All bones and joints in body

There are a total of 206 individual bones in the body

Each bone is a organ that is made up of protein fibers, minerals, and cells
Bones are the body's warehouse for calcium, iron, and energy in the form of fat
Femur is the largest bone in the body
Tibia bears almost all of the body weight
Skeletal system's primary function is to form a framework that supports and protects the
body's organs
Two major divisions are axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton is made up of 80 bones
Appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones
Skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together all except the mandible
Mandible is a moveable jaw bone
Five types of bones: Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid
Spine supports the upper body's weight, protects the spinal cord, and provides posture
Vertebrae 26 vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body
12 pair of ribs
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Muscle system is responsible for the movement of the human body

700 named muscles make up half a person's body weight
Muscle tissue is found in the heart, blood vessels, and digestive organs
There are three types of muscle skeletal, cardiac, Visceral
Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart
Visceral is the weakest of all muscle tissue
Skeletal muscles are attached to two bones through tendons
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 Muscles get their energy from different sources
Motor neurons control the skeletal muscles
Skeletal muscles work with bones and joints from lever systems
Skeletal muscle fibers are divided into two types.
Type 1 is very slow and deliberate in their contractions
Type 2 has two sub groups Type 2 A and Type 2 B
Type 2 A fibers are faster and stronger than Type 1 fibers but lacks endurance
Type 2 B fibers are even faster and stronger than type 2 A but lacks even more
endurance
When Muscles run out of energy they go into what is known as muscle fatigue
Muscles move by shortening the length, pulling on tendons, and moving bones closer to
each other
Muscles get their names from the region they are from
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Cardiovascular system is powered by the heart

Responsible for transporting oxygen
Blood vessels allows blood to flow from the heart to every region of the body
Size of blood vessels corresponds with the amount of blood that passes through the
vessel
Three major types of blood vessels are arteries, capillaries, and veins
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest blood vessels and most common
Veins are the large return vessels of the body
Veins are the return counterparts of arteries
Heart has it's own set of blood vessels
Veins of the stomach carry blood to our liver
Liver removes toxins, stores sugars, and processes the products of digestion before they
reach the other body tissues
Average human body contains 4 to 5 liters of blood
Blood is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid plasma
Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cells
White blood cells make up a very small percentage of the total number of cells in the
bloodstream
Platelets are responsible for the clotting of blood
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 Plasma is the liquid portion of blood that makes up 55% of the blood's volume
Plasma is a mixture of water, proteins, and dissolved substances
90% of plasma is made of water
Antibodies are part of the immune system
Cardiovascular systems 3 main functions are transportation, protection, and regulation
Transportation:Cardiovascular system transports blood to almost all of the body's tissues
Protection:Cardiovascular system protects the body through white blood cells
White blood cells fight pathogens that have entered the body
Blood carries antibodies that give immunity to pathogens that the body has previously
encountered
Regulation:Cardiovascular system maintains control of several internal conditions
Blood vessels help keep a stable body temperature
Heart is a four chambered double pump where the left and the right work as separate
pumps
Left and right are separated by a muscular wall of tissue or known as the septum of the
heart
Right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood
Left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood
Blood vessels can affect blood pressure
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Digestive system is a group of organs that work together to convert food into energy
There are many organs that help your body digest food
Six major functions take place in the digestive system: Ingestion, Secretion, Mixing and
movement, Digestion, Absorption, and excretion
Food first gets digested in the mouth
There are a total of 32 teeth in the human body
Tongue is made up of several pairs of muscles covered in a thin bumpy skin-like layer
There are 3 salivary glands surrounding the mouth
The throat is responsible for the passing of massive chewed food
Throat plays major role in respiratory system due to air coming through
Esophagus connects the throat to the stomach
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 Small intestines takes up most pf the space in the abdominal cavity
Coiled like a hose
By the time food leaves the small intestines around 90% of nutrients have been
extracted
Liver is located to the right of the stomach
LIver weighs 3 pounds
Liver is the second largest organ in the body
Liver's main function is to produce bile
Gallbladder stores and recycles excess bile from the small intestines
Pancreas is 6 inches long and shaped like a short lumpy snake
Large intestine is a long thick tube 2 and a half inches and 5 feet long
Wraps around the superior and lateral border of the small intestine
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Digestive system has six primary processes

Ingestion: intake of food, the mouth is responsible for this function
Secretion: Digestive system secretes around 7 liters of fluids which moistens dry food
Mixing and Movement: digestive system uses 3 main process to move and mix food
Swallowing: push food out of the mouth through the pharynx and into the esophagus
Peristalsis: moves partially digested food a short distance
Segmentation: increases the absorption of nutrients by mixing food and increases
contact with the walls of the intestines
Digestion: Turns large pieces of food into its component chemicals
Absorption: begins in the stomach with simple molecules
Excretion: Final function which is basically pooping
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 Endocrine system includes all the glands of the body and the hormones made by those
glands
Glands are controlled by stimulation of the nervous system
Glands help maintain the body's homeostasis
Hypothalamus is responsible for the direct control of the endocrine system through the
pituitary gland
Hypothalamus has special cells called neurosecretory cells neurons that secrete
hormones
Pituitary gland is a small pea-sized lump of tissue connected to the inferior portion of the
hypothalamus of the brain
Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to carry hormones it releases
throughout the body
Pituitary gland is made of two separate structures the posterior and anterior pituitary
glands
Posterior Pituitary is nervous tissue instead and 2 hormones are stored and released
Oxytocin triggers contractions at childbirth and release of milk during breastfeeding
Antidiuretic hormone prevents water loss in the body
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Anterior pituitary gland is the true glander part

Function of the anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the releasing and inhibiting
hormones of the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary produces 6 important hormones
Thyroid stimulating hormone: responsible for the stimulation of the thyroid
gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone:stimulates the adrenal cortex, the outer part of the
adrenal gland, to produce its hormones.
Follicle stimulating hormone:stimulates the follicle cells of the gonads to produce
gametesova in females and sperm in males.
Luteinizing hormone:stimulates the gonads to produce the sex hormones
Human growth hormone:affects many target cells throughout the body by
stimulating their growth, repair, and reproduction.
Prolactin:has many effects on the body, chief of which is that it stimulates the
mammary glands of the breast to produce milk.
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 Pineal Gland is a small pinecone-shaped mass of glandular tissue
Pineal Gland produces the hormone melatonin that regulates the human
sleep-wake cycle
Thyroid gland is a butterfly shaped gland located at the base of the neck
Thyroid gland produces 3 hormones
Calcitonin:reduce the concentration of calcium ions in the blood by aiding the
absorption of calcium into the matrix of bones
Triiodothyronine:Works with thyroxine to regulated body's metabolic rate
Thyroxine:Works with Triiodothyronine to regulated body's metabolic rate
Parathyroid Gland 4 small masses of glandular tissue
Parathyroid Gland produces the hormone parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone s released from the parathyroid glands when calcium ion
levels in the blood drop below a set point
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Adrenal Glands are a pair of triangular glands found superior to the kidneys
Adrenal Glands are made of 2 distinct layers each with their own unique function
Outer adrenal cortex:Produces many cortical hormones in 3 classes
1.Glucocorticoids breakdown proteins and lipids to produce glucose
2.Mineralocorticoids regulate the concentration of mineral ions in the body
3.Androgens are produced at low levels in the adrenal cortex to regulate the growth and
activity of cells that are receptive to male hormones
Adrenal medulla produces the hormones known as epinephrine and norepinephrine
Both increase the flow of blood to the brain and muscles to improve the fight or flight
response to stress
These hormones also work to increase the heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure
while decreasing the flow of blood
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 Pancreas is a large gland located inferior and posterior to the stomach
Pancreas contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue
Gonads are responsible for producing the sex hormones in the body
Testes or testicales are a pair of ellipsoid organs found in the scrotum of males
Testicale sproduce testrone in males after the start of puberty
Testosterone affects many parts of the body including muscles, bones, sex
organs
Testroine is a hormone that causes growth and increase of strength in muscles
During puberty testosterone controls the growth and the development of the sex
organs
Ovaries are pair of almond shaped glands located in the pelvic body cavity lateral
and superior to the uterus in females
Ovaries produce the female sex hormones
Estrogens are a group of hormones that function as the primary female sex
hormones
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Thymus is an organ found in the chest that produces hormones called thymosins
that help to train and develop T-lymphocytes during childhood
Thymus becomes inactive during puberty
Other organs and tissue in the body produce hormones as well
The heart produces hormone in response to high blood pressure levels
Kidneys produce hormones in response to low levels of oxygen in the blood
Digestive system produce hormones in response to the presence of food in the
stomach
Adipose produces the hormone leptin that is involved in the management of
appetite and energy usage by the body
Placenta in pregnant women produces several hormones that help maintain
pregnancy
Prostaglandins help block damaged regions of the body from infection or further
damage
Leukotrienes help the body heal after prostaglandins have taken effect
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 Endocrine system works with the nervous system to form the control systems of
the body
Nervous system gives a fast and narrowly targeted system to turn on specific
glands and muscles throughout the body
Endocrine system is much slower acting but has long lasting and powerful effects
Hormones are distributed through the body via bloodstream
As hormones pass through the body they pass through cells
Many hormones produced by the endocrine system are tropic hormones
Levels of hormones in the body are regulated by many factors one of them being
the nervous system
Nervous system can control hormone levels
Hormones are classified into 2 categories
Water-soluble hormones:The hormones in this body are amino-acid and oxytocin
along many others
These hormones are able to be dissolved in water (soluble)
Lipid-soluble hormones include the steroid hormones such as testosterone,
estrogens, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids
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The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of
the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body.
Together these organs are responsible for control of the body and
communication among its parts
Brain and spinal cord form the control center known as the central nervous
system
Sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system monitor
conditions inside and outside the body
Most of the nervous system is tissue made up of cells: neurons and neuroglia
Neurons communicate inside the body by transmitting electrochemical signals
Neurons appear different from other cells in the body
Small tree like structures called dendrites extend from the cell body to pick up
stimuli from the environment
3 classes of neurons are afferent neurons, efferent neurons, and interneurons
Afferent neurons: transmit sensory signals to the central nervous system from
receptors in the body
Efferent neurons: Transmit signals from the central nervous system to effectors
in the body such as muscles and glands
Interneurons: combine information received from afferent neurons and direct the
function of the body through different neurons
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 Neuroglia act as the helper cells of the nervous system
Every neuron in the body is surrounded by anywhere from 6 to 60 neuroglia that
protect, feed, and institute the neuron
Neurons are essential to body function and almost never reproduce
Neuroglia are important to maintain a functioning nervous system
Brain is soft wrinkled organ that weighs 3 pounds
Brain is protected by the bones of the skull that surround and protect it
100 billion neurons of the brain form the main control center of the body
Brain and spinal cord together form the central nervous system
Information is processed and responses originate
Brain also controls lower body functions such as maintenance of respiration,
heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion
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Spinal cord carries information through the vertebral cavity of the spine
In the lumbar region the spinal cord separates into a bundle of individual nerves
called the cauda equina
White matter of the spinal cord works as the main conduit of nerve signals to the
body from the brain
Grey matter of the spinal cord combine reflexes to stimuli
Nerves are in the nervous system that are information highways to carry signals
between the brain and spinal cord and rest of the body
Wrapping of nerves with connective tissue helps to protect the axons and
increase speed of their communication within the body
Nerves that carry info from sensory receptors to the central nervous system only
are afferent nerves
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Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to effectors in
the body like muscles
Interneurons form complex networks inside the central nervous system to
combine the info received from afferent neurons and to direct the function of the
body through efferent neurons
Neuroglia act as the helper cells of the nervous system
Each neuron is surrounded by anywhere from 6 to 60 neuroglia that protect,
feed, and insulate the neuron
Neuroglia are very important to keeping a working nervous system
Meninges are protective coverings of the central nervous system
Their are 3 layers of meninges
Dura Mater is the thickest and most strongest of all the 3 meninges and protects
the Central Nervous system from external damage (CNS)
Arachnoid mater is more thin and delicate dura mater
Pla mater is also thin and delicate it has many blood vessels that feed the
nervous tissue of the Central nervous system
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Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the space in the organs inside the Central Nervous
System
Cerebrospinal fluid is formed from blood plasma by special structures called
choroid plexuses
Newly made cerebrospinal fluid flows through the inside of the brain in hollow
spaces called ventricles
Cerebrospinal fluid flows through the subarachnoid space around the outside of
the brain and spinal cord
Cerebrospinal fluid is constantly produced at the choroid plexuses
Cerebrospinal fluid absorbs shocks between the brain, skull, spinal cord, and
vertebrae
This shock absorption protects the Central nervous system from blows or sudden
change in velocity an example is being in a car crash
Brain and spinal cord float within the Cerebrospinal fluid which reduces their
weight
The brain is a very large but soft organ that needs a high volume of blood to
work properly
The reduced weight in cerebrospinal fluid allows blood vessels of the brain to
remain open
Cerebrospinal fluid helps maintain chemical homeostasis inside the central
nervous system
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All of the bodies sense organs are components of the nervous system
Which are the special senses vision, taste, smell, hearing, and balance are all by
specialized organs like eyes and taste buds
Sensory receptors are found throughout most of the body
All sensory receptors are connected to afferent neurons that carry their sensory
infor to the Central Nervous System
Nervous System has 3 main functions:
Sensory involves collecting info from sensory receptors that monitor the body's
internal and external conditions
Integration is the processing of the many sensory signals that are passed into
the Central Nervous System at any given time
Integration happens in the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord
Motor or Efferent neurons carry signals from the grey matter of the Central
Nervous System through the nerves of the peripheral nervous system.
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 Divisions of the nervous system
Peripheral Nervous System includes all parts of the nervous system outside of
the brain and spinal cord
Somatic Nervous System is a division of the Peripheral Nervous System that
includes all of the voluntary efferent neurons
The Somatic Nervous System is responsible for stimulating skeletal muscles in
the body
The autonomic Nervous System is a division of the Peripheral Nervous System
that includes all of the involuntary efferent neurons
2 Divisions of the autonomic nervous system are Sympathetic and
parasympathetic
Sympathetic division forms the body's fight or flight response to stress,
danger, excitement, exercise, emotions and embarrassment.
Parasympathetic forms the body's rest and digest response when the body is
relaxed, resting, or feeding
Parasympathetic works to undo the work of the Sympathetic division after a
stressful situation
Parasympathetic works to decrease respiration and heart rate
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Enteric Nervous System is a division of the Autonomic Nervous System that is

responsible for regulating digestion and the function of the digestive organs
Enteric Nervous System receives signals from the central nervous system
Enteric Nervous System works by itself of the Central Nervous System
Due to this the Enteric Nervous System is known as the body's second brain
Action Potential is created by the movement of sodium and potassium ions
through the membrane of neurons
Resting potential: At rest neurons have a concentration of sodium ions outside of
the cell and potassium ions inside of the cell
Threshold potential:-55 millivolts is the trigger voltage that neurons need to
reach to cross the threshold into forming an action potential
Depolarization:Sodium carries a positive charge that causes the cell to become
depolarized (positively charged) compared to it's normal negative charge
Repolarization. After the depolarization voltage of +30 mV is reached,
voltage-gated potassium ion channels open, allowing positive potassium ions to
diffuse out of the cell. The loss of potassium along with the pumping of sodium
ions back out of the cell through the sodium-potassium pump restores the cell to
the -55 mV resting potential. At this point the neuron is ready to start a new
action potential.

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 Synapses:is the junction between a neuron and another cell
Synapses can form between 2 neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell
2 types of synapses are in the body chemical synapses and electrical synapses
Chemical synapses:At the end of a neurons axon is an enlarged region of the
axon known as the axon terminal. The axon terminal is separated from the next
cell by a small gap known as the synaptic cleft. When an AP reaches the axon
terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium ion channels. Calcium ions cause
vesicles containing chemicals known as neurotransmitters (NT) to release their
contents by exocytosis into the synaptic cleft. The NT molecules cross the
synaptic cleft and bind to receptor molecules on the cell, forming a synapse with
the neuron. These receptor molecules open ion channels that may either
stimulate the receptor cell to form a new action potential or may inhibit the cell
from forming an action potential when stimulated by another neuron.
Electrical synapses:are formed when 2 neurons are connected by small holes
called gap junctions
Gap junctions allow electric current to pass from one neuron to the other
Then n action potential cell is passed directly on to the other cell through the
synapse
Myelination covers the axons of many neurons and this increases the speed of
nerve conduction throughout the body
Myelination speeds up the movement of action potentials in the axon by reducing
the number of action potentials that have to form for a signal to reach the end of
an axon
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 Reflexes are quick, uncontrollable response to stimuli
Patellar reflex is checked when a physician taps on a patient's knee during a
physical examination
Reflexes allow the body to respond to stimuli quickly by sending responses to
effectors before the nerve signals reach the conscious parts of the brain
This is the reason why people pull their hands away from a hot object before
they realize they are in pain
Each of the 12 cranial nerves has a specific function within the nervous system
(1) Olfactory nerve carries scent info to the brain from the olfactory epithelium
(specialized tissue inside the nasal cavity) in the roof of the nasal cavity.
(2) Optic nerve carries visual info from the eyes to the brain
Oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves (3, 4, and 5) all work together to
allow the brain to control the movement and focus of the eyes
(6) Facial nerve strengthens the muscles of the face to make facial expressions
(7) Vestibulocochlear nerve balances info from the ears to the brain
(8) The glossopharyngeal nerve carries taste information from the posterior 1/3
of the tongue and assists in swallowing.
(9) The vagus nerve carries information about the condition of the vital organs to
the brain, delivers motor signals to control speech
(10) Accessory nerve controls movements of shoulders and neck
(11) Hypoglossal nerve moves tongue for speech and swallowing
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 Sensory Physiology: All sensory receptors can be classified by their structure and
by the type of stimulus that they detect
3 classes of sensory receptors are free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve
endings, and specialized cells
Free nerve endings are free dendrites at the end of a neuron that extend into a
tissue
Pain, heat, and cold are all sensed through free nerve endings
Encapsulated nerve ending is a free nerve ending wrapped in a round capsule of
connective tissue
Specialized cells detect stimuli from the 5 special senses: vision, hearing,
balance, smell, and taste
There are 6 major classes of receptors: mechanoreceptors, nociceptors,
photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, osmoreceptors, and thermoreceptors.
Mechanoreceptors: are sensitive to mechanical stimuli like touch, pressure,
vibration, and blood pressure
Nociceptors: respond to stimuli such as extreme heat and cold
Photoreceptors: in the retina detect light to provide the sense of vision
Chemoreceptors: detect chemicals in the bloodstream and provide the sense of
taste and smell
Osmoreceptors: monitor the osmolarity of the blood to determine the body's
hydration level
Thermoreceptors: detect temperatures inside the body and it's surroundings
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 Cells of the human body need a constant stream of oxygen to stay alive
Respiratory system gives oxygen to the body's cells while removing carbon
dioxide
3 major parts of the respiratory system are the airway, the lungs, and the
muscles of respiration
Airway includes nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles,
carries air between the lungs and the body's exterior
Lungs act as the functional units of the respiratory system by passing oxygen
into the body and carbon dioxide out of the body
Muscles of respiration work together to act as a pump, pushing air into and out
of the lungs during breathing
Nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening for the respiratory system
and are the first section of the body's airway
Nose is a structure of the face made of cartilage, bone, muscle, and skin that
supports and protects the anterior portion of the nasal cavity
Nasal cavity is a hollow space within the nose and skull that is lined with hairs
and mucus membrane
Nasal cavity warms, moisturizes, and filters air entering the body before it
reaches the lungs
Air exiting the body through the nose returns moisture and heat to the nasal
cavity before being exhaled into the environment.
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The mouth also known as the oral cavity is the second external opening for the
respiratory tract
The mouth can be used to supplement or replace the nasal cavitys functions
when needed
Mouth does not warm and moisturize the air entering the lungs as well as the
nose
Mouth lacks the hairs and sticky mucus that filter air passing through the nasal
cavity
Only advantage of breathing through the mouth is that it's shorter distance and
larger diameter allows more air to quickly enter the body
The larynx or the voice box is a short section of the airway that connects the
laryngopharynx (a part of the throat) and the trachea (windpipe)
Trachea or windpipe is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage
rings
The windpipe connects the voice box to the bronchi and allows air to pass
through the neck and into the thorax
The rings of cartilage making up the windpipe allow it to remain open to air at all
times
The main function of the windpipe is to provide a clear airway for air to enter and
exit the lungs
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At the inferior end of the windpipe the airway splits into left and right branches known as
the primary bronchi
Left and right bronchi run into each lung before branching off into smaller secondary
bronchi
Secondary bronchi carry air into the lobes of the lungs-2 in the left lung and 3 in the right
lung
Secondary bronchi in turn split into smaller tertiary bronchi with each lobe
Tertiary bronchi split into many smaller bronchioles that spread throughout the lungs
Every bronchiole splits into smaller branches less than a millimeter in diameter called
terminal bronchioles
The structures of the walls of the airway begin to change as he airway splits into tree like
branches
Primary bronchi contain many C-shaped cartilage rings that firmly hold the airway open
and give the bronchi a cross sectional shape like a flattened circle
main function of the bronchi and bronchioles is to carry air from the windpipe into the
lungs
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 Lungs are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the heart
and superior to the diaphragm
Each lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that gives the lung with space to
expand as well as negative pressure space relative to the body's exterior
Negative pressure allows the lungs to passively fill with air as they relax
Left and right lungs are different in size and shape due to the heart pointing to
the left side of the body
Left lung is smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2 lobes while the right
lung has 3 lobes
Surrounding the lungs are sets of muscles that are able to cause air to be
inhaled or exhaled from the lungs
The diaphragm are principal muscle of respiration in the human body
The diaphragm is a thin sheet of skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the
thorax
Relaxation of the diaphragm allows air to flow back out the lungs during
exhalation.
Between the ribs are small intercostal muscles that assist the diaphragm with
expanding and compressing the lungs
These muscles are divided into 2 groups the internal intercostal muscles and the
external intercostal muscles
INternal intercostal muscles are the deeper set of muscles and depress the ribs
to compress the thoracic cavity and force air to be exhaled from the lungs
The external intercostals are found superficial to the internal intercostals and
function to elevate the ribs
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Pulmonary ventilation is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs to
facilitate gas exchange
Respiratory system uses both a negative pressure system and the concentration
of muscles to achieve pulmonary ventilation
Negative pressure system of the respiratory system involves the establishment
of a negative pressure gradient between the alveoli and the external atmosphere
Pleural membrane seals the lungs and maintains the lungs at a pressure slightly
below that of the atmosphere when the lungs are at rest
This results in air following the pressure gradient and passively filling the lungs
at rest
As the lungs fill with air the pressure inside the lungs rises until it matches the
atmospheric pressure
To exhale air the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax while the
internal intercostal muscles contract to reduce the volume of the thorax and
increase the pressure inside the thoracic cavity
Pressure gradient is now reversed resulting in the exhalation of the air until the
pressures inside the lungs and outside of the body are equal
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 External respiration is the exchange of gases between the air filling the alveoli
and the blood in the capillaries surrounding the walls of the alveoli
Air entering the lungs from the atmosphere has a higher partial pressure of
oxygen
Lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide than does the blood in the capillaries
Difference in partial pressures causes the gases to diffuse passively along there
pressure gradients from high to low pressure through the simple squamous
epithelium lining of the alveoli
Net result of external respiration is the movement of oxygen from the air into
the blood and the movement of carbon dioxide from the blood into the air
Oxygen can then be transported to the body's tissues while carbon dioxide is
released into the atmosphere during exhalation
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Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between the blood in capillaries and
the tissues of the body
Capillary blood has a higher partial pressure of oxygen and a lower partial
pressure of carbon dioxide than the tissues through which it passess
The difference in partial pressures leads to the diffusion of gases along their
pressure gradients from high to low pressure through the endothelium lining of
the capillaries
The net result of internal respiration is the diffusion of oxygen into the tissues
and the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the blood.

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The 2 major respiratory gases are oxygen and carbon dioxide

Both are transported through the body in blood
Blood plasma can transport some dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
Most gas gases transported in the blood are bonded to transport molecules
Hemoglobin is an important transport molecule found in red blood cells that
carries almost 99% of the oxygen in the blood
Hemoglobin can also carry a small amount of carbon dioxide from the tissues
back to the lungs
Most carbon dioxide is carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ion

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 Under normal resting conditions the body maintains a quiet breathing rate and
depth known as eupnea
Eupnea is maintained until the body's demand for oxygen and production of
carbon dioxide rises due to greater exertion
Autonomic chemoreceptors in the body monitor the partial pressures of oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the blood and send signals to the respiratory center of the
brain stern
Respiratory center adjusts the rate and depth of breathing to return the blood to
it's normal levels of gas partial pressures

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Immune and lymphatic systems are two close related organ systems that share
several organs and physiological functions
Immune system is our body's defense system against infectious pathogenic
viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as parasitic animals and protists
Immune system works to keep these harmful agent out of the body and attacks
those that manage to enter
Lymphatic system is a system of capillaries, vessels, nodes. and other organs
that transport a fluid called lymph from the tissues as it returns to the
bloodstreams
Lymphatic tissue of these organs filters and cleans the lymph of any debris,
abnormal cells, or pathogens
Lymphatic system transports fatty acids from the intestines to the circulatory
system

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 Red Bone marrow is a highly vascular tissue found in the spaces between
trabeculae of spongy bone
Mostly found in the end of long bones and in the flat bone of the body
Red bone marrow is a hematopoietic tissue containing many stem cells that
produce blood cells
All of the leukocytes can be broken down into 2 groups based upon the type of
stem cells that produce them
Myeloid stem cells produce monocytes and the granular leukocytes- eosinophils,
basophils, and neutrophils
Monocytes are agranular leukocytes that can form 2 types of cells
Macrophages are phagocytosis able to consume pathogens, destroyed cells, and
debris of phagocytosis
Macrophages prevent infection and cleans up the aftermath of an infection
Dendritic cells are responsible for the detection of pathogenic antigens which are
used to activate T cells and B cells

Source: http://www.innerbody.com/

Granular leukocytes: are part of the innate immune system

Eosinophils are granular leukocytes that reduce allergic inflammation and help
the body fight off parasites
Basophils are granular leukocytes that trigger inflammation by releasing the
chemicals heparin and histamine
Basophils are active in making inflammation during allergic reactions and
parasitic infections
Neutrophils are granular leukocytes that are the first responders to sign of
infection
Neutrophils use chemotaxis to detect chemicals produced by infectious agents
and go to the site of infection
Once their neutrophils ingest the pathogens via phagocytosis and release
chemicals to trap and kill the pathogens

Lymphoid stem cells produce T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes

Stem cells: gives rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which
certain other kinds of cells arise by differentiation
T lymphocytes or known as T cells are cells that are involved in fighting specific
pathogens in the body
T cells are helpers of other immune cells or attack pathogens directly
After an infection memory T cells persist in the body to provide a faster reaction
to subsequent infection by pathogens expressing the same antigen

Source: http://www.innerbody.com/