga (2 +5 5H) + ne10l IH = Hix, 1) and Q = Q(s, 9, then the total detivative 42 _ 90 , aga de 7 3r * a dt and a od, at de dt ne ae By defining the unknown multiplier \ as lide ee Sake x and by usin Eqs. 3.4 and 3.5, Eq. 3.3 can be written as at a di ee o : 63) oa B.6) 87 G8) 69 G.10) Ban te that Eq. 3.8 is valid if Eq. 3.9 is satisfied and that Eq. 3.10 is valid if Eq. 311 is satistied. In other words, by imposing the relations given by Eqs 3.9 and 3.11, we have eliminated one independent variable, x, and have con? verted the partial differential equations 3.1 and 3.2 into ordinary differential ‘equations in the independent variable, r. However, we have paid a price for this simplification: Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2 were valid everywhere in the x-t plane, Eq 3.81s valid only along the sttuight line (if a is constant) given by Eq. 3.9, und Eq, 3.10 is valid only along the straight line described by Eq. 3.11 {nthe x-r plane, Eqs. 3.9 and 3.11 represent two stright lines having slopes 4a, These are called characteristic tines, Mathematically, these fines dive the 1 plane into wo regions, which may he dominated by two different kinds OF solution, ie., the solution may be discontinuous along these lines.” Physis cally, they represent the path traversed by a disturbance, For example, a dies turbance at point (Fig. 3.1) at time 4, would reach point P after time Ay Prior to presenting @ procedure for solving Eqs. 3,8 and 3.10. let us fist discuss the physical significance of characteristic lines in the «1 plane. To facilitate discussion, let us consider a single pipeline shown in Fig. 3.2, The compatiblity equations (Eqs. 3.8 and 3.10) are valid along the pipe length (ue, for 0 < x < L) nd special Boundary conditions are required atthe ends (ie atx = Oand at x = Ly (Fig. 3.3). In the example under consideration, there is a constunt-head reservoir at the upper end (at x = 0) and a valve at the dosn. Stream end (at v = 1), and the transient conditions are produced by closing the valve, Let us assume that there is steady flow in the pipe at time 1 = 0 when the valve is instantaneously closed. This reduces the flow through the valve to 2210 and results in a pressure nse atthe valve. Because of this pressure rise, a Pressure wave travels in the upstream direction, If the path of this wave is Plotted on the x-r plane, it will be represented by the line BC as shown in Fig 3.4. Ths clear from this figure that the conditions in Region I depend ony upon the inital conditions because the upstream boundary conditions did pot change, ‘whereas in Region HT they’ depend upon the conditions imposed by the dawn. teat —choracterisne Lines Figure 3.1. Characteristic tines in s- planeReservoir ven ‘ py Figure 3.2, Single pipetine Region of Vatiany of Compatibility Equations (£95 38 ond 3.10) ‘Upstreom Boundary Conditions Downstream Beundory Conditions “ lial Conditions Figure 3.3. Regions of validity fora stream boundary, Thus, the characteristic line BC separates the two types of Solutions. If excitations are imposed simultaneously at points A and B, then the region influenced by the initial corditions is as shown in Fig. 3.$: the charae femstic Hine AC separates the regions influenced by the upstream boundary and Region IL Figure 3.4. ENeitaton at downstream end, Figure Excitation a upstream and downstream ctu the initial conditions, and the line BC separates the regions influenced by the downstream boundary and the initial conditions, In other words, the character. istic Hines on the.x-r plane tepresent the traveling paths of perturbations initiated at various locations in the system, Let us assume that we know the Head, ff, and discharge, Q at time ¢ = f, ‘These ure cither initially known (i.e., at r= 0, these are initial conditions), oe they were calculated during the previous time step, We want to compute the ‘unknown values of Mand Q at time = 1, + St Referring 1o Fig. 3.1. let us say'that we know the values of Q and #1 at points A and B and we want to determine theit values at point P. This can be dane by solving Eqs. 3.8 and 3,10 as follows By multiplying the left-hand side of Eq. 3.8 by dr and imteyeating, we obtain nee lola anWe shall use subscripts and P to indicate locations in the 1-1 plane: e.8.. Qp is the discharge at point P. Since Eq, 3.8 is valid only along the characteristic Hine AP, we have used the limits for integration from point to point P. We can easily evaluate the first two integral tems of Eq. 3.12. However, We cannov do so for the third term, representing the friction losses. because we Go not explicitly know the variation of Q with respect to f. By using a first order approximation, we may evaluate the integral of the third tenn as 8 | lo) tr = ROO. ~ 19 = ROO,)ar B13 Jn other wonls, we are saying that for the evaluation of this tenn. Q remains constant from point 4 to point P, Hence, Eq. 3.12 becomes Cr O14 ity — t+ RarQlOi=0 iy Note that Fy. 3.14 is exact except for the approximation of the friction term, ‘This frstonler approximation usually yields satisfactory rests for typical en gineering applications, However, as we shall discuss in Section 3.4, it the fries tion term becomes farge, then the first-order approximation may yield unstable results, To avoid this, we may use a shorter computational interval As or use 4 higher-onscr approximation or an iterative procedure 10 evaluate the friction term. For esample, a second-order approximation of the integral of the thied term of Eq. 3.12 would be R J) 101 ar = 0.5R 110,104) + Orlonin G.15a) ‘Ths fs Commonly refered to as the trapezoidal rule. Two other possible ap- proximations fir the friction term are , ef 2101 = Rar SFO 3.156) and R \ O10{ dr = R41 /0,10, B.15e) Since the value of Opis unknown, an iterative procedure has to be used tor the approximations of Eqs, 3.1Sa and 3.15b, Approximation of Eq, 3.15e, how. ever. results in a linear equation (like Eq, 3.14) that may be directly snlved 2 BY proceeding sumilarly, we may write Eq. 3.10 as 4 On = Oy ~ 9S Ho ~ He) + RQ Og: = 0 a0 By combining the known variables together. we may wile Ey, 3.14 as Op = C, - CMy ain and Eq. 3.16 as Oe = C+ Cy 13.18) eA + En, ~ R00,) 49) (2.20) and ean Note that Eg. 3.17 is vali along the positive characteris fine 1P and 3.18 along the negative characteristic line BP (Fi 3 1). The value ot the van tants Cp and Cy are known for each time step. and the constant C. depends upon the conduit properties. We will reizr to Eq. 3.17 as the punitive charaes leriie equation and Ea. 3.18 as the negative charactetistic equation. In kay, 3.17 and 3.18, we have two unknowns, namely. Hp and Qn. The valnes of {hese unknowns ean be determined by simultaneously solving these equations, ie, = OSG, + Cy a2 Now the value of Hp can be determined either irom Eq. 3.17 oF Eq, 4 18. Thus, by using Eqs. 3.17 and 3.22. conditions at all interior points see Fis. 3.61 at the end of the time step can he determined. However, at the boundaries, either Fg. 3.17 oF 3.18 is available. Therefore. as discussed, we need speciat bout ary conditions to determine the conditions at the boundaries at time 1. + Ar “ro illustrate the use ofthe above equations, we will again consider the single Pipeline of Fig. 3.2. The pipeline is divided into a reaches (Fig. 3.6), cach having length dc. The ends of these reaches ate called sections, axes, vr grid points, The end sections of each pipe are reterred! 10 as boundaricn, an thefear fer ar Len [or bes Las.) © Interior sections 4% Downstraem boundery © Upstream boundary Figure 3.6. Characteristic gid sections excluding the boundaries are called interior sections, interior nodes, (oF interior grid poins The steady-state conditions at the grid points at ¢ = 1, are frst computed. Then. to determine the conditions at 1 = 1, + Ar, Eqs. 3.17 and 3.22 are used for the interior points, and special boundary conditions are used for the end points. A close took at Fig. 3.6 shows that the conditions at the boundaries abr 1, + Mf must be known for calculating the conditions at 1 = 1, + 2At at the interior points adjacent to the boundaries. Now conditions at r = 1, + 2Ar are determined by following the procedure just outlined. In this manner, the computations proceed step-by-step until transient conditions for the requited time are determined 3.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS In the last section we discussed that special boundary conditions are required ‘ determine the transient-state head and discharge at the boundaties, These are developed by solving Eqs. 3.17 or 3.18, or both, simultaneously with the con. ditions imposed by the boundary. These conditions are in terms of special re lationships that define, at the boundary, the discharge, the head, or a relation. ship betwscen them, Equation 3.17 is used for the downstream boundaries and Bq. 3.18 for the upstream boundaries. We shall designate the upstream and downstream ends with reference to the ‘aitial-Mlow direction even though the flow may reverse during the transient slate. A section at the upstream end of a conduit shall be numbered section | and the one at the downstream end ay section n+ 1, assun divided into n reaches. To specify variables at differen o ‘v0 subscripts: The first subscript desi nig the conduit is tions, we shall use ates the conduit number. and the see fond indicates the section number. For example, Q,. represents flow atthe sth Séetion ofthe ith conduit. For variables that have the same value at all secret of conduit, only one subscript will be used. For example. C, teferstocomnnne (EQ, 3.21) for the ith conduit. Although C, ata! C, may have differen veloc a different sections of a conduit, only one subscript will be use! with them ny indleate the conduit number. This simplifies the presentation and docs not revolt, in any ambiguity, since each conduit can have only one end section ats bowel any. As discussed previously, the subscript P indicates unknown vanables ag the end of the time step. A number of simple boundary conditions are developed in this section. Com. Plex boundary conditions, such as for pumps and turbines, are dered in Chap fers 4 and 5 and. for waterhammer control devices, in Chapter 0) Constant-Level Upstream Reservoir In this case, it is ussumed that the water level in the reservoir remains constant uring the trinsientstate conditions, This will normally he the cave tf the en ervoir volume is large, In many situations (e.g... large surge tank), the changes in the reservoir level may be small during the period of interes. In such eaces, the boundary may be analyzed as a constant-level reservoir instead of taking minor changes in the level into account. Such an approximation simplifies the analysis considerably and does not introduce large errors in the computed re sais, Let the entrance losses be given by the equation 40}, he 82) in which k is the coefficient of entrance loss. Then, referring to Fig. 3.7a, we obtain G. Hp, = Hy (+ 8) B24) in which H,.. = height of the reservoir water surface above the datum, This equation specifies the condition impused by the reservoir boundary it gives us a relationship between the head and the discharge at section | of the ‘th conduit and their relationship to the water level in the reservoir To devetop the boundary condition, we have to solve this equation simultaneously with theConstant-Levet Downstream Reservoir Energy Grade Line 20a an equation defining the telatonshipbeiucen the peconeans ei eee S A and the reservoir level and then im , vel and then solve it simultaneously p a aa sol the positive charac: | ‘eatic equation, Eq. 3.17. Following derivation will clarify the procedure, Wthe head tosses at the entrance to the reservoir are ‘Mparaale Grade Line Conduit | conduit | 1 whee ie 3.30) then referring 1 Fig. 3.89 | beens ' | a Haga) = Has — (1 = by eet Ban Dea (a rc) 1 Elimination of Hp, fiom Egs. 3.31 and 3.17 yield Figure 3.7, Constant-level upstream reservoir. q a Eqs. 3.31 17 yields MOh. ~ On + G = Cay = 0 a3 ogative characteristic equation (Eq. 3.18). Elimination of Hp,, from Eqs, 3.18 at and 3.24 and simplification of the resulting equation yield K1Q5,, + Op, — (Cy, + CyHeg) = 0 (3.25) 3) sn which } = eee 3.26 3eat By solving Eq, 3.25 and neglecting the negative sign with the radical term, we obtain -1 + TP ARG, Or = — 6.27) Eoaray Grade Line. 2 Now, Hy, , may be determined from Eq. 3.18. For the reverse flow, k has a negative value in Eqs. 3.24 and 3.26. In this jase, the negative sign with the radical term is again neglected. If the entiance losses as well as the velocity head are negligible, then Hp, = Hes (3.28) in which He, 3.18 for the upst \cight of the reservoir water surface above the datum. Equation am end thus becomes (a () Oo, = Cy + Cy Hes 29 Figure 3.8, Constant-level doenstream reservar,* solving Eq. 3.32 and neglecting the postive sign with the radical term 1 TRG Ga a OS G34 Or = Poy eee may be determined from Eq, 3.17. For the reverse flow, & in Eq 33 is assigned a negative value. IF the exit loss and the velocity head are ni ligible, then Hy Hey G35) Fence it follows from Eq. 3.17 that Or = C= OMe, 3.36) Head End at Downstream End (Fig, 3.9) atthe dead end. Qy 0. Hence. irom the postive characteristic equation (24. 3.17), i follows that G, He a (3.37) valve at Downstream End ‘ady-state Hlow through a valve can be written as Oa, ICA TRF o.% ve hich subscript o indicates steady-state conditions, C, change, H,- efficient of ais- head upstream ofthe valve, and 4, = area ofthe valve opens Hf'Ne assume thatthe ransemtstae How though a valve may be described by an equation similar othe steady ow equines Oho, ICA Telin 3.39) Conduit | tint) Figure 89. Dead end, Dividing Eq. 3.39 by Eg. 3.38, aking square of both sides and defining the relative valve opening 7 = (C.4,y(C;, 4,),, we obtain 0, Oh ey, 8.40) Hh, Substation for Hp from the positive characteristic equation (Ly, 3.19) ino Eq 3.40 yields Qh... + Ce... in which Cy = (70,,,. PACH...) Solving for Qy,. negative sign withthe fadical tenis GG. =0 Bah and neglecting the On = 05-6 + VET ony Now Hp, ,, may be determined from Eq. 3.17 To comipate the transientstate conditions for an opening vr a closing valve 7 Versus 1 curves (Fig. 3.10 and c) may be specified either in a tabular form or by an algebraic expression. Nove that r = 1 corresponds to «valve opening at which the flow through the valve is Q,, under a head af #1 Hydroviie Grade Line (2) opening fe) ctosing Figure 3.10, Valve at downstream endFf feta Figure 3.11, Series Orifice at Lower End For an ortice, the opening remains constant Therefore, the above eq ‘may be used with + Series Junction (Fig. 3.11) smcknesses, wall materials, and/or friction factors IF the difference in the ve- locity heads at sections (isn + 1) and (rr 1, 1) ig. 3.11) and the head losses at the junction are neglected, then it follows taut the energy equation that Ha = tn, 0.4 yee ReEsive charters eons for sections t+ 1 and HN Dare : Gia = GC Hy G44) Gras Cus # Gary 3.45) ‘he continaty equation atthe junction is 6.461 "follows foom Eqs, 3.43 thnough 3-46 ther 6.47 NOW Hee Org nd Op, can be dletermined from Eqs. 3.43 through 4.45, Hrancbing Junction (Big. 3,12) For the branching junction shown in Fig, 312, the following equations can be written: 1. Continuity equation rar = Cris + Ons, 3.48) Fie0re 3.12. Branching junction, 2. Characteristic equations 2 B49) | r., (3.50) | Op, Bs Ie aoa enianonresr ear Ifthe ead tosses at the junction are neelected, and it is assamed th the int heads in all conduits are equal, {hen it follows fom the eneney equates that My = Hs = Hy 13.52) Simultaneous solution of Eqs, 34g through 3.52 yietds Hp, Oe Mal Hy, can be determined from Ey, 3.52; 0 Crs, 6am de determined from Ege ay through 3.51 Centrifugal Pomp at Upstream kind Fig. 3.13 shows a typical head-discharge ew 10" & centres! pump running magtnant speed. This is refered to weg PUD characteristic o¢ pump perfor fated une: The head developed by ihe prim when there is no discharge ts Galle the shuoff head, Hy. andl the head and discha ge When the pump effi. E Scy is maximum are called the rare) Head, Hand rated discharge, 0, Ng at constant speed may be apeHeod Discharge Figure 3.13. Mead-discharge curve for ae itupa pump. (Hay ~ H/Q2. Eq. 3.54 describes the relationship between the i and the discharge at the pump. Solving this equation simultaneously with ‘he negative characteristic equation (Eq. 3.18), we obtain -L4+ VES 4G, GIG, + mens er, 3.55) Now Hp, can be determined from Eq, 3.54 Francis Turbine at Downstream End The head discharge curve for a Francis turbine running at constant speed (1.¢., Sermeoted to a large system) and at constant gate opening can be approximeted 00) ‘quis this equation simultaneously with the positive characteristic equation (4. 3.17) yields 3.56) alt FIC GIG GG a ane 3.50 © 36, : Nov fp. canbe determined from Ea, 3.86, 34 CONVERGENCE AND STABILITY To havea resomaly accurate ners! slion of pana diferent equ ‘tons the finte-dfference approximations have to satisfy convergence and a bility conditions." Ty this section, we shall define some of the commonly seegStmts a4 present the stability criteria for the fini rhe ‘nce scheme of Section 3.2 Discretization Error fet Bs assume that UC, 2) i an exact solution of partial Uifferential equation Waving * and tos independent variables, and that wie rh eXaet solution of The nite-ditference equation approximating the panial sighs ential equation Then the difference (U ~ 1) iy refered wo asthe diserenane ertor. Ip other Hers: the discretization error is the ereor intrxluced wien replacing the partial Gerivatives by finite-difference approximations Truncation Error TUF = 0 tepresent the fnite-ifference equation a grid Point (3 x and jar, inthe ined SF the number oF the grid points inthe and hanes wre dat Plane. Now, if we substitute the exact solution oF she Panial differ rrumergluation, 1, into this finte-difference uation, FU ected uneation error" at ged point i. j) Consisteney U te truncation error tends 10 zero as both Ax and A tend yo zero, then the Aitfeence equation is said tbe consistent with the pamial stieon il equal Convergence thane difference scheme is said to be convergent ifthe exact solution, 1 of fhe fiite-difference equation fends tothe exact solution, Oo oe partial dite ferential equation as both Ax and Ar tend to zero {Lis dificult t develop the convergence conditions directly. However. pro. Bees have been developed to investigate the convergence at neon hyper: (et. Patial diferenial equations through stabil and cominiones ition, A finte-dfference scheme is convergent if itis comsiston wah me differentiat equation and if itis stable." Stabitity An exact soltion x, 1) ofa finite-diference equation willbe obtained only if Computations were performed to an infinite number of significam dais stowvers since calculations ure carried out to a finite number of digits even in {podem computers, round-off errors are introduced at each time step. Therefore {he numerical solution we obtain is different from the exact solution, In cerain situations, the roundoff error is amplified, whereas in ethers it may ‘kerease or remain the same when step-by-step computations ate performed Depending on what happens to the roundoff eror, a numerical scheme fe cand {0 be stable or unstable, I is said to he stable" if the amplifation of the ‘pundoff ert remains bounded forall sections i = 1 ton + 1) as time rents {0 infinity. If the roundoff error grows as the solution progresses, then the Scheme is called unstable. In the case of an unstable seheme, the evr uavelle Bros very rapidly in a few time steps and masks the actual solution, thereby making the computed results useless. Therefore, itis very imponam to knee whether some conditions, referred to as the stability conditions, have ta be satisfied for a pa me is said to be untondi- orally stable i it does not requite any such conditions for stability Methods for determining the convergence or stability criteria for nonlinear equations are not available. Collatz" suggests that the stability of 4 scheme ‘may be studied by numerically solving the equations for a number of axis fatios and then examining the computed results. Analytical procedures are however, available for determining the stability criteria for linear equations jherefore, the stability criteria for nonlinear equations are usally devermine! by linearizing or neglecting the nonlinear terms. It is reasonable to assume shar the criteria developed by such a procedure will be valid forthe original noning ar equations if the nonlinear terms are relatively small ae lability of a Fnite-dfference scheme may be investigated by using ra ted developed by von Neumann, In this method, which may be used only for linear equations, errors in the numerical solution at an instant of time ane Sapressed in a Fourier series, Then it i determined whether these errors decay Crow as time increases. A scheme is suid tobe stable ifthe errors decay with time and unstable if the errors grow as time increases, By hetlecting the nonlinear frietion term of Eq, 3.1 and following a proce Gur developed in Ref. 13, itcan be proved thatthe finite-diference scheme ap Section 3.2 will be stable if Ar > ar 8.581 This condition is referred to as the Courant-Friedrich-Lewy (CEL) stability con. dition, 1 implies thatthe characteristic lines through point Pin Fig. 3.14 mos intersect the line AB between AC and CB. The Courant number, Cy, is defined as the ratio ofthe actual wave speed 4, and the numerical wave speed. A.a/Af: ie F% ie 3.14. Notation fox Gee jaw” ay (3.59) Je rh numerical scheme tobe sable. the computational tin step, At and the Feach length, as. must be selected such that Cy 1. The faery heme of Section 3.2 will yield acceptable rests if this sutility vention ne must and the tction tem is small. The fntion term fast he sna HeaweNe stability condition was developed by completely neglecting thing ee qaation fictor large At, large change in discharge 40. an or spall conten Capeter then this scheme may become unstable even if a and ar sataty at CFI. condition, Friction factors ate usually lage in slur. pipelines ay ie unlined rock tunnels, whereas small con inered in sev- Se nemsral applications. Large ar values resulting in lrse + values nay be used to reduce computer time forthe analysis of long py fe necessitated by limited avaiable storage capacity. The later heccmee ne fePes yD When microcomputer are used forthe analysis ut tanscns In long Pipelines fs discussed inthe above paragraphs. the CFL condition given hy Eq, 4.58 fis developed by neglecting the friction term. We cannot develop cimact an A coreitions analytically if this tem is included inst nonlinear foo Te effect of this term on the stability of a scheme was investigated empineathe 2 fons 2 A piping system having a constan-level tesivuirat eo Stream end and a valve at the downstream end was analy red with lifer t diameters are enei lines, or it maysystem parameters, such as conduit length, diameter, initial and final flows, wave speed, friction factor, etc. The limits of stability were determined by ‘an ing the discharge and continously increasing .x (Cy was always equal ta Unity) until the solution became unstable, Se parameters—for exa al runs with different system ple. conduit length sand diameter, initial and final Mow s, wave speed. friction factor, and number of computational nodes—were made ‘w assure the general applicability of the stability limits. Runs were also made for instantaneously and slow! losing valves located at the upstream and down stream ends and for partial valve closures. The stability limits for these suns were found {0 be the same as those for the instantaneous, downstream valve closure, The friction term was approximated as given by Eqs. 3.13 and 18 These studies yielded the following stability limits for various approximations ‘of the trietion term: Kirst Onder Approximation (Eq. 3.13) Ce S05 Second-Order Approximation (Eq. 3.15a) Ce < 0.79 |-Onder Approximation (Eq. 3.15b) Ce < 0.56 in which Cy = f(XQW(49/(4D4). Von Neumann stability analysis? shows that the linear approximation of the friction term given by Eq. 3.15e yields stable results for any value of Cp. Empirical investigations reported in Ref, 14 confirm this conclusion 3.8 METHOD OF SPECIFIED INTERVALS 4m Section 3.2. the characteristics through P always passed through the 2 points 4 and B, For a single pipe, the computational time interval and spatial rid spacit ted such that this condition is satisfied: ive., 3 wat: However. if the wave speed depends on pressure (e.g. if the liquid hs entrained gases), or if there are more than one pipe in the sy sem. then We ma not be able to satisty this condition for each pipe without adjusting the save speeds or pipe lengths (see Section 3.6). Since there are significant advants3. in doing computations with specified time and space intervals, the follow procedure mes be used WAN # air, then the ch icteristics through point P will not pass the: A and B; instead, let us say they intersect at R and S, as shown in Fig. 3.14 Note that for stability reasons. they have to intersect AC and CB, as discussed inthe last section. The values of 7 and Q at time 1 = 4, ate known only at the arid points 4. B, and C. However, we need their values at points R and § to determine Hp and Qp at time 1 = 1, + Ar. The values at R and S may be interpolated by using linear or higher-order interpolations from the known con ditions at 4, B. and C. Since 1» and tp are specified hy the analyst in the meth! of specified time intervals. the coordinates of R and S can be determined trom Sa = Ap — lip = ty) = 1p = a 0.66) and 55 = Ip 4 dlip ~ 4) = ap tad G6) By using linear interpolations, we may write as On = Oc ~ FHQe = Oo 6.6 ast 0. = Oe - Me. - 9, 3.63) O. = Oe ~ “Qe = On He = He ~ tte = Hy 3.64) ae Hs = He — te = Hy 3.65) “(ile = Ha) c The values of Qp aod Fp may now be determined from Eqs. 3.17 and 3.18, by replacing Q, and Hi, in Eq, 3.19 by Qy and He, and by replacing Qy and Hy in Eq, 3.20 by Qs and Ms. This is done because the characteristics though P pass through R and 5 instead of 4 und B, respectively ‘These interpolations cause attenuation and dispersion of steep waves and re sult in the propagation of waves at faster-than-specitied cussed in the following paragraphs Let us consider the propagation of a steep wave fromt in a frictionless system Let us assume that we have selected 2x = 2a and that the wave ie at grid point B Fig. 3.15) at time 1,- As discussed in Section 3.2, the path of this wave in the x-r plane will plot as shown by the full line in the figire, However, i Weare using the method of specified time intervals, then we have to interpolate the head at point Sto determine the head at point P. By lineatly interpolating the head between C und B, the wave height at $ will be one-hulf the height at ve speeds, as disFaar 1+ 3a 1 + 2st Fiuure 8.18. Ettects of interpolation an wave propagation. 4. although in realty there is no such wavefront at point B. Now. this one-half wae height will be propagated to point P while computing the conditions at {ime 1, + AF Similarly, white interpolating values between C’ and P at tine 4, ~ Af. one quarter of the wave height will be computed at point 5" which will then be pmpagated to P* during the computations for time ty + 2A¢. In ether words, one quarter of the wave height has arrived at point P” in time 2A, ruher than the Tull wave height being propagated to point B” during this time. Also, note tht spurious waves have been generated during interpolation ut each point whenever there were waves at the neighboring grid point. These waves and refleetions from the boundaries usually result in smoothing the sharp peaks. In ppited wave speed is faster than the actual speed. as illustrated ample To prevent dispersion and attenuation of steep waves, avoid interpolations if possible, Since the value of the wave speed is not precisely Known in engi neering applications. it may be adjusted by a small amount to eliminate inter. polations."* Kaplan et a." presented @ procedure to avoid interpolations in which At for longer pipes is an integer multiple of ar for shorter pipes. To reduce errors due to interpolations, Vards"” and Wigger and Sundguist" pro posed 10 juup outside the interval but still satisfy the Courant condition. This Irocediure works well atthe interior nodes but is somewhat awkward to apply at the boundaries, Goldberg and Wylie" using ther “reachback scheme,"" show that interpolations in time rather than space produce less damping. This scheme will, however. require move storage as compared to the procedures we dis cessed in the previous sections ECTION OF TIME INCREMENT FOR A PIPING SYSTEAL For a system of uwo or more conduits. it ts necessary tha iment be used far all conduits so that boundary conditions be used. This time inerement should be se condition (Eq. 3.58) is satisfied. WF the time interval, Ar, is such that the re system is not equal to as. then 3.x must at the junction may ‘ected such that Courant’s stability ich lenpth for any conduit in the greater than a0 19 satisty Courant's Stability criteria, However, to avoid interpolation. we have tion » satisfy the equa Ws 1M 3.66) in which 4, must be an integer and is equal to the number of reaches into which {th conduit is divided, and N = number of pipes in the system. as the wave speed is not precisely known, minor aujustments in its Value are accaptable Because of the Limitations imposed on ar by the Courant'sstailay condition, a lage amount of computer time is tered tor analyzing system having very lowly varying transients. For the analysis of such systems, Yow” reported g technique that allows larger time steps and at the sume tine satisties the Cou rant’s condition, In this t is multiplied by an ar nique, the inertial term of the momentum equation y Factor @®, The resulting equation and the continuity cmuation are then converted into the charucteristic form, Because of multpl cation by a. a time step equal to was is permissible, in which Sor the tone Step given by the Courant’s condition, Ditferemt values of «e may be used for fifferent conduits, andthe value of may be as large as 20. You's technique however, is applicable only to those systems in which the inertial emmy is stn as compared 10 the other terms sueh as gas flow in pipes." flow in porous media,” and floods in rivers. ‘The valulity of this teel ‘hnique is questionable?! because the original governing equations ate arbitrarily altered Ths. extreme caution must be exercised while using this technique for the analysis of theve systems 3.7 EXPLICIT FINITE-DIFF ENCE METHOD In the explicit fnte-dfference method, the partial derivatives are replaced by finite-difference approximations such thatthe wnknown conditions at point ot the end of a time step are expressed in terms af the known conditions at the beginning ofthe time step. Several explicisfinite-lifference schemes have beenreported in the literature.**** Details of one scheme known as the Lax’s dif: Jusive scheme, are presented in the following paragraphs, Jaterior Nodes Peferring to Fig. 3.16 let us assume that the conditions at time f, (i.e, j level) are Known and we have to compute theie values at time 4, + 31 (ie, j + | H.W shall use subscripts i, + 1, and / ~ 1 to designate the spatial pr fonnts and superscripts j andj + 1 10 indicate the time levels. We may appiox- ‘toate the partial derivatives as follows: ee (3.67) a a2 = (3.68) ar 6.6 3.70) wn which A = 05H, + Hy am zy ® Known Conditions XX Unknown Conditions rota fs + | | ‘a f-}$— — i jas Figure 3.16. Definition shete. 8 =050)., ~ a) 87m Substituting Eqs. 3.67-3.72 into Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2 tem in terms of @, we obtain and writing the friction-loss e=1@,4 ey tea Sa ~ Hn - auBIO, G73) and ; We aha ay LS gy ian ary 2 area . ‘hus we have expressed explicitly the unknown vatiubles 11, ! ant Q! section jin terms of the Known values of Q and H at sections | ~ Lands + 1 Hence Q,°' and H,*" can be directly computed from Eqs, 3.73 und 374 Boundary Conditions Equations 3.73 and 3.74 are wuld for the interior grid points, \t the boundaries however, we cannot write Eqs. 3.69 or 3.70 because there are no grid points on ane side of the boundary. Therefore. to determine canulitions at the bound. ares, several computational procedures have been reported. Of these proce dures, solving the characteristic equations | With the conditions imposed by the boun JS. 3.47 and 3.181 simultaneously lary appears to be the nusst suitable 3.8 IMPLICIT FINITE-DIFFERENCE METHOD In the implicit inite-difference method, the unknown discharge and head at a section at the end of time step (j + 1 time seul in terns of the unknown values of these variables at the neizhbring sections. Therefote, equa tions forthe entire system have to be solved simultaneously. Although several implicit finite-diference methods have been reported in the titeratute, we ive details of onty one of these schemes, the fur-point-centered implicit selene Referring to Fig. 3.16, let us assume that the eonditions at time these j level) have been computed and that we want co compute their ales at time bo fat fie J + 1 level), Let us replace the pani derivatives of Eqs. 3 1 and 3.2 by the following finite-difference approximations aH HL + HL, bay aon ax 2xaH HST + HEY ~ at, + ah 3.76) or 2ar : 8 _ ist + Olay ~ (9/"" + Q) am ax zoe 8O (Ot +O!" = hy + Ob (6.78) a 2ar FOIA = F 10 2Nler“th + O10!" + ef le!al + atheln 6.7% Substituting Eqs. 3.75 to 3.79 into Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2 and simplifying, we obtain the following nonfinear algebraic equations for each interior node: GUO OF CMTS HL Btoitiol + elo!) R SGU + ON + CH ~ H+ F1QL Ola + ON 3.80) CHAE © + GLOIT} - 9/4 = CUM + H+ CIO = 04 3.81) in which C, = 0.580; Cy = ga/(2Ax; and C, = a2 g4.4x), Note that the {erms on the left-hand sides of the preceding equations are functions of variables at the unknown j + 1 time level, whereas the terms on the right-hand sides are functions of variables at the known j time level, Equations 3.80 and 3.81 for each interior computational node, along with the equations describing the end conditions, are solved simultaneously for the whole system by a banded- ‘Matrix routine, Note that inthis method we use only the equations representing the boundaries and we do not use the characteristic equations as we did in the characteristics and explicit finite-difference methods, Due to the nonlinearity of the equations, an iterative procedure® is employed, 3.9 COMPARISON OF NUMERICAL METHODS. {n the method of characteristics, each boundary and each conduit section are analyzed separately during a time step. Therefore, the method is particularly suitable for the analysis of systems having complex boundary conditions, The arthe eadbattag OF the metho!» that the stability conditions estit the size Suite Hime step. ta adkltion, intrpiatios may be neccesary haa systems Jon Thee che pipe oF system's whore the wave speed he precigee depen. dent These interolations cause nsmetcal dispersion and arena in the implicit finite-dtference method. the algebraic ujtatin ya the entire System are solved simultaneously. Since the frition tem in the equation is Ronlinear, this may require solutia of a larger number af mulinags equations. In add:tion, the anal si: Procedures may require a lange system must be aralyzed for each: is that the ime interval does not hh However, the ti ebraic complex boundary cunkltsons by iterative unt of computing time Because the entire eration, The main advantaze of the methoul “tobe restricted for the schertic to be stubie imerval cannot be arbitrarily increased to as id violin af the validity of the replicement i the pamial derivatives bene difterence seen OS. To ensure that the results compated by the implicit method nee Shaurale, We have t0 use a computational time step that is wearin ey that required for the stability of ths method of characteristic, cy despite the former's unconditional stability. In adaliion, requency Fabtlons™ behiod steep wave fnves are prnduced it Cy = |. these ome wernt ttt (eal Because oF these limitations. the implicit tinnestineccy method has uot become very popular for the analysts af 1 conduits, tents in closed 3.10 ANALYSIS OF A PIPING SYSTEM. To compute trunsient-state coritions in « piping system. the shortew vonduit tes Stems dived into a numer of reaches so that a iesiedonpunioney time imerval. 4, is obtained. According to Evangelist.’ a tine imersad equal 10 10.4 of the transit time, i.e. wave-truvel time from one end of the system {0 the other. should give sufficiently accurate result In the sin opinion however, this estsion should he used as a rough guide. ani ay slat re Trae ace gcesteased depending upon the rate at which transions are pre iced. Having selected the value of Af, the remaining conus in the oxeny are vided into teaches having equal lengths by using the procedure wired in Section 3.6, W necessary, the wave velocities ane aujusied ts satiny Fay, 4 ob Sethe characteristics pass throuzh the grid poins. The steal sate dischane and pressute head at all the sections are them computed, sand theis valwes woe Printed. The time is now incremented, and the transient conditions ane cons Dota at all the intesior points trom Eqs. 3.22 and 3.18 and at the beundseneg from the appeopnate boundary conitions. This process is custnied wnt ag sient conditions for the required time are computed The flowchart of Fig. 3.17 shows the computational steps tr determinio ‘he transient conaions ina sercs piping system. To illastate this proceFlowehart fora series piping system ody store Hytrin gloat haw Reservoir L = 550m D= 075m 0 = 06m 2 = 1l0Om/s 2 = 800m/s 1+ 0.010, t= oor (0) Piping syst Time (seconds ) (0) Volve closure curve Figure 8.18, Series piping system, qursient conditions in the piping system shown in Fig, 3.184 were determined Foe ths purpose, the compater program of Appendix B was developed. Tron: Sen" conditions were caused by closing the valve acconling to the 1-1 cure shown in Fig, 3.18b, As the valve-closure time is rather large compared to the wave-transit time Pre s3stem, Pipe No. 2 was divided into wo reaches, ths giving ar 0.356 Pipe No. 1 was also divided into two reaches to satisty Eq. 3.66, and the iaety Steady-state conditions were computed, Time was incremented by Af, and the Conditions al the interior sections were determined using Egs. 3.22 and 3.18The boundary conditions for the reservoir (Eqs. 3.28 and 3.29) were used to Seuzmmine the conditions at the upstream end, and Eqs. 3.43, 3.44, 3.46, and 3.47 were used to determine conditions at the junction of pipes Now T and No. 2 Seven points on the 7-1 curve were stored in the computer, and the + values at the intermediate times were parabolically interpolated. Equations 3.2 and 3.40 were used to determine the conditions at the valve Conditions at ¢ = At at all sections of the system were now known, These ere stored 35 conditions a the beginning ofthe next tine step. This procedure way repeated until transients for he desited duration were computed. ‘The con, ditions were printed every second time step by specifying IPRINT = 2 J 3.1 CASE STUDY SURE REGULATING VALVE. ee Figuee 3.19 shows the schematic layout of the conduits of the Jordan River : el Redevelopment! located in British Columbia, Canada, and owned hy the : g Bash Columbia Hydro and Power Aushonty. Iris a peaking paws pom he a i e parson conduit consists ofa tunnel having a S288-me long, mth Deshared NH . 2 section: S2umi-long, 3.96-m-diameter, and 45I-m-long, 3.2-m-diomecr see Hp Bal ° tions. and @ 1400-m-long penstock reducing in diameter from 3.2 to 2.7 m, shh § ae 2 There is only one Francis turbine rated at 154 MW and 265.5-m roted heal Hop fy & To ealuce the maximum transient-state pressures, a pressure. -gulating valve a 3 F PRN is provided. The rating curve forthe PRY as determined from the pro I Bh frye et at ead (of 265. ms sown ings 300 18 7 . To determine the transient conditions caused by opening oF closing of PRV. als h aa é a computer program was developed by using the boundary conditions for the gas gE = PRV derived in this section.* Analysis of transients caused by various turbine | a3? wo ‘operations is discussed in Chapter 5. Points on the PRY rating curve (Fig. 3.20) des . 5 ‘were stored in the computer at 20 percent intervals of the valve stroke, sad the ‘Eg ees discharge at the imermediate valve openings was determined by linear inter fee & re polation, Assuming that the valve characteristics obtained under steady state {| ae E 5g operation are valid ring the transient state, the PRY discharge under net head | peg a 8 A, is given by the equation f I she g 3 (3.82) x in which Q, = PRV discharge under a net head of H,, and Q, = discharge under raed net head H,, both at valve opening 7. Note that both H, and #, are total heads, i.e. Hp + Qi/Qed*), in which A = cross-sectional ares ‘of the Conduit just upstream of the PRV. “Boundary conditions fr the simultaneous opeeain of he PRY and wicker are developedDischarge, in eu metres per second | | fj {| oj | | er ee) ate Gore opening (%6) Figure 3.20, Discharge characteristics of presure-regulating valve, To develop the boundary condition for the PRV, Eqs. 3.17 and 3.82 are simultaneously solved. Noting that Qp = Q, and eliminating H, from these equations, + VOR FICO Op go SEs (3.83) 205 in which 84) Now Hp may be determined from Eq. 3.17 In the computer analysis, the upstream conduit was represented by 11 pipes while the conduit downstream of the PRV was neglected because of its short length. Lined and unlined segments of the tunnel were combined into two lined and unlined reaches, and the D-shaped tunnel was replaced by a circular conduit having the same cross-sectional area. The wateshammer wave velocity’® was computed by taking the modulus of ngidity of the rock as $.24 GI suming the penstock 10 be anchored at the lower end and tree expansion at the upper end. The friction factor tor various conduits were com. Pated such that they included the friction and minor losses, sich as expansion, contraction, and bend losses. Thus, although the minor losses are concentrated at various locations in the actual system, these are assumed 10 be distributed along the conduit length. In the author's opinion, this approximation should Yield acceptable results. The head losses compied using these values of fiction factors and those measured on the prototype are in close agreement A number of transient-state tests were conducted on the prototype. Steady state pressures were measured by a Budenberg deadweight gause having a cer tified accuracy of 0.35 m. Transient-state pressures were measured with as _Eeuge-type pressure cell, which delivered linear output within 0.6 percent over its entire range. The natural frequency of the cell was greater than 1000 Hi, and it was calibrated against the deadweight gauge. A multtum potentiometer mechanically connected to the PRV-stroke mechanism was used (0 measute the PRY opening, and a Westinghouse leading-edge lawmeter"? was used to mies sure the transtent-state flows. - and as. for longitudinal The computed and measured transieat-state pressures are shown in Fig, 3.21 In the prototype test, the PRY was frst opened from 0 10 20 percent at a very slow rate and was Kept at this opening until steady ow was established in the upstream conduit. The PRV was then closed from 20 percent to (Fig. 3.21) The wicket gates were kept closed throughout the test. In the computer analy sis, however, the PRV was not completely closed but was held at I percent opening to simulate the leakage through the wicket gates 390 0 310 Pressure (m) 290. 270 280 Figure 3.21. Co son of computed and measired resultsA+ can be seen from Fig. 3.21, the computed and measured transient pres- sures agree closely for about 18 s; afterward, there is good agreement between ths shapes of the pressure curves but the measured results show that the pressure ‘Ves are dissipated more rapidly than that indicated by the results of the math- ematical model, In addition, the measured period of the pressure oscillations is les than the computed period. These differences may be die to using the steady sete friction formula for computing the transient-state friction losses and the Fecustion of wave velocity at low pressures as discussed in Section 2.6. 3.12 SUMMARY In this chapter, the details of the method of characteristics were presented, and «number of simple boundary conditions were developed. The stability and con- Sstsence conditions for a finite-difference scheme were discussed, and a pro- cedure was outlined for the selection of time interval for a complex system, For iNLastration purposes, a computational procedure for analyzing transient condi {ica caused by closing a valve in a series system was presented. The chapter 25 concluded by comparing the computed and measured results for the tran. « conditions cused by the closure of a pressure-tegulating valve in a hy. dielectric power plant PROBLEMS Prove thatthe equations of the characteristic curves are dit = V a if the term V9 3) in the momentum equation and the tem 119/16. in the continuity ‘equation are not neglected 3.2 Develop the boundary conditions fora centrifugal pump running at rated speed. ‘aking into consideration transients in the suction line 3.3 Wate a computer program tor the piping system shown in Fig. 3.183, Run the Program for Various values of A and plot a graph hetween the computed pressure atthe valve and a 3.4 Develop the boundary conditions for an opening or closing salve located at the junction oF (wo conduits (Fig. 3.221. (Hint: The following tour equations are =Wailable; the positive characteristic equation for secon i. nt: the ~hatuctristic equation for section i+ 1. 1; the continuity equation, tion for low through the valve, Solved expression for Qp 1 3.5. Prove that if the valve in Fig. 3. and the equa 6 equations simultanecusly to obtain si 's replaced by an orifice and the conduits and + Unave the same diameter. wall thickness, and wa!l material. then Or... = Oy ~C+ VOGT Es in which C = Q]4C,AH,1 and AH, isthe orifice head loss for Q, conduit i_Yff conduit it SS Ganspe a Figure 8.22, Valve a series junction 46 Is the equation for Op... given in Problem 3.5 valid for the revene low? If not erive a similar equation for the reverse low: essure-repuating valve and the Francis, 3.7 Develop the boundary conditions forthe ys “a the Frais turbine shawn in Pig. 3.19. The transient conditions are caused by open closing the valve, Assume that the turbine speod and the wicketgate 0 remain constant during the transient-state consitions, ihe boundary conditions developed in Pe 3.8 Prepare a flowchart for programms tem 3.7. _soming is presente 3 Ref, 18 ia which th sme sep fo 3 bean imegral mull of tha fr aom pies. However. he pro cede regi exalt the jan pis as ig tet ms es tenga th fst of exalt on epee peso epi sien sown n Fig. 318, Aue at pipe So, 2 Ahoy sca 80m a Shown, «Hints Solve the systom using the zasming proce at then using Some 1 forthe whole system as determined by Couranrs comaton.) BL Develop the stability criterion for the finite-ifference schenie of Seetion 3.2 ction tenn in the analysis including a linearize fetion 11 2 Mp vast do cote sera a he pe el co iharoceunes fr elucingerors sto trpolatonepotes n Res. 17 ant 8 scheme, the friction (erm may be approvini : sey oF these approximations by solving 3.13 a the finite-diference Eqs 3.18 at 3.18, Compare the ace atypical piping system REFERENCES 1. Liste, M.. Ths Numencal Soltion of Hypetbolic Paral Duierentsal ations ty he Noni Charters ia Saemanea ds or gal Compas eb by Ral Beek dad Wit Joba Wiley & Som, New York, Chap 138 Abbott. M. B., a dtroducton tothe Method of Characteristics, Ametcan Elsevier, New York, 1966, Evangclist, G., “Watethammer Analysis by the Method of Characteristics," Energia Eler fre, Nos. 10-12, 1969, pp. 673-692, 759-790, 839-858 Geay. C. A. M., “The Analysis of the Dissipation of Energy in Watesammer”* Proc. Amer. Soe Coil Engrs. vol. 19, 1953, pp. 76-1184, Steet. V. Land Lal. C., "Waterhammer Analysis Including Fluid Dis. Amer, Soe. of Cis. Engrs. May. 1962, pp. 79-112 Perkins F Ea. Tedrow. A. C., Eagleson, B'S. and Ippen. 8. T., thuto-Power Plant Tron stents Parc, Dep. of Civil Engincenng. Hyddynamics Lab. Repo No. 71, Massachusets Insite of Technology, Sept. 1964, Wolie, €, 8. and Streeter. V. L., Plu Tensions, FEB Press, Ann Arbor. Mich, 1983. Woe, E.B.. “Advances inthe Use of MOC in Unsteady Pipeline Plow." Fourth ferea- ional Con on Pressure Surges, British Hydeomechanice Research Assoc, Bath. England Sept 21-23, 1983, pp. 27-37 Woe, E.B.. “The Mietcomputer and Pipeline Transients,” Jour Hydrate Engineering, Amer. Soc: Civil Engrs. Proc. Paper No, 18453, Vol. 09, No. 12. Dec. 1983, pp, 172, 17, ‘Chawihry. MH, and Holloway, M. ., “Stability of Mettind of Characteristics,” Proc Aver, Soc. Civil Engrs, Hdrauies Division Specialy Cont . Coeur Alene. Idaho, Ave 1984, pp. 216-220. Smith, G. D., Numerical Solution of Partial Diferemiat Equations, Second ed, Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1978 Collate. 1, Me Numerical Treaonent of Diferential Equations. Think ed, Springer, Bern 1, Orica, G. G.. Hyman, M. A.. and Kaplan, S.A Study of the Numerical Solution of Pamal Difereval Equations," Jour. Math. ant Physics, No. 29, 1951, pp. 223-25 Holloway, MB. and Chaudhty, M. HL, “Stability and Accuracy of Wateehammer Anaiyss, Aube in Water Resources, Yo. 8, Sept. 1985, pp. 121-138 Pontors, EA. and Chaudhey, M. H., “Analysis and Protos pe Vesifictions of Hydeauic ‘Teamsemts in Jordan River Power Plant,” Proc. First Inerational Conference on Presure Surges. Canterbury, published by British Hyeromechanics Research Asso. September 1972 pr Et37 wEH72, Kaplan, M., Belonogot,G.. and Wentworth, R.C., “Esanomne Methods for Modelling Hy {rate Transien Simulation" Proc. First Interarional Conference on Pressure Sure, Canterbury. England, published by Bish Hydromeshanics Reseach Asso, Sept, 1972 A334 38 Nandy, A. "On the Use ofthe Method of Charteris forthe Solution of Unsteady Flows in Networks," Proe. Second International Conf. an Pressure Surges. Bash Hyde Imevhames Research Asso. Bouford, England. 1977 Nigger. D. Cand Sundguist, M. J. “On the Use of Fixed Grid Charactersties for Pipeline “Teunsents.” Jour: Hyd Dis Amer. Soe. of Cuil Eagrs, sol WA, Dec. 1977, pp. 1403- 6 Golire, DE. and Wylie, €. R.. “Charactensties Method Using Tine-Linefneeplation.” Jour, Huiraulc Engineering, Amer. Sot. Cosi Engrs. May. 1983, pp 670-683, You, W., “Numeral Eno on Natual Gas Transient Calslaions." Trans. Amer, Soc. of Mech, Engr. vol. 94, Series D, wo, 2, 1972, pp 422-428, Wabi, EB. Streeter, V. Land Stoner, ML A., "Unsteady State Natural Gas Transient Caleatations in Complex Pipe Systems." Jour Sor of Petroleum Engrs. Feb. 1974 pp. 35. son, Jour, He PP 22, Wylie EB. “Hransient Aguier Hows oy Characteristics Maino." Sour, Hil Di. dmer Soc. of Civil Engrs, vol. 102. Mash 197, gp. 293-308, 28, Rachfond, H. He and Todd. D8 Fast, Highs Accurate Means of Moaeling Teanicat Flow in Gas Pipeline Systems by Vanationsl Methods.” Jour. Soc uf Petrleun Eugrs Apri 1978, pp. 168-175, (See also Discussion By Stoner, M.A. and Anthony” Repl py 139" 178) 24, Chaudhry, MH. and Yesjevich, \- teds. 2, Closes Conduit Few, Wites Resources Publ cations, Liteon, Colo, 1981 28. Chaudhey. M. HL, “Numeral Solution of Tracseat-Flow Equations.” Brve. Hydeuaic Spe cial: Conf. Aer. Soc. of Cail Engrs. 1983. pp 633-060, 26. Chauahey, MM and Hussaii, MY. "Second Onder Explicit Meth fi Trasient Flow Analysis. in Numerical Methods jor Fluid Transient Analysts. 8. Main snd oH Chase Any feds. Amer, Soc. of Mech: Engrs. New York, 183. pp. 9-8. «Republished in Jour of Fits Engineering, vl, 07, Des. 18S, pp. 23-529.) 27. Chaudhry, M. Hand Pontos, E. AL, "A Mathematical Moat for Aralyting Hy dru Transients in a Hydmetsctic Power Plat.” Pr. First Canadian Hudraate Conjoreme published by the University of Alteas, ESmoaton, Canada, May 197%. pp, 298-314 26, Parmakian, J, Warerhammernatsis. Dove Pbications, Ine, New rk, 1963. 29, Fischer, 8. G., “The Westinghouse Leading Edge Ulirasaic Flow Measaement Stet." reseed atthe spring meeting, Amer. Soc_of Mech, Engrs. Boston. May 1973 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Symposium, Waterhanimer in Punped Storage Poycts. Chicago, Nev, 1965, published by An ‘Sor. of Mech. Engrs, Evangelist, G.. "On the Numerical Solution of the Equation of Paopugation ty the Seth of Characteristics," Meceaniea, val. 1. No. 1-2 1965, pp. 29-36 (Contractor. D. N., "The Reflection of Waterhamce Pres Wases omy Minor Losses.” Trans. Aimer, Soc. Mech. Engrs. ol. 80, Senes D. June 1968 Miyashiro, WL, “Watechammer Analy of Pump System” Bul. Japan Sox of Mech. Engrs ol 10, No. 42, 1967, pp. 982-958 Fox, A.. "The Use ofthe Digital Computer inthe Solution nf Waterhamer Problems.” Pro. Instinaion of Cisil Engr, Paper 1020, sol 39. Jan, 1968, pp. 27-131 Brown, FT. "A Quasi Method of Charactenstis with Applicat 1 Fad Lines with Frauen Dependent Wall Shear and Heat Tranter,” Aimer. Sac. of Mech. Fags. Papet No. bal Att-7, Des. 1968. Fox, 2. A and Henson, D. A., “The Predition of ihe Magnitides of Presse Tensions Gen ‘tted by a Train Entering a Single Tunnel,” Pr. faxiniom of Cnil Engrs» Paper P38, sal 39, May 1991, pp. 53-69 Manin, C. S., "Method of Charactenstes Ape’ £9 Caloulatinn of Surge Tank Oneillations.” Proc. First Imemasional Conteroace om Pressure Surges published by Biitsh Hydemiechamics Research Assoc, Sept. 1972. pp ELLEN! Proceedings. Imerarional Conference on Presse Surges, published by stish Hyiomeshnics Research Assoc., Bedford, England. (Fant Cont, 1972, Second, 19%: Thue, 1980, Fou 1983; Fit, 1986)TRANSIENTS CAUSED BY PUMPS ALT. LIBRARY 4.1 INTRODUCTION The starting or stopping of pumps causes transients in pumping installations. ‘The method of characteristics presented in Chapter 3 may be used to analyze these transients. Since the pumping head and discharge depend upon the pump speed, transient-state speed changes have to be taken into consideration in the analysis. For this purpose, special boundary conditions for the pump end of a pipeline have to be developed. In this chapter. the analysis of transients caused by various pump operations is discussed. A procedure for storing the pump characteristics in & digital com. puter is outlined, boundary conditions for a pump end ate developed, and a 'ypical problem is solved. Design criteria for designing pipelines are then pre= sented, and the chspter concludes by a presentation of a case study 4.2 TRANSIENT CONDITIONS CAUSED BY VARIOUS PUMP OPERATIONS During a pump start-up, the discharge valve is usually kept closed to reduce the electrical load on the pump motor; and as the pump speed reaches the rated speed, the valve is gradually opened. Usually, in normal pump shutdown, the discharge valve is first clased slowly, and then the power supply to the pump motor is switched off. Transients caused by both of these operations may be analyzed by using the boundary conditions developed in Chapter 3 since the Pump speed remains constant during the transients in the piping system. How= ever, if the pumps are not started or stopped as previously outlined, then pr cedures outlined in this chapter should be used for the transient analysis, ‘Transients caused by emergency pump operations (e.g., sudden power tailue) are usually severe. and the pipeline should be designed to withstand positive and negative pressures caused by these operations. Following a power failure, the pump speed reduces since the pump inertia is usually small compared to that of the liquid in the discharge line, Because the flow and the pumping head 89at the punip are reduced, negative pressure waves propagate downstream in the discharge line, and positive pressure waves propagate upstream in the suction line. Flow in the discharge line reduces rapidly to zero andi then reverses through the pump even though the latter may still be rotating in the normal direction. {mn this condition (i.e., when there is reverse flow through the pump while it is rorating in the normal direction), the pump is said to be operating in the zone of energy dissipation.” Because of reverse flow. the pump speed reduces rapidly going first to zero and then becoming negative. The pump is now rotating in the reverse direction: i.e., itis operating as a turbine. The pump speed increases in the reverse direction until it reaches the run-away speed. With the increase in the reverse speed, the reverse flow through the pump is reduced due to chok- ing effect, and posi "e and negative pressure waves are produced in the dis- charge and suction lines, respectively Ifthe pipeline profile is such that the transient-state hydraulic grade line falls below the pipeline at any point, vacuum pressure may occur, and the water column in the pipeline may separate at that point. Excessive pressure will be produced when the two columns later rejoin, During the design stages, the pos- sibility of water-column separation should be investigated, and, if necessary, remedial measures should be taken, This will be discussed in detail in Chapters 9 and 10, 4.3 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF A PUMP. The relationship between the pump discharge, Q. and the pumping head, H, hhas to be specified to include a pump ina mathematical model, Except for Refs, 3-5, very little information is available on the dynamic behavior of pumps. Therefore, data obtained during steady-state tests are utilized for the transient ‘analysis even though the validity of these data during the transient state has not ‘been demonstrated. Unless specifically indicated otherwise, any reference to ump data in our discussions means steady-state values. ‘The discharge. Q, of a centrifugal pump is a function of the rotational speed, N. and the pumping head, H, whereas the transient-state speed changes depend ‘upon the net torque, T, and the combined moment of inertia of te pump, motor, and liquid entrained in the pump impeller. Thus. four variables (Q, H, N, and 1 have to be specified for the mathematical representation of a pump. The curves showing the relationships between these variables are called the pump characteristics or performance curves. Various quantities at the point of best efficiency are referred to as rated con- ditions." By using these values as a reference, we may define the following nondimensional variables: | an Or Ue ‘The subscript R ilenoies raied condivions. During normal pump operation, c, 3, v, and h ure all positive. However, daring the (ransientstate conditions, they may become negative individually oy in groups: These conditions will be called abnormal.* In the laboratory, all Possible abnormal operstins may be eon 4 a “master and the test pump as a “slave,""* By using the.signs of a and v. the pump operation may be divided into four quadrants, I-IV. as shown in Fig. 4.1 (some authors use a as the abscissa and vas the ordinate). By using the signs of a, d. v, and ft, the operation of Lirbopumps may be divided into eight zones, as listed in Tuble 4.1 and ae own in Fig. 4.1. 4 bref deseriprion of these zones and qnadrams, compiled from Ref. 6, is given in the following paragraphs ved hy using wo or more pumps as Quadrant 1 In Zone A (normal pumping), the pump operation is normal and a. 2, v, and are positive. In Zone B venergy dissipation), oply his negative while «. /, and t ate positive. Such an operation is possible if the pump is being over, Powered by another pump or by a reservair during steady-state operation, or by & sudden drop in head following a power failure during the transient state, Ia Zone C (reverse turbines. ¢ and care positive and f and 2 are n ative Quadrant 11 Zone H (energy dissipation) is usually encountered following power faire tothe pump motor. The corm ined inertia ofthe rotating elements motor, pump fand its entrained liquid—keeps the rotational speed positive while the flow has reversed due to positive head on the pump. Quadrant 111 If there is no mechanical ratchet to preclude reverse rotation, then fallowing a ower fallure a pump will enter Zone G (nonmnal turbining) afer passing through Zone H. Tn this urbinins mode, o and w are negative, and the hewl and torque are positive, After Zone G. the machine operation may enter Zane F (energy ‘isipation), in which torque becomes negative as well, thus producing a fal "As we shll se i Section $.15. some ofthese ae normal conditions for a pump urineqe a>o N>O 150 Zone A. Normal Pumping “Paso “a>o = 4<6 Zone 8. Energy Dissipation ter ia Bi n> T<0 Zone C. Reverse Turbine Te a>o In T<0 Zone D. Energy Dissipation free a0 Zone H. Energy Disipation Figure 4.1, Bight cones and four quad cy ey 7 Ta Zone G. Normal Turbine i of pump operation (After Ref. 6) Table 4.1 Zones of pump operation, Zone De Normal pumping =a Enerey dissipation > + 5 fF 1 Revere urine + Energy dsipation a8 Reverse ution pum ery disipation 5s Noaal wibiine - oe Enciyy sisi Sire sed on dts on Rh 6 ing effect. At the boundary between Zones F and G. is equal t zero and the ‘machine reaches the runaway condition. Quadrant tv Zone D tenergy dissipation) and Zone E (reverse pumping) are infrequently encountered. Pump-turbines may operate in Zone E daring teansicnt ste If inadvertently rotated in the wrong direction due to improper wiring of the elec. tric motor, & pump may operate in Zones D and E. Radial Now pup turhines are known to pump in the reverse direction during transicnt-state conditions thats, the machine rotates asa turbine but produces flow inthe punnp ditection Various authors!"-°" have presented the pamp-characteristic data in cif, ferent forms suitable for graphical or computer analysis. Of all the availeble methods for including the pump characteristies in the transient analysis by @ Aligtal computer, the method presented in Ref. 15 appears ta he the most suit. able andl is used herein Prototype pump characteristies are obtained from the model test data by using homologous relationships.? Two pumps (or turbines} are considered! homole fous if they are peometrically simitar and the streamMow pattern throush them 's also similar. For homotogous pumps. the following ratios ate valid Wt N Hp ~ Const ans in which D = diameter of impeller. Since D is constant for & panicular unit. it may be included in the constants of Eq. 4.2: ie H N 5 © Constant a Constant and — = = Constant a oOn the hasis of Eq, 4.1. Eq. 4.3 may be written in nondimensional form as h Constant = Constant a) ‘When « becomes zero while analyzing transients for all possible zones of operation, h/a* becomes infinite, To avoid this, we shall use the parameter hice? + 0) instead of hiee?,* ‘The signs of v and a depend upon the zones of operation, In addition to the need to define a different characteristic curve for each zone of operation, a/v becomes infinite for v = 0. To avoid this, we detine a new variable 6 = tan (43) and then the characteristic curve may be plotted between @ and hia? ~ 0°) By mathematical definition. @ is always finite and its value varies between 2/2 and 7/2. However. we can utilize it for all possible zones of operation by varying its value berween O° and 360° Similar to the pressure-head curve, the torque characteristic curve may be plotted between Bia? + v) and 0. Although the pump-characteristic data in the normal pumping 2one srs ust ally available, the data for the abnormal operation are rather scarce. If complete characteristics for a pump are not available. then the characteristics of ¢ pump ‘with approximately the same specific speed’ may: be used, However, nete that ‘Marchal eta suggest that spava¥fAT Ta > #7 he weed cy foe salir suse of this parameter (gn designates sign of h). Howeser, ha? + (2) is used heen hesaise ‘implies the derivation of te boundary constions forthe pp en! (see Section 5, “There area numberof itferent definitions of specitie speed in terms of physical units. Herein we shall se the folowing uation" which ye the same values sa consistent set of = ae ers Ge Ne Teas 1 which the subscipe Refer 1 the poi af Dest efficiency: that. rated eonsitons. éall his an Sanit in whichis asans 5. Qeis mm ad Mein Inthe Metre od VS In met us, Nps talmin, sn Hess speed. CComenion factor areas follows: | St unit = 2233 gpm units and t Met unit (0,1 im ls, ad Hy m:n gpm its, yin rpm, Qu isn U.S ubecsuetion pump. Q, Is divided by 2 when computing the spesiic 57 gpm EE the euaractenistes depend upon ine type ot pump (i.e, radial flow. mixed flow, ‘or axial flow) as well as upon other design features such ay impeller, diftuser, casing or volute, ete. There! fore, even though specific speed is used to classify {he pump type, two pumps having approximately the sume specitic speed but (lifferent design features may have different abnormal operation characteristics Table Il of Ref. 6 lists the references in which pump data for three or four ted by Knapp" and Swanson"! lead hive bach ely wsed hy oes, The date ae pote Ie Pea 4.2 for comparison purposes and ate tabulated Appentix & for cay rene tee. To ase these curves in a mathematical model, one stots ina computer dis rete poins onthe curves at equi intervals of 8. from # = O° to Pe S60 Each segment of these curves between the points stored inthe computer ney be approximated by straight ines Fig. 4.3) Ifa sificiem mutes of poe (€4., 73) ate stored. then the error introduced by approxima sezimental sigh ins is negligible, Forany vale of «and v (except shen both and ae saneousy 2600, the value of @ = tan”! (afe) may be detennined by using the TBM function ATAN2. However, this funtion computes the sale of @ herwecrt ad eae between O and =r, wherens ou range of interest is Petwcen O und 24. Tine limitation canbe easily eiewnwented hy adding 2 tothe compute sae of 9 if < 0; e.p. if 0 given by this function is "30°, then the veloc of Bas be tse for detemining the point the pump characteristic curve 260" 30s 20° the curves by 44 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR PUMP FAILURE As discussed in Chapter 3, he characteristic equation (equations ifthe boundary has pipes on both the upstream and downstream sides) and the eosalitions im. posed by the boundary are solved simultaneously to determine the boundary conditions, For a pump end, the pump characteristics define the conditions im- posed by the boundary, and a differential equation defines the variation of the Pump speed with time following power failure, Thus, we have to simulta seously solve these equations to develop the boundary conditions for the pum end. ‘To facilitate understanding of the derivation, let us first consider a si nple ‘Some authors erroneously use » specie spesd of 8.65 SH units for this pny Since the pump had double section, the rated discharge should be divided by 210 compute the spect speed tne tose of Rel. 17, pp. A124 und A127),igure 4.2. Character (ed Pretere es of pumps af vasious specific speeds. (Ys in SL unl) Actual curve Approsimoting straight tine ee tas Figure 4.3. Approximation of pump characteristic curves hy segmented sruight system having only one pump and a very short suction line. We with develop the boundary conditions for more complex eases in the next section Equations for Pump Representation Let us assume that the calculations have progressed to the ith steps that the variables a, v, h, and 6 at the beginning of the time step are known: and that ‘we want 10 compute the values of these variables at the end ot the time step. Letus denote these unknown variables by ep, Up, hp. and Bp, To determine the value of these Variables, we have to first of all determine the equation of the segment of pump characteristics corresponding to ap and vp. However, since the values of these variables are intially unknown, we may use, a8 a first est: their values determined by extrapolation from the known values for the previous time steps, ie., 1 el in which a, and 0, ate the estimated values at the end of ith time step, «and vj refer to known values at the beginning of the ith time step, and Ac, and 4v,_ ate the variation of these variables during the (i ~ Iyth time step. Since the pump speed and the pump discharge vary gradually, the preceding linear extrapolation should yield sufficiently accurate estimates if the size of the com- putational time step, Ar, is small. Now, the grid points on either side of @, =3 Sin) | ~isehorge valve Pump j Datum tt Figure 44. Notation of houndary conditions for pump. san”! (ce,/v,) are searched, and the ordinates W(c? + v*) and Ba? + v2) for these grid points ire determined from the stored values. From these, the com, sans ay and ds forthe equation of the segmental straight line (Fig. 4.3) are sitermined, Now. assuming thatthe points corresponding to ay, Up, ip. and 2 fic om these straight lines, then hp ritag ta + asta an Bp Lap atte tant aa) tw which ay and ds. and a, and a, are constants for the straight lines represen the head and torque characteristies, respectively Referring to Fig, 44, the following equation can be written for the head at the pump: n Hoy © Hays + Hp ~ SHp, 9) “lv ay + 054 the equation of a stright line pass Ahvough the points. ¥) and 9 Wea, = Cats = Serutty tp andy Cie ne in which Aye = height of the liquid surface in the suction reservoir above datum, Hp = pumping head at the end of the time step, and AMp, = head loss in the discharge valve. Note that the velocity head in the discharge pipe, which is usually small, is not taken into consideration in Eq. 4.9. The valve head loss is given by the equation MH, = GOH = Op. Or,,] 4.10) inwhich C, = coefficient of head losses in the valve. Note that in this equation, Q%,, is written as Qp 1p ,| to account for the reverse flow Equations 4.7 to 4.10 describe the boundary Differential Equation of Rot 1g Masses ‘The accelerating torque for a rotational system is equal to the pratuct of the angular acceleration and the polar moment of inenia of the system. Since there js no extemal torque acting on the pump following power failure, the deceler- ‘ating tongue is the pump torque. Hence des dt Te 1a! aan 0. in which J = combined polar moment of inenia of the pump. motor.shalt, and liguid entrained in the pump impeller. and w and V are rotational speed of the pump, in rad/s and in rpm, respectively. On the basis of Ey. 4.1, Ey. 4.11 may be written as Ny dev 60 T5 le 12 In this equation, Tx = 607 Flg Qy/2zNgng) in which > = specific weight of quid, and ne of B during the time step. this equation may be written in w finite-ifferen. form as at rated conditions, By using an average val 13) which may be simplified ro a aayin which, 15 Tyr INg (4.15) Characteristic Equation for Discharge Pipe As the suction line is shor, it may be neglected in the analysis. Therefore, we need only the characteristic equation for the discharge line, ie., for section fii, On. = Cy + Cp, (4.16) Continuity Equation Since there is no change inthe volume stored between the suction reservoir and section (, 1) Or. = Op aan tn which Qn = flow through the pump at the end of the time step. Solution of Governing Equi 14 sevclop the boundary conditions, se have to solve Eqs. 4.7 through 4.10, Fe font 4-17 simultaneously. By eliminating Hp, Aflg,.and Om, from Fads, 4.9. 4.10. 4.16, and 4.17 and by using Op and Hy as reference values the resulting equation may be written as Qnty = Cy + CyHaxe + Cale ~ CoC Qe ple (4.18) Now we have four equations—i.e., Eqs. 4.7, 4.8, 4.14, and 4.18--in four une knowns: ap, Up. ns Bp. To simplify the solution, we will first eliminate hy ona + from these equations as discussed in the following paragraphs, By substituting for hy from Eq. 4.7 into Eq. 4.18 and for Bp from Eq. 4.8 into Eq. 4.14 and simplifying, we obtain Foe Cleans + 02 + CHyastad + vi) wo! Ov, ~ CC Oevpleel + C+ CMe = 0 G91 Fa = ap ~ Coasas + vb) ~ Cyasleds + v3) tan! ee -a~C3=0 (4.20) C{rEnelish uns the neh hand sides, of Eqs. 4.11 and 4,12 have wo be Jed by the acceleration fr empi t0 Stuns 15 kgm and Ty is in Nei the Engish ants fs nla rear eke 08 Enelh units iin pm, th Enginh nts he rigchund a a eG 415 has tobe natplied by Equations 4.19 and 4.20 are nonlinear equations in wo unknowns, cp sd tp These equations may be solved as follows by using the Newion-Raphson method. A solution of the equations is fist guessed: it is then refined to a Tequired degree of accuracy by: successive iterations Let a” and up! be the initial estimates for the sslution, These may he as- sumed equal to , and v, ay determined from Eq. 4.6.* Then, « better estimate ofthe solution of Eqs. 4.19 wnat 4.205, apt = off + Say aap ef 4 bp (22 in which (42a an In Eqs. 4.23 and 4.24, functions F, and F, and their derivatives with respect (0 ap and Up are evaluated by using ap! and ef! Differentiation of Bys. 4.19 4nd 4.20 yields the following expressions for these derivatives Hg, Hale ay + Ras an (4.25) day” é 7 Lawey ~ ase + Dap tan 2) ~ Oy ~ 2€,C,OF)o4 i ate 20 p= aay F Dap tan) ~ 0, ites) (4.26) = (200 + dtp + Jayerp tan v= } 427 (- nlp + dyatp — Daz'p tan”! s (4.28) aug O28 we) 1 ldep| and {6up| ate ess than 4 specified tolerance (e.g., 0.001), then aif? and op ate solutions of Eqs. 4.19 and 4.20, Otherwise, af!” and! ate ae & superscript (2) inicaes Vales er fst eration, ‘Superscript (1 indicates estat vals an superscript (2 ni These equations maybe dedsed from the gener derivatin presente an lesumed equal to a and vf? and the above procedure is tepeated until a solution is obtained, Having determined ap and up, itis verified whether the segment of the pump characteristics used in the computations corresponds tO ap and ty IF it does not, then a, and v, are assumed equal to ap and vp, and the above ‘mentioned procedure is repeated However, if the correct segment was used. then lip and Bp are determined from Eqs. 4.7 and 4.8: Hp and Qp from Eq. 4.1; and Hp , and Qy,, from Eqs. 4.9 and 4.17, The values of cand v are initialized forthe next time step (ie, & = Gp and 8 = Spl, and the solution progresses to the next time step. To void an uolimited number of iterations in the ease of divergence af solution 4 counter may be used so that the computations are stopped if the numer of iterations exceeds a specified value (¢.g., 30). The lowehart of Fig. 45 illus trates this procedure 4.3 BOUNDARY CONDITION: FOR SPECIAL CASES {In Section 4.4, boundary conditions were developed for a system having only ‘one pump and a short suction line. Because of the short length, the propagation of the waterhammer waves in the suction line was neglected. In this section, Wwe will develop houndary conditions for complex systems often founc in prac tice, Boundary conditions for systems not covered hetein may be developed by following a similar procedure. We will briefly describe the system configuration, and then present the tering equations and the expressions for Fy, F, OF, acep, OF (Bvp. 3Fy/3eap, and F,/Gup. Using these expressions, the solutions may be determined as out lined in Section 4.4, Parallel Pumps. Systems having parallel pumps to which power fails simultaneously may be analyzed as follows: Ifthe length of pipe between each pump and the ischarge manifold is long, then each pump may be handled as outlined in Sevion 4-3, and the pallet piping system may be analyzed using the boundary conditions Presented in Chapter 3 (note thatthe discharge manifold will be consctered as 8 junction of two or more pipes), However, ifthe pipe between each pump and the discharge manitold is shomt, then this pipe may be neglected inthe analyst and the combined discharge of all pumps may be considered as the flow atthe upstream side ofthe discharge manifold. Boundary conditions forthe litter case ate developed in this section ‘The continuity equation may be writen as Qn = Or (8.29) in which np = number of parallel pomps Lndtietg tn im ois tn << oe peanut fee an, CyHus + CyHglip ~ CORY] 4.30) Equations 4.7. 4.8, and 4.14 ate valid for this ease as well, Proceeding sim ilarly as in Section 4.4, the following expressions are obtained: CoHeaslad + 0B) = CHgarlag + of) tan" SE ~ ng Ogvy ~ C.C,QireAl + 6, + Callas <0 4.0 fe atte 20,e6 = ayap + 2ayyp tan“! 2) = mp Qn = lee 4.32) Expression for F:, AF \/@cp. 3Fy/@ap, and SFy/avp are given by Eqs. 4.20. 4.25, 4.27, and 4.28, respectively 2. Long suction line (Fig. 4.6), I the suction line is not sho compared 10 the discharge line. then waterhammer in the former has to be considered in the analysis, Therefore, we have to include the characteristic equation for the suc- tion line. Referring to Fig. 4.6, He = Heo ~ Ha, (4.33) Oras = Cp ~ Cran W394) On = Ot Cones G35) Or = Or, =r Qe 4.361 I addition, Eqs. 4.7, 4.8, and 4.14 are valid for this case By multiplying Eq. 4.34 by C,,.,, Eg. 4.35 by C,,. substituting for Op and Oy, , from Eq. 4.36, and adding the resulting equations, we obtain MOL, + Cad = CCa > CCare + CaCaaitle — 4.37) By using Qg und Hy as reference values, Eq, 4,37 may be written as mC, + Cu.) Oat he CIR Co. He OG GO 14.38) Instantaneous hydraulic Grade sine a : | -Discherge ne Pipe t+! Suction tine Figure 46. Pomp with tony suction Elimination of fp from Eqs. 4.7 and 4.38 yields Fy = aad + up) + axiap + vd tan i. = Cy - C= 0 4.39) in which (3 40) an 2 taap + Dovey tan “4a Sup Fo aayuy + tog tan = asey ~ Co a3) 3p e Up Equations 4.20. 4.27, and 4.28 define the expressions for F. OF /dlap. snd a Vi. Series Pumps (Fig. 4.7) If the pipe tengih between the Ovo pumping-sets is long, then each pumping. set may be analyzed individually assuming the downstream pumps have a long, suction line. However, if the pipe length between the pumps is shor, thea this Pipe may be neglected in the analysis, and the combined boundary cond for both the pumping units may be developed as discussed in the following.IL Instontoneous hydraulic gree line son Sere ime [BEE [Bere rate Berd ff astin F Gian G Daum tt Figure 4.7 Dischorge tine Notation for series pumps. Relouing to Fig, 4.7, the following equations may be written” for the sys- Pumping head Hy... = Hp... + Hp, + Hp, ~ AHp, (4.44) 2. Cominuty equations ras = On “aan On = On, 4.6) reas = Me Qre an Positive characteristic equation for suetion line Or =~ CMa (4.48) Negative characteristic equation for discharge line On Equation tor head loss in the valve Ae = Cr 1On.. Equations for the pump characteristics § Ca Mrs (4.49) (4.50) Me = Mules, — 08) + Ube, + vB tan! 44.51) ho 2) Bp, 4.53) Bre = aslo, + OB + 6c, + wh) tan! 4.58) 2 Equation for the rotating masses ‘ie. equations similar io Eq. 4 ay Br. ~ Ctr. = hn + CaP 3.55) ap, — Code, = Uy + CaBy (4.56) Inthe preceding equations, subscripts f, m, and v refer to the buster ump and to the valve, respectively: np ‘in parallel; and C, = coefficient of head loss in the valve To solve these equations, let us first reduce the number of unknowns trom 1B t0 three as follows: Elimination of Fy... Qy, 4.50 yields snd main we Me Orvis Ons and Hp, from Ege, 4.44 to Ore Comer Ir. Asn Using MH aM Op, 88 Flere valves, By. 4.57 may be wets as MeO yg Mees been + He, h 7 hincag + Hal = . + mpC.O8.0p, lp, By substituting expressivins for hip, and hp, from Eqs. 4.51 4.58 and simplifying the resulting equation, we obtain Fr = oyMe(o3, + oh) + as,th.tad, + of.) an + ay Hadad, + v3) + ay, Hy Qe = MAC Qh.Yralt rl = 14.59)Note that in Eq, 4.59, we have replaced up, by vp, since both are equal as the suinber of main and booster pumping-sets are equal, By climinating Bp, from Eqs. 4.53 and 4.55 and Bp, from Eqs, 4.54 and 4.56, we obtain F, cin, ~ Calan, + v ) + aytob, + vB tan-' 2 = Gy = ConBn 14.60) tp, — Col Jaed + 08) + ayted, + Cob won Ee nonlinear equations (Eqs. 4.59-4.61) in three unknowns. Wl ap,. To solve these equations by the Newton-Raphson method ‘#€ have (0 obtain a solution of the following equations un MF 1 ba.) o (2 ban, + bey + 2 ban) -FY 62 Bean, * Bo 88% * Seep, (2 tp, + (4.63) Bap, 8 OF ary ary yn 4 Ge Bans 1 Fi Btre + ae btn) =~ 468) Jn these equations, the funetions Fy. Fy, and F, and thie derivatives, are ovale uate forthe estimated values of a! uf, and a!) and a better estimate of the solution is determined from the following equations: af! = af!) + Bap, (4.65) OR = Ut + 0p, 4.66) oi = off + dap, (46n As before, the superscript in the parentheses refers to the number of the itera: tion. The expressions for the derivatives obtained by differentiating Eqs. 4.59 through 4.61 are Den Hest, + ts Ha. cty, tan" 82 + a Hap, (4.68) Hating * a Hy ty, tan” 2 a Hy cap, + 2a, Hasty + 2as, Hyp, tas! My Oe nol = el, Del», b> (4.69) oF, = ay Hecctp, + 2a 1X os He, (4.70) amy “etaate, (4.721 a7 74) 2Cy ase, — 4. Bee eta, 4.76) Calg rg ~ 2Cotta.¥p, 1a If [drep,|, [8etp,|, and |6up, |. obtsined by simultaneously solving Eqs. 4.62 through 4.64, are less than a specified tolerance {e.g., 0.001). then a! U2 and a are solutions of Eqs, 459 through 4.61: otherwise, ae, aie assumed equal t0 a, ti, and”, and the above privedure is repeated ntl a solution is obtained, Then. itis Venfied whether the segment of pump characteristics used in the eamputations earespopded 40 ep ane tp. I it does ots then a... ani, Fe assed equal 10 ap cs, nl tps respectively and the above procedure is repeated; otherwise, the valies of the remaining \ariables are obtained from Eqs. 444 through 4.56, and the solution progresses to the next time step To avoid an unlimited number of iterations in the ease of divergence of ite crations, a counter should be used so that the computations are stopped if the suniber of iterations exceeds a specified value (e.g, 30)To illustrate the use of the above procedure, the piping system shown in Fi 4.8 is analyzed. Initially, both pumps are operating at rated conditions, and the ‘ransient-state conditions are caused by simultaneous failure of power to both pumps. \ computer program (Appendix C) was developed using the boundary con Uitions derived in Section 4.5 for parallel pumps and the flowchart shown in Fig. 4.5. The method of characteristics discussed in Chapter 3 and the boundary conditions for the reservoir and series junction were used to analyze the wan- sient conditions in the discharge line. The waterhammer wave velocity for var ious sections of the discharge line was determined using the equations presented in Section 2.6. The pump-characteristics data for V, = 0.46 SI units (1276 gpm Units) tabulated in Appendix F was used in the analysis. At rated discharge and rated pump speed, the pressure head at the upstream end of the discharge line Initia! steady stare a dyaroutie grade tne Rerervowe L + 450m = 550m 075m D = 075m 900m/s 2 100m f= 001 f + 012 05 = 0.5m3/e Pump dete Oy © 025m Hn = 60m Na+ 1100 rpm 1 © 16.85%q m? per pump Pump efficiency at rated conditions = 0.84 Figure 4.8. Piping system. would be equal to the rated head. Starting with this flow and pressure head at the upstream end, the steady-state conditions in the discharge line were deter- mined. Then, the power was asstinied to fui, and the resulting transient con. ditions were computed. As the inertia of the liquid inthe pipe between the pump and the discharge manifold was small, the discharge of both pumps was lumped together and considered as the ow at the upstream end of the system Computed results are presented in Appendix C. 47-1 FRIFICATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL. The transient-state prototype test data ubtained on the Wind Gap Pumping Plant hy the Mechanical Design Unit of the Department of Water Resourves. State of California, Sacramento, was used to verily @ mathematiesl model based on the boundary conditions developed in Sections 4.4 and 4,5. In this section, plant data are first presented; the tests, instrumentation, and mathematical model are then briefly described. This is followed by a comparison of the computed and measured results Plant Data The Wind Gap Pumping Plant has five pumping units: thee small units (Nos, 1-3) and two large units (Nos. 4. 5). Since test results fr the ka ‘rere used for vertication purposes, only the data for these units said for their discharge line are presented here. The large units (Nos. 4, 5) are mianifulded together ito a 3.81-m-diameter pipe. Each unit has a combined purip-motor moment of inertia of 99,366 kg m, and is rated at 17.84 mvs ata total head of 159.7 m when operating at 360 pm. The specific speed ofthe putmp is 0.64 (SI usits). The pipetine is 628 m long and varies in thickness fon 11 to 27 rm. There is a discharge valve on the downstream side of each pumping unit This valve closes in 22 +b 2 following power failure to the unit, The minimum and maximum total purnping heads are 159.06 and 160.03 mn, respectively. and the friction loss in the pipeline corresponding to a flow of both units is 1-8 m ‘To prevent backflow from the downstream canal, a siphon is provided neue the downstream end of the pipeline, with the siphon having an air valve a its top This vaive opens as soon as power fails 10 the pump-motors Tests and Instrumentation Single- and multiple-unit tests were conducted on both the small and large units Runaway tests were conducted by subjecting the units to simulated power fail jh falve closure delayed until after the units hl reached we, with the discharge: the steady-state runaway speed“The strain-gauge-type pressure transducers were used tw measure the tran: Stent state pressures on the upstream and downstream sides of the discharge valve. A valve positon transducer (displacement) and an ¢pm (analog) trans. ducer were installed on all units tested to record the discharge-valve closure and the unit speed, ‘Mathematical Model “ computer program was developed based on the boundary conditions for the pump end derived in Sections 4.4 and 4,5 and on the Rowchar of Fig. 4.5 iThe closure of the discharge valve following power failure may be included in {he analysis, if desired, The pumping stations may have several parallel pumps, and the pumps may have long or short suction lines. To compute the transient vondivions in the pipeline, the method of characteristics of Chapter 3 and the boundary conditions for the downstream and upstream ceservoits and for the series junction, derived in Section 3.3, were used in the program. Comparison of Computed and Measured Results, I x " : | ry AY aan cl! { ~=T fs Wind Gap Pumping Plant. Comparison of computed and measured results. I eto (b) Discharge volve closed graduaily in 22 seconds Figure 4.9. (Continued4.8 PUMP START-UP In some piping systems, there is no control valve downstream of the pump; therefore start-up procedures outlined in Section 4.2 cannot be used. Pump star. up in such installations may produce very high pressures, especially if the motor is ofthe induction type and is staned across the line (ie., without reducing the voltage. ‘Transient-state conditions produced by a pump star-up may be anslyzed as follows: The time needed to reach the rated speed from zero under selected startup procedures may be obtained from the motor manufacturer, This time may be reduced by 30 percent” to determine the pump star-up time, 7.- The pump speed is now assumed to increase linearly trom zero to Ne during time T,, Thus the pump speed is known during the transient conditions, and we de not have to use the tonque characteristics and the polar moment of inertia to determine eat different times. This simplifies the computations considerably Let the pump speed at the end of time step be a* (to distinguish from the {known value of rotational speed, a, atthe beginning of time step, we are calling the Known speed at the end of time step a*). As discussed in Section 4.4, estimate v, by extrapolation, Then using a* and v,, detemine the segment of Pump characteristics to be used. Let the equation of the straight line represent- ing the pump characteristics (Fig. 4.3) be = a, + ay tan © 4.77) in which a, and a; may be determined trom the stored data, The following procedure is for a system having a short suction line. Pro- ceeding similarly, we may include a suction tine in the analysis. The negative characteristic equation for the pump may be written in a normal = Ontn + Cy + C,Heee™a, = 0 (4.79) this static head. This condition can be included in the above analysis by assum ing that Qp,, = 0.0 until Hp, , exceeds the static head, The pressure rise during a start-up may be reduced by having a slow start- up. This can be done by increasing the moment af inertia of the pump motor, by reducing voltage, or by having a par-winding star. The overall economy of decreasing the maximum pressure 1o reduce the pipe-Wall thickness by these ‘methods should be investigated prior to their selection 4.9 DESIG CRITERIA FOR PIP INES Once the layout and dimensions of a piping system have heen selected, the ‘maximum and minimum pressures for various operating conditions ean be de termined by using the procedures outlined in Sections 4.4, 4.5 and 4.7, In the safest design, all components of the system would be designed for the possible maximum and minimum pressures with a liberal factor of salety. Such a design would, however, be uneconomical. Therefore, a factor of safety is chosen de pending upon the risks and the probability of occurrence of 4 particular oper- ating condition during the life of the project, i.e., the higher the probability of occurrence, the higher is the factor of safety Based upon the frequeney of occurrence, various operating conditions may be classified as normal, emergency, or exceptional. A discussion of the oper: ating conditions included in each of these categories and the recommended tae (ors of safety" follows, Normal All those operations that are likely 10 occur several times during the lite of the pamping system are termed normal. Appurtenances or devices (e.g., surge tanks, surge suppressors, and! air valves) provided in the system to reduce severe transients are assumed to be properly designed and to function as designed dur- ing these operations ‘The following are considered to be normal operating conditions 1. Automatic of manual starting or tripping of pumps throughout the entire range of pumping head. If there is more than one pump on the line. all are tripped simultaneously: however, only one may he started atu time 2. Ifa check valve is present near the pump, it eloses instantly: upon flow reversal 3. A surge tank does not drain and thus admit air into she pipeline, and it does not overflow unless an overflow spillway is provided, 4. I there is an air chamber, itis assumed to have @ minimum aie volume uring a power failureAva result of any of the above operations, the water colum does not separate ‘at any point in the pipeline, However. if the water-column separation does oc- cur then appurtenances such as ir chambers. surge tanks, etc. may be provided ‘0 avoid it, But, if it is impractical or too costly, then special devices will be Provided to minimize the transient pressures when the columns subsequently Fein or the pipeline will be designed to withstand these pressures, A factor of safety of three* based on the ultimate bursting strength of the member and a suitable factor of safety against collapse are recommended for ‘the Hansient pressures caused by normal operations: ‘The emergency operating conditions in pumping systems are those in which one Hof the pressure-control devices malfunctions during power fa:lures. These con dition. include: |. One of the surge suppressors, surge tanks, oF relief valves is inoperative. Closure of one of the check valves provided for shutting off retum flow ‘hough the pumps is delayed and accurs at the time of riaximum reverse Howe, Awrinlet valves, if present in the system. are inoperative Sue the probability of occurrence of these conditions is re:her small. a face ‘or of safety of vo based on the ultimate bursting oF coll.2sing strength is sugeeted, Exceptional ional conditions are those in which the protective equipment malfunc- tions in the most unfavorable manner, such as loss of all air in the air chamber. very tipid abnormal opening or closing of a valve or a gate. and pump-shalt failue, Because the probability of occurrence af any of these conditions is ex. lremely remore, a factor of safety of slightly more than one, Cased on the ul rate huesting oF collapsing strength, may be used, 4.10 04: sTuby The hydraulic transient studies*® during the preliminary design of the makeup aand cvwoling-swater supply system for the Hat Creek Project ate presented in this section, 1 tat of sates of tour eecnnmended i Rel 35 Water-Supply The water-supply system (see Fiz. 4.10) for pumping water fron the Thompson River to the plant reservoir would be comprised of an 800-mmaliameter buried Pipeline, approximately 23 km long: a pumping station with five pumping units at the river intake: two booster stations, each with four pumping and a free. Surface suction tank: and a reservoir near the power plant, Each booster station would have the free-surface tank on the suction side. The mavimum average discharge would be 0.725 and 0.60’, respectively, and the maximum total Matic lift from the river intake to the plant reservoir would he 1083 m. The river intake would be located on the right bank of the ‘Thompson River, 2.4. km nonheast of Asheroft, British Columbia, Both booster stations have three-staze pumps. each rated ot 0.4 1's, 60 mn. ‘and 3580 rpm. The specific speed of each punip is 0.74 (S} units), and the ‘moment of inertia of pump, motor, shaft, and entrained water in the impeller is equal to 62 kz m*. If required, toval inertia tor euch unit can he increased 10 420 kg m* without exceeding the fimits set by the pump start-up. ‘The pump manufacturer supptied the pump characteristics for the normal zone of pump operation only. Since no data were available for the other zones and since these characteristics agreed closely with those of Appendix F for V, = 01.46 (Sl units) the characteristics of Appendix F were used for all zones of operation Analy sis, Computer Program A computer program for analyzing the transicnt conditions in a pipeline caused by power failure and/or valve operation was developed. The boundary condi- tions and solution procedures presented in Chapters 3, 4, und 10 were used 10 solve momentum and continuity equations by the method of characteristics. To avoid errors introduced by interpolations. wave velocities were adjusted slightly if necessary. so that the characteristics passed through the grid points. Because there is a free-surface tank on the suction side of each bonster station, transients n the discharge line were analyzed neglecting the effets af transients in the suction hne ‘The prograni was verified by comparing the computed results with those mew sured on a prototype (see Section 4.7) of those obiained by using other avail able, simpler. problen-oriented computer programs Selection of Control Devices Appropriate waterhammer control devives were selected as follows: L. Column separation. The system was analyzed for the case of simulta19h resers een a fe 9 HONISIY 10d | i" FEN + 7 rt 8 49019 supe L» 2 Ske iim 909 ponerg (ae el § lo% 2 oy vouors aiso0g | oF g se Phy : | | 7 nim woydez {| | bad { 7 Ty "5 IPP SBS . 1 ON voHDIS 13)5009 | sal $c aon Biel sobdeeee aes & a 3st al al al ai al» 1 8 8 8 8] 8) 8 $3013 - NOUWAINS neous power ranture 1o alt pumps, assuming there were no control devices. Wa ter-column separation occured in the pipeline between Booster Stations Nos. and 2, and in the pipeline downstream of Booster Station No. 2, The prosision of additional inertia at the pumps and one-way surge tanks prevented colums separation, The data for these devices are listed subsequently 2. Maximum pressure. twas assumed during the initial design of the pipe line that with appropriate control devices, the maximum pressure rise* at the pump end could be limited t0 10 percent of the rated head. With check valves located downstream of the pumps, the pressure rise following power failure exceeded 10 percent, However, it could be reduced to less thun S percent bs slowly closing the pump-discharge valves Results ‘The maximum and minimum hydraulic grade lines following power failure are shown on Fig. 4.10 for the system containing suitable control equipment Column Separation The following control devices would successfully prevent colunn separation in the pipeline: 1. Pipeline from Booster Station No, 1 10 2. Two altematives ate available: (A) Inerease the moment of inertia of each pump motor 0 115 kgm’. and provide a 4-m-diameter one-way surge tank at the top of Elephant Hill with the steady-state water level in tank at El. 627 (10 m above the ground sueface): and (B) Increase the moment of inertia of each pump motor to 390 ki my’, With these controls, the minimum pressures in the pipelines remain above ‘at spheric pressure. 2. Pipeline Downstream of Rooster Station No. 2. Inerease the moment of inertia of each pump motor to 370 kg m'; provide @ 4-m-tiameter one-way surge tank at Station 11 + 175 with steady-state water level in the tank at E 1252 (10 m above ground level); and provide a 4-m-diameter on: tank at Station 17 4+ 480 with steady-state water level in the tank at El. (345 (25 m above ground level) With these measures, the minimum pressures alo atmospheric pressures, the pipeline were above Maximum Pressures The pressure rise following power failure coukl be reduced by slowly closing the pump-discharge valves. With the closing times of about 100 s, the pressure ‘Pressure rise = Maximum transit sate pressure ~ Steady-state pressepg she Pump following power failure was less than 5 percent of the rated head. A single rate closure was assumed in these computations, The maxiimum Tegs Pum speed following power failure for the cases when the discharge valve remained open or when the discharge valve was closed was less than the following maximum permissible limits specified by the pomp manufacturer [20 Percent of rated speed for tess than 30 s and 120 percent of rated speed for longer periods, Emergeney Conditions As an emergency condition. the discharge valves were assumed to remain open following power failure. Because of the higher than normal inertia, the mai, mum pressure at the pump jn all cases remained less than the steady-state pres. Discussion The shove results were obtained using assumed friction factors and assumed ump characteristics. In addition, both the topographic intor for discharge valves were not pre jon and the data ly known. Test runs using different pump characteristics showed that variation in the pump characteristics and/or in the lata forthe discharge valve could substantially change the computed maximum and sninimurn pressures, Similarly, significant changes in the ground topara Phy Would change the hydraulic grade line relative tothe pipeline, thus possibly fesulling in situations where column separation could occur, A difference in the head losses could also affect the maximum and minimum pressures. Nit the available data, the maximum pressures at the pump could be kept felow 5 pereent ofthe rated head. However, as discussed. the pressure rise may be higher due to significant variations in the data for the system. If necessary, the Pressure rise could be decreased by increasing the discharve-valve closing time, which would result in an inerease in the time period tor which the pump ‘uns in the reverse direction, Although the maximum reverse pump speed was within the limits specified by the pump manufacturer, reverse flow through the pumps for an extended period may partially drain the pipeline at high points ‘Therefore, it was recommended that, until better data were available and a sen sitivity analysis of the effects of changes in the variables affecting pressure rise was ade, the maximum pressure rise at the pump end should be taken equal {0 10 perent of the rated head, and the elevation of the maximum hydraulic trade Tine shown in Fig. 4.10 should be adjusted proportionately With the specified control measures, the minimum hydraulic grade fine was always ahowe the pipeline. At Elephant Ridge and at the summits downstream of Booster Station 2, the minimum hydraulic grade line was less than 5 m above the pipeline, During the final design, however, when better data should be available, this should be investigated in detail: if necessary, the safety ma: could be increased, Air valves should be provided at high points along the pipeline, These would be helpful during filling and draining of the line and would prevent collapse of 4 long length of the pipeline should a break occur in the pipeline at a lowet elevation. In addition, valves could be provided slang the line to isolate and main segments of the line for inspection, repair, etc. Transients caused by the operation ofthese valves, if provided, should be studies during the Final desiym The one-way surge tanks should have wo pipes tor water outlaw This should considerably reduce the possibility of a tank becoming inoperative due to the failure of a check valve to open Two altematives are available to prevent column separation in the pipeline between Booster Stations Nos. I and 2. The altemative with increased inertia only is better from an operational point of view because the one-way surge tank is not as foolproof and in addition requires continuous maintenance The inertia of the pump motors could be increased by adding flywheels or by a custom design of the electric motors. In order to provide operational flex. ibility and ease in exchanging spare parts, etc., it wits decided! that all units at both the booster stations should be identical andl that each would have a nioment of inertia equal t0 400 ke m*, 4.11 SUMMARY In this chapter, a procedure for storing the pump cherscteristics in a di computer was presented, an iterative procedure for anaiszing transients in pip ing systems caused by variows pump operations was cutlined, and boundary conditions for a number of cases usually found in practice were developed Criteria for the design of pipelines were presented, and the chapter was com cluded by a presentation of a case study PROBLE AM Write a general-purpose computer program t detening the tansicnt-state pres sures in a discharge line caused by power fare. Using the punip charactenstie of Appendix F, investiga the maximum and suinimum pressures. the effect of increasing the Value of momeat of inertia on 42 Using the prograts of Problem 4,1, prove thatthe maximum pressure atthe pump does not exceed” the pumping head ifthe Fret losses are greater than 02a VJ in which w = watehammer wave velocity, acceleration due to pravity Mady-sate low Velocity, and ¢41 Desclop the boundary conditions Fora system having parallel pumps, in which Prreer tails 0 my pumps and n, pumps keep operating. 4-f Bie floxchan for the boundary condition derived in Problem 4.3, and develop {Computer program, 4.6 To arduce maximum pressures following a power fallure, a pressure-repulating valve {Liustimes provided just dawasiream ofthe pump. This valve opens as the power {tlvand is closed slowly later. Develop the boundary conditions for such a system, {th a computer program and investigate the effect of various rates of opening and ‘tome of the pressure-regulating valve Al A eck valve is provided in a di line to prevent reverse flows through the Ppurnps, When power fails to the pump, water in the discharge ine decelerates, and Ui check valve closes, A check valve having no dashpot and having negligible hheanuy friction losses closes" according to the equation 4 (ene Gay wv x) 7o wi sine + (HE , ae ‘ ie ‘a sich @ = angle between the center af gravity of disk and vertical: = moment lwratia ofthe disk; W, = weisht of dish in water; 7 = distance from pivot ta “sveteenter of gravity of disk: = mean pipeline velocity: &, = flow coetticient iLatstanary disk in moving water function of 8): Ky = flow cneiicient far moving ‘it sw sill water Tunetion of 8); and B. C. G. and Fare constan:s. Expression for ey c= (ars Whol A area of disk: R slistance from pivot wo center of disk: P = distance Mev othe point of concentration off r'd4: J « distance trom pivot to point "wenincion of moment of inertia of disk area: and r = momect arm meavured ik pivot Develop the boundary conditions forthe check valve, assuming that Kyand Ky #6 piven ina tabular form, 4.7 Woe ' Somputer program for the check valve. and run it forthe Zolloning data H235 eftsee: B= 0.548: C= 0.357: F = 0.11, G = 007. WF = 17 04 @ = 10.1" + a; initial steady-state & and eave 60.1 and 44°, respectively Kyand K, ae listed in the following: « ‘ i Gegrees) o 0, 00 4 Out6. 0.3 ‘ 028 040 n 0.40, 049 16 0.49 oss 20 0.56 038 4 0.62 asa 28 0.87 nay 2 on ous 36 on 0.38 0 08s 027 4 0.95 0.09 Use the pipeline and pump date given in Ex, 4.1 (Section 4.6), except that the diameter of the pipelines is 9 in 4.8 Write a computer program for analyzing the transisntstate convlitions caused by Pump start-up, By using this program. investigate the effect of starting time, T., the maxisoum and minimim pressures, REFERENCES Parmakian, J, Haverhanmer Anassis, Dover Publications. 1968, pp. 78-K1 Stepunot. A. 1. Cenfngal aml tial Flow: Paap, Joti Wiley & Sons, Ne York, 1957 Tovhamov, H. and Ohashi, I. “Transient Charactensties af » Centafigal Pump During Stating Period,” Paper No. 81-14 FE-16, pescnted at Winter Anna Meciing, Aver. Soe Mech. Eoges., Nov. 1981 4. Ohishi, H., ““Analyical and Exponimentat Stidy of Dynamic Characteristics of Turho- pumps,” NASA TN D-1298, April 1968, 5 Daigo. Hand Ohashi. H., “Experimental Study on Transient Characteristics of a Cenmitugsl Pomp Duting Rapid Acceleration of Rosstional Speed, Proc. 2nd mermatnal Som, Fld Machinery and Fluidics, sl, 2, Sup. Soc. Mech, Engr. Spt. 1972, pp. 175-182, Marin, C.8.,"Represemaion of Purp Chatatenstics Fr Transient Analysis"* Proc. Sep ‘an Performance Characierises of Hvdraulie Turbines an Pang. An. Soe Mech. Engrs, Nov. 1985 Thoma, B..“Vorgange heim Ausfallen des Autnebes vom Kreselparpen.” Miilangen sex Msirouischen Insts der Technischen Hochschule Mason, sok 4. V3, pp IN2-104 Kinwedge, C. Pan Thoma, D.. “Centetugal Punips Operated Under Abvuemal Cond tion," Power, vol. 73, 1931, pp. 881-884 9, Kinvedge, C. P.. “Vorgange bei Zemifugalpumpentagen nach plozlichem Ausallen des Antnebes, Mineitungen des Hudraulischen sits der Technischen Hoclnchute Munchen ol 7, 1933, pp. 33-73.10. 18. w. 2. 3 Knapp, R. T., “Complete Charastensties ot Cental Pumps and Theit Use in Prediction of Transient Behav.” Troms. amer. Soe. of Mech. Engrs. vo. 59, 1957, pp. 889-689, Swanson, W. M., "Complete Characteristic Citele Diagrams fir Turbo-Machinen.”> Trams mer So. of Mech. Engrs val. 78, 1983, pp. 819-826 Kiedge, €. P..“Hydcauic Transients in Centrifugal Pump Systems. Tans. ter, Soe of Mesh, Engrs. vol. 78, 1986, pp. 1307-1832 Donshy. 8. “Complete Pump Characteristics and the Effect of Specie Specds on Hydrate ‘Transiems" Jur Basic Engineering der. Soc. of Mech. Engrs Dee. 191. pp. €83 039 Steer. V.L. "Waterhanumee Analysis of Pipelines,” Jour. Pharos Div mer, Soo of iv, Engrs. fly 1964. pp. 15-171 Marchal. M., Flesch. G.. and Sue, P., "The Calculation of Watethanmes Problems ty Means ofthe Digital Computer.” Proc. Incrnational Svnp on Waerhanoncr in Pumped Suge Pojecs, Amict. Soc. of Mesh, Engrs. 1968. pp. 168-188 Soler. P.. “Representation of Ramp Characters for Calelation of Watethamne.” Sul:er Technical Review. No. 66, 1966, pp. 43-48, ‘Thomas, G., “Determination of Pump Charactensties fr a Computerized Transien! Analy sis." Proc. Firs International Con om Pressure Surges. British Hydromechanics Research Assoc. Camerbury. England, Sept, 1972, pp. A3-21-A5 32 Wylie, EB. and Sueeter. V. L.. Fluid Transients, FEB Publishers, Ann Atbor. Mich, 1931 Chaushsy. M. HL. pyted Haute Transions, Fisted, Van Nostand Reais, New York, 1979 Papa, Ws Ml -An Algebraic Model of 4 Purp’ Turbine.” Prue. Simp. on Pung Turbine Schemes, Amer. Sof Mech Engrs. June 1999, pp. 113-118. Poynict. H. M.. “The Donamies and Coateot of Eulerian Tarbomachines°* Jour . Panam Sistem. Measurement. and Control. Amer. Soe. Mech ners. Sept. 1972, pp, 1 Kohon. T.. “fxperimentl Rescurch am Water Hammer inthe Pumping Plat a aan Pumped Storage Power Station,” Hitch Review. 1984 pp. 5-74 Sprecher. J. °"The Hsdralic Power Storaze Pumps of the Ett Hydro-Electa: Power Scheme” Saker Teimic Review. No.3, VSL. pp. b-bd enol. 8. “Further Desclopment of High Head Storage Pumps." Eicher-tsss Nes val Nos. 1-3, 1960, pp. 58-66, Miyashiro, Hand Kondo, ML, “Model Tess of Centrtagal Pimps for Santa Ines Pumping Plant. Brazil” Hitachi Review. vol. 19, m0. 11. 1970, pp 386-394 Miyashiro, H. and Kondo, M., °Modsl Tests of Pumps for Snake Creck Pumping Plant No, 1. USA." Bagchi Review, val. 18, no. 7. 1989. pp. 286-292, Olson, D. J. “Single and Tao-Phase Petformanse Characteristics ofthe MODs1 Semiscale Pump Under Steady State ant Transient Fluid Conditions.” ANCR-1168, Aezost Nyclear Company, Ost 1974 Winks, Ro W. “One-Thisd Scale AirWater Purp Test Progam and Performance." EPRL NP-135, July 1977, Kennedy, W. G., Jacob, MC. Whitehouse. J. C., Fishburn 1. D., and Kanephs. G. 3k, Pump Two-Phase Peniommance Peosein,” NP-1SS6, Final Repo, vole. 2.8. Septersher 1980, Kamath. PS. and Switt. W. L.. “Two-Phase Performance of Scale Motes of Pimary Coolant Pump.” NP-287S, Fins Report, September 1982 Brown, R. 1 and Rogers. B. C.. “Development of Pump Characteristics fm Field Tests, Jour of Sechanical Design, Amer. Soe. of Mech. Engrs. 102. 1980, pp. 857-512 Camis, E, M., “Four-Quadrant Charactenstics of a Vaned Dilhiser. End Suction, Pomp.” Sieth smernarionat Simp. en Hndraulie Tranciens in Power Suaions, Intemational Ase, ysrautic Research, Gloscester, England, September 18-20. 1983, 48. Miyashim, HL. “Watetiaminer Analysis We Pumps sie in Sens” Re 19. pp. 1 ny 34 Joseph 1 and Hamil, F., °Star-Up Pressures in Show Pump Discharge Lines." Jour Blo Araules Dv, mer. Soe Of Cw. Engrs. vo. 9. aly M72, pp Meets 38, Panmakian,1_,"Watechamimer Design Cetera.” Jour. Passer Div mer Sin of Ci. Enon Apa 1987, pp. 1216-1-1216-8 36, Chaudry, Mt H., Cass, D. E. and Bell, W. W.. “Hat Creck Project, Hytaulic Transtent Analysis of Make-up Cooling Water Supply Systenn,” Report No DD 108, thre Design Division, British Columbia Hydro and Power Authonty, Vancouver Canada. te 97 537, Stephenson, D., Pipeline Desi for Water Eusiners, Ehevice Scientific Publishing C Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1976. pS 38, Parmley, 1. J.°The Behaviourof Check Valtes During Close.” Research Rey. Glestchd and Kennedy Lud, Kilmarnock, England, Oct. 1965, ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Schnyder, O., “Comparison Between Calculated ané Test Ress on Watetharnmer Plant.” Trans. mer. Soc. of Mech, Engrs, vol. $8, 1937, pp, 695-708 Linton. P.. “Pressure Surges on Staring Punps with Empty Delivery Pipes.” Krish Hyun chanic Research Assoc. TNED2, 1950. Rich, G. R., Hidrauic Feansiems, McGraw-Hill Book Co, Parmakian 3. “Pressure Suess at Large Pump lnsalsons ol. 75, Aup. 1983. pp. 95-106, Parmakian J. "Pressuee Surge Control at Tracy Pmping Plante” Pro, ter Soe of Gil Bers ol. 79, Sepurate no. 361, Des. 1933, Jaeger. C, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Blackie aml Sons, anon. 1985 Jaeger. C.,"Waterharimer Caused by Pimps." Hater Psver, Landon, tals 19S, pp. 284.300, Myashico, H., “Watethammer Analysis of Pumps in Purllel Operation. Buss usar Soo. Mech. Bnges. sol. 5, no. 19. 1982, gp. 419-484 Miyashiro, H., "Water Level Oscillations in a Sarge Tank When Staring @ Parnp in w Purspet Storage Power Station,” Prov: aterational Ass: for Hvrante Research, London. 1962 PD 13-130, Riner, H. K_and Robling, T- A. “Stating Lange Casiom Pumps 8 ‘Chalmers Engineering Review, vol 37, 90.2, 1972 Donsky, B., Byrne, R. M., aid Barlot, P. E., “Upsnge amd Speed-Rise Chass Po 4 Pomp Shutdown,” Jour: Hydalies Di. Amer Soc. Cis. Engrs. vol. 105, HY. Jane 197, po So1-614 Cooper, P.. Performance aa Ventcat Circulating Pump inthe Turine Suse,” Sv Hoo Power Fad Machines, Amo Sos. Mech, Engr, Phoenin. Nov. 1982 inno, H. and Kennedy, JF, “Waterharwmer Chan lor Centtigal Pump So stes” Joa Mpdrouies Di. Amer. Soc. Cis. Engrs, ol. 91, 1963, pp. 247-270 Payne, HLM, and Free, 1. G., “Discussion of Water Hamer Chany for Centatagsi Fun. System, by Kinmo and Kenney," Jour: Hydrautes Dus: mer, Soc, Css Engr... HB. Stcch 1968, pp. 379-382 Koval, A, “Pld Transient Consitions in Conenser Cooling Water Ststins WAIE.25, Amer. Soe. Mech. Engrs, 1970 Koelle. E, and Chasdy, M. H.teds., Proc. Inernvional Seminar on Hudraus Dann English with Ponuguese ansation), vos. 1-3. Sao Paulo Bran, 1982 Pumping New Yok, 1981 Tans. cer Soo Meh Bron mst Reverse Fe. ies Saat Paper Me- TRANSIENTS IN HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS 8.1 INTRODUCTION In Chapter 3, boundary conditions for a Francis turbine operating at constant speed were derived. Turbine speed remuins constant if it is connected 1 a large system. In this chapter, a mathematical model is developed tor analying hy- Sraulic transients caused by various turbine operations, sich as startup, load sceeptance, of load rejection. Turbine speed may change during these vpera tions Typical layouts of hydroelectric power plants are first presented. Details of the mathematical simulation of the conduit systems, twrbogenerator, and emor are then outtined. Various turbine operations that proviuce hystraulic tran- sients in the water passages of a power plant are discussed. Prototy'pe test results used t0 verify the mathematical model are then presented. followed by a dis. cussion of the governing stability of hydrowurbines, and the selection af gen erator inertia and optimum governor setings. ‘The chapter concludes with the ase study’ of the governing stability studies carried! out for a 5O0-MW hyd. electric power plant. 3.2 SCHEMATIC OF A HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT‘Surge tank Reservoir Reservoir —Penstock Tyrbine Dratt tube 4s Surge tank Reservoir _Penstock Reservoir -Penstock oo . Figure $1. (Continued) ge tank The following components have to be mathematically simlated to develop the mathematical model of a hydroelectric power plant. Reservoir "upstream and downstream water conduits including any surge tanks turbine and generator govemor 1 —Penstock 5 Details of the simul lation of these components are presented in the following 53 UPSTREAM AND DOW: STREAM CONDUITS AAs shown in Fig. 5.1, water is carried from the upstream resecvoir or canal 10 , the turbine scroll case through a tunnel ancl/or a penstock, and the outflow from a the trbine is discharged through the draft tube to the downsteearn water pas Figure 5.1. Schematic diagrams of typical hydroelectric power plant layoutssages, which may consist of either a free-surface flow or a pressurized tunnel, a talrace canal. a river, ora downstream reservoir. Depending u nthe, anks may pal hes of 10.teduce the maximuin waterhammer pressures, * tic naa ST chan Re RS conditions presented in Chapters 3 and 10 are used to simulate the upstream andl downstream conduits IF the dovunsteeam conduit system is comprised of a free-surface flow tunnel, gp.opcu channel, ra son pressusized eondTand x short dra.ate. then the Spwtevam conduit sysiem may by neglected simplify the analy Bounslary conditions to analyze the turbine end oF TRE conduit Sistem are developed in the following section, to improve the povering charatensice, 5.4 SIMULATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINE The wltionship between the net headt and discharge has tobe specified to Role tine hl rset tli ph ie de ends pon various parameters for examples the ow the depenis gon the pet heed, raion gpetd openins hile the fow though Rail 2% well aetheeumner bade ang Tan impulse rine, howe 2 Yanctd of the hea-and he abzale opening only Curves representing the relationship between these parameters are called, bine characteristics, Except for Krivehenko et al..! very litle information has Been Wwsried in te literaue for the turbine characteristics dur SIE Wotons “Therefore Steady sae keawiltassumpion. ~The data for the turbine flow and power output, obtained from the model tests, ane presented in a graphical form known as hill charts (Fig. 5.2). Th efficiency is usually more than that det@rnin6d from model ests be Sale CTiects, Therefore, while plotting The pratctype Ovi is taken “into accouat by stepping up the model efficiency. Various empirical formulas have been proposed for this purpose, of which the Moody formula” appeats to be the most suitable Usually very tite data are available for small wicket-gate openings. and. «0 cover this range, the characteristic curves are extrapolated. To do this. flow should be known shen the turbine rotational speed is zero, and the windage and friction losses should be known at wicket-gate openings below the spegds "This wil be discusseg in detail in Chapters 19 and Lt {Net head = Peesure teal at tune inet + velcity heal — head at end of dai by i ine 2 neice et oats, ane Efficiency UNIT POWER, p Figure £2. Typical hill chart fora is turbine Gin fe--sce units no-load gate (S2L}. SNL sate is the lowest gate opening ies ar sprchirondus speed with zero output Typical characteristics for a Francis tuibine are shown in Fig. $.3. In this figure, the abscissa isthe unit speed. 6, an the dinates ate the unt ows, 4, and the unit power, p. Detinitions of @, p, and q are given in Table 5.1 In the expressions of Table 5.1, D = diameter of the runner: \) = rotational speed: H, = net head: Q = wrbine discharge: and P = power ouput. In Ene its, D ts expressed in in... in pm, #1, in Mh, Qin see. and P in hp fists Fan aren in pm, Pin KW, and Q ina AL SRT gate; the trbine output sexual To the turbopene at which turbine ro: ibogenieraor windage andning (3) 109 oe - ee o =e § oso 8 02 af a aol LS aonoey ¢ ow fo Nb y - iD C a ee fern saesorestosieny ret a ae com a caer . a ° é ee te Unit speed, § 2 Gore (b) Unit power vs unit speed Characters of 2 Francis turbine in 1th-see unit ‘fiction ‘osses at the synchronous speed. Therefore. if the wicket gates are Seeadily open at the SNL gate opening. the unit rotates = the synchronous speed, and the set turbine ouput is zero. The abcissa axis 4, The turbine characteristic curve fir the gate opening r, between @, aml O» may be approximated by the straight line EF as shown in Fig. 5.5. The value at is imtempolated trom the known values at the grid points A and B, and the value at Fis interpolated from the known values at points Cand D The equation of straight line EF may be written as ga tae 62 in which a, and a, are determined from the known coordinates of F and F. Substituting expressions for g and from Table $.1 (SI units) into Eq. §.2 and simpli % 63) in which and ; Gaye a5 = N,D¥a,/84.59 J ‘Ho Bngish units, ay = 0.8144, and a, = Na) 64,672