NAME: ADEKUNLE OLUFEMI A

DEPT: COMPUTER SCIENCE

LEVEL: 600 L
COURSE TITLE: COMPUTER GRAPHICS
COURSE CODE: CPS 409
MATRIC NO: S214202012

ASSIGNMENT
LIGHT MOVING PEN
A pointing device is an input interface (specifically a human interface device) that allows a user
to input spatial (i.e., continuous and multi-dimensional) data to a computer. CAD systems and
graphical user interfaces (GUI) allow the user to control and provide data to the computer using
physical gestures by moving a hand-held mouse or similar device across the surface of the
physical desktop and activating switches on the mouse. Movements of the pointing device are
echoed on the screen by movements of the pointer (or cursor) and other visual changes.
Common gestures are point and click and drag and drop.
While the most common pointing device by far is the mouse, many more devices have been
developed. However, the term "mouse" is commonly used as a metaphor for devices that move
the cursor.
For most pointing devices, Fitts's law can be used to predict the speed with which users can
point at a given target position.
Examples

a computer mouse is an indirect, relative, isotonic, position-control, translational input

device with two degrees of freedom and three states.
a touch screen is a direct, absolute, isometric, position-control input device with two
degrees of freedom and two states.
a joystick is an indirect, relative, elastic, rate-control, translational input device with two
degrees of freedom and two states.
a Wiimote is an indirect, relative, elastic, rate-control, translational input device with six
degrees of freedom and two states.
WRITING A CHARACTER
1. Close the reference letter by urging the reader to look favorably upon the subject of the
letter. Sign it Sincerely, [your name].
2. Keep the character reference letter short. The readers don't need page after page of
information on a character reference.
WRITING A STRING OF TEXT
fid = fopen('ny.txt','wt');
fprintf(fid, '%s\n%s\n%s', string1, string2, string3);
fclose(fid);
 CHANGING A STYLE
1. Select the style you'd like to edit in the graphic style menu.
2. Switch to Appearance panel and edit any appearance item (like fill color or effect for
example)
3. Go to Appearance panel menu, and select: "Redefine graphic style
style_name_from_step_1"
4. Done!

DISPLAY FILE
A display list (or display file) is a series of graphics commands that define an output image. The
image is created (rendered) by executing the commands to combine various primitives.

DISPLAY FILE STRUCTURE

A display file is a set of uncorrelated data, such as a histogram array or bivariate array. The
arrays are filled event by event from a list data in order to create a display. The saved arrays
usually take up far less disk space, but can the data can no longer be gated.
GRAPHICS FILE FORMAT
Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing digital images. Image files
are composed of digital data in one of these formats that can be rasterized for use on a
computer display or printer. An image file format may store data in uncompressed, compressed,
or vector formats. Once rasterized, an image becomes a grid of pixels, each of which has a
number of bits to designate its color equal to the color depth of the device displaying it.

V.T.E GRAPHICS FILE FORMAT

Raster ANI, ANIM, APNG, ART, BMP, BPG, BSAVE,

CAL, CIN, CPC, CPT, DDS, DPX, ECW,
EXR, FITS, FLIC, FLIF, FPX, GIF, HDRi,
HEVC, ICER, ICNS, ICO / CUR, ICS, ILBM,
JBIG, JBIG2, JNG, JPEG, JPEG 2000,
JPEG-LS, JPEG, XR, KRA, MNG, MIFF,
Raw CIFF, DNG

Vector AI, CDR, CGM, DXF, EVA, EMF, Gerber,

HVIF, IGES, PGML,
Compound CDF, DjVu, EPS, PDF, PICT ,PS

Related Exchangeable image file format (Exif),

Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP)

HOW BITMAP DATA IS WRITTEN TO FILE

Before an application writes an image to a file, the image data is usually first assembled in one
or more blocks of memory. These blocks can be located in the computer's main memory space
or in part of an auxiliary data collection device. Exactly how the data is arranged then depends
on a number of factors, including the amount of memory installed, the amount available to the
application, and the specifics of the data acquisition or file write operation in use.
Scan-line data
The first, and simplest, method is the organization of pixel values into rows or scan lines, briefly
mentioned above. If we consider every image to be made up of one or more scan lines, the
pixel data in the file describing that image will be a series of sets of values, each set
corresponding to a row of the image. Multiple rows are represented by multiple sets written from
start to end in the file. This is the most common method for storing image data organized into
rows.
If we know the size of each pixel in the image, and the number of pixels per row, we can
calculate the offset of the start of each row in the file. For example, in an 8-bit image every pixel
value is one byte long. If the image is 21 pixels wide, rows in the file are represented by sets of
pixel values 21 bytes wide. In this case, the rows in the file start at offsets of 0, 21, 42, 63, etc.
bytes from the start of the bitmap data.
On some machines and in some formats, however, rows of image data must be certain even-
byte multiples in length. An example is the common rule requiring bitmap row data to end on
long-word boundaries, where a long word is four bytes long. In the example mentioned in the
preceding paragraph, an image 21 pixels wide would then be stored in the file as sets of pixel
values 24 bytes in length, and the rows would start at file offsets 0, 24, 48, 64. The extra three
bytes per row are padding. In this particular case, three bytes of storage in the file are wasted
for every row, and in fact, images that are 21 pixels wide take up the same amount of space as
images 24 pixels wide. In practice, this storage inefficiency is usually (but not always)
compensated for by an increase of speed gained by catering to the peculiarities of the host
machine in regard to its ability to quickly manipulate two or four bytes at a time. The actual width
of the image is always available to the rendering application, usually from information in the file
header.
In a 24-bit image, each image pixel corresponds to a 3-byte long pixel value in the file. In the
example we have been discussing, an image 21 pixels wide would require a minimum of 21 * 3
= 63 bytes of storage. If the format requires that the row starts be long-word aligned, 64 bytes
would be required to hold the pixel values for each row. Occasionally, as mentioned above, 24-
bit image data is stored as a series of 4-byte long pixel values, and each image row would then
require 21 * 4 = 84 bytes. Storing 24-bit image data as 4-byte values has the advantage of
always being long-word aligned, and again may make sense on certain machines.
In a 4-bit image, each pixel corresponds to one-half byte, and the data is usually stored two
pixels per byte, although storing the data as 1-byte pixel values would make the data easier to
read and, in fact, is not unheard of.
The diagram below illustrates the organization of pixel data into scan lines.
Figure 3-1: Organization of pixel data into scan lines (24-bit image)
Planar data
The second method of pixel value organization involves the separation of image data into two or
more planes. Files in which the bitmap data is organized in this way are called planar files. We
will use the term composite image to refer to an image with many colors (i.e., not monochrome,
not gray-scale, and not one single color). Under this definition, most normal colored images that
you are familiar with are composite images.
A composite image, then, can be represented by three blocks of bitmap data, each block
containing just one of the component colors making up the image. Constructing each block is
akin to the photographic process of making a separation--using filters to break up a color
photograph into a set of component colors, usually three in number. The original photograph
can be reconstructed by combining the three separations. Each block is composed of rows laid
end to end, as in the simpler storage method explained above; in this case, more than one block
is now needed to reconstruct the image. Planar format data is usually a sign that the format
designer had some particular display device in mind, one that constructed composite color
pixels from components routed through hardware designed to handle one color at a time. For
reasons of efficiency, planar format data is usually read one plane at a time in blocks, although
an application may choose to laboriously assemble composite pixels by reading data from the
appropriate spot in each plane sequentially.
As an example, a 24-bit image two rows by three columns wide might be represented in RGB
format as six RGB pixel values:
(08, 01, 02) (03, 06, 05) (04, 07, 08)
(09, 17, 11) (12, 13, 16) (15, 14, 10)
But can be written to the file in planar format as:
(08) (03) (04)
(09) (12) (15)
Red plane
(01) (06) (07)
(17) (13) (14)
Green plane
(02) (05) (08)
(11) (16) (10)
Blue plane
Notice that the exact same data is being written; it's just arranged differently. In the first case, an
image consisting of six 24-bit pixels is stored as six 3-byte pixel values arranged in a single
plane. In the second, planar, method, the same image is stored as 18 1-byte pixel values
arranged in three planes, each plane corresponding to red, green, and blue information,
respectively. Each method takes up exactly the same amount of space, 18 bytes, at least in this
example.
It's pretty safe to say that most bitmap files are stored in non-planar format. Supporting planar
hardware, then, usually means disassembling the pixel data and creating multiple color planes
in memory, which are then presented to the planar rendering subroutine or the planar hardware.
Planar files may need to be assembled in a third buffer or, as mentioned above, laboriously set
(by the routine servicing the output device) one pixel at a time.
The bitmap file format also known as bitmap (DIB) file format or simply a bitmap, is a transfer
graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital images, independently of the display
device( such as a graphics adapter0, especially on Microsoft windows and OS/2 operating
systems. The bit map format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images of arbitrary
width, height, and resolution, both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and
optionally with data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles.
TIFF AND THEIR THREE SECTIONS
Part 1: Baseline TIFF
Part 2: TIFF Extensions
Part 3: Appendices
When TIFF was introduced its extensibility provoked compatibility problems. The flexibility in
encoding gave rise to the joke that TIFF stands for Thousands of Incompatible File Formats. To
avoid these problems, every TIFF reader was required to read Baseline TIFF. Among other
things, Baseline TIFF does not include layers, or compressed JPEG or LZW images. Baseline
TIFF is formally known as TIFF 6.0, Part
1: Baseline TIFF.
The following is an incomplete list of required Baseline TIFF features:
Multiple subfiles
TIFF readers must be prepared for multiple/multi-page images (subfiles) per TIFF file, although
they are not required to actually do anything with images after the first one.
There may be more than one Image File Directory (IFD) in a TIFF file. Each IFD defines a
subfile. One use of subfiles is to describe related images, such as the pages of a facsimile
document. A Baseline TIFF reader is not required to read any IFD beyond the first one.
Strips
A baseline TIFF image is composed of one or more strips. A strip (or band) is a subsection of
the image composed of one or more rows (horizontal rows of pixels). Each strip may be
compressed independently of the entire image, and each begins on a byte boundary. If the
image height is not evenly divisible by the number of rows in the strip, the last strip may contain
fewer rows. If strip definition tags are omitted, the image is assumed to contain a single strip.
Compression
Baseline TIFF readers must handle the following three compression schemes:
No compression
CCITT Group 3 1-Dimensional Modified Huffman RLE
PackBits compression - a form of run-length encoding
Image types
Baseline TIFF image types are: bilevel, grayscale, palette-color, and RGB full-color images.
Byte order
Every TIFF file begins with a two-byte indicator of byte order: "II" for little-endian (a.k.a. "Intel
byte ordering", circa 1980) or "MM" for big-endian (a.k.a. "Motorola byte ordering", circa 1980)
byte ordering. The next two-byte word contains the format version number, which has always
been 42 for every version of TIFF (e.g., TIFF v5.0 and TIFF v6.0). All words, double words, etc.,
in the TIFF file are assumed to be in the indicated byte order. The TIFF 6.0 specification states
that compliant TIFF readers must support both byte orders (II and MM); writers may use either.
Other TIFF fields
TIFF readers must be prepared to encounter and ignore private fields not described in the TIFF
specification. TIFF readers must not refuse to read a TIFF file if some optional fields do not
exist.
Part 2: TIFF Extensions
Many TIFF readers support tags additional to those in Baseline TIFF, but not every reader
supports every extension.[12][13][14][15] As a consequence, Baseline TIFF features became
the lowest common denominator for TIFF format. Baseline TIFF features are extended in TIFF
Extensions (defined in the TIFF 6.0 Part 2 specification) but extensions can also be defined in
private tags.

The TIFF Extensions are formally known as TIFF 6.0, Part 2: TIFF Extensions. Here are some
examples of TIFF extensions defined in TIFF 6.0 specification:
Compression
CCITT T.4 bi-level encoding
CCITT T.6 bi-level encoding
LZW Compression scheme
JPEG-based compression (TIFF compression scheme 7) uses the DCT (Discrete Cosine
Transform) introduced in 1974 by N. Ahmed, T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao; see Reference 1 in
discrete cosine transform.
Image types include:
CMYK Images
YCbCr Images
Halftone Hints
Tiled Images
CIE L*a*b* Images
Image Trees
A baseline TIFF file can contain a sequence of images (IFD). Typically, all the images are
related but represent different data, such as the pages of a document. In order to explicitly
support multiple views of the same data, the SubIFD tag was introduced. This allows the images
to be defined along a tree structure. Each image can have a sequence of children, each child
being itself an image. The typical usage is to provide thumbnails or several versions of an image
in different color spaces.
Other extensions
According to TIFF 6.0 specification (Introduction), all TIFF files using proposed TIFF extensions
that are not approved by Adobe as part of Baseline TIFF (typically for specialized uses of TIFF
that do not fall within the domain of publishing or general graphics or picture interchange)
should be either not called TIFF files or should be marked some way so that they will not be
confused with mainstream TIFF files.
Private tags
Developers can apply for a block of "private tags" to enable them to include their own
proprietary information inside a TIFF file without causing problems for file interchange. TIFF
readers are required to ignore tags that they do not recognize, and a registered developer's
private tags are guaranteed not to clash with anyone else's tags or with the standard set of tags
defined in the specification. Private tags are numbered in the range 32,768 and higher.
Private tags are reserved for information meaningful only for some organization, or for
experiments with a new compression scheme within TIFF. Upon request, the TIFF administrator
(currently Adobe) will allocate and register one or more private tags for an organization, to avoid
possible conflicts with other organizations. Organizations and developers are discouraged from
choosing their own tag numbers arbitrarily, because doing so could cause serious compatibility
problems. However, if there is little or no chance that TIFF files will escape a private
environment, organizations and developers are encouraged to consider using TIFF tags in the
"reusable" 65,000-65,535 range. There is no need to contact Adobe when using numbers in this
range.
Internet Media Type
The MIME type image/tiff (defined in RFC 3302) without an application parameter is used for
Baseline TIFF 6.0 files or to indicate that it is not necessary to identify a specific subset of TIFF
or TIFF extensions. The optional "application" parameter (Example: Content-type: image/tiff;
application=foo) is defined for image/tiff to identify a particular subset of TIFF and TIFF
extensions for the encoded image data, if it is known. According to RFC 3302, specific TIFF
subsets or TIFF extensions used in the application parameter must be published as an RFC.
MIME type image/tiff-fx (defined in RFC 3949 and RFC 3950) is based on TIFF 6.0 with TIFF
Technical Notes TTN1 (Trees) and TTN2 (Replacement TIFF/JPEG specification). It is used for
Internet fax compatible with the ITU-T Recommendations for Group 3 black-and-white,
grayscale and color fax.
TIFF Compression Tag
The TIFF Tag 259 (010316) stores the information about the Compression method. The default
value is 1 = no compression.
Most TIFF writers and TIFF readers support only some TIFF compression schemes. Here are
some examples of used TIFF compression schemes:
Tagged image file format, abbreviated as TIFF or TIF, is a computer file format for storing raster
graphics images, popular among graphics artists, the publishing industry, and photographers.
The TIFF format is widely supported by image manipulation applications, by publishing and
page layout applications, and by scanning, fixing, word processing, optical character recognition
and other applications.
The format was created by Aldus Corporation for use in desktop publishing.it published the
latest version 6.0 in 1992, subsequently updated with an adobe systems copyright after the
latter acquired Aldus in 1994. Several Aldus/Adobe technical notes have been published with
minor extensions to the format, and several specifications have been based on TIFF6.0,
including TIFF/EP (ISO 12234-2), TIFF/IT (ISO12639), TIFF-F (RFC 2306) AND TIFF- FX (RFC
3949).
THREE MAJOR ORGANIZATION COMPONENT OF PCX FILE
PCX, standing for picture exchange, is an image file format developed by the now-defunct Zsoft
Corporation of Marietta, Georgia, United States. It was the native file format for PC paint brush
and became one of the first widely accepted DOS imaging standards, although it has since
been succeeded by more sophisticated image formats, such as BMP, JPEG, and PNG. PCX
files commonly stored palette- indexed images ranging from 2 to 4 colors to 16 and 256 colors,
although the format has been extended to record true- color (24-bit) images as well.
PCX file format
PCX files were designed for use on IBM compatible PCs and always use little endian byte
ordering. A PCX file has three main sections, in the following order
1. 128-byte header
2. Image data
3. (optional) 256- color palette
The PCX file header contains an identifier byte (valve 10), a version number, image
dimensions, 16 palette colors, number color planes, bit depth of each plane, and a valve for
compression methods pcx version numbers ranges from 0 to 5, this originally denoted the
version of the pc paintbrush program use to create the pcx file. The header always has
space for 16 colors through the number of colors used depends upon the bit depth of the
image. The header is 74 bytes long and the image data begins 128 bytes after the start of
the file, the 54 bytes between are not used. All pcx files use the same compression valve is
always 1. No other valves have been defined and there are no uncompressed PCX files.
One source claims that 0 (uncompressed) is allowed, but not much software supports it.
1. Description
Reading and writing image files is simple with IMAQ Vision. By using built-in IMAQ Vision
functions, you can store and retrieve images in the following formats:
BMP
Bitmap (BMP) is an uncompressed Windows format, supporting 8-bit unsigned integer images
or 32-bit color formats. It stores calibration information about the physical size of the image
along with the pixel data. Bitmaps are handy for editing, screen captures, and so on, since the
format reproduces the image exactly and doesn't require coding and uncoding. The file
extension is .bmp.
JPEG
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) is a lossy compressed format with a selectable
compression level. It supports the same image types as the bitmap, but stores no calibration
information. The compression algorithm uses the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), which
operates on blocks of the image data. At high compression levels, this leads to fairly severe
blocking artifacts in the reconstructed images. JPEG is not recommended if you will need to
make precise measurements on the reconstructed image. The file extension is .jpg.
TIFF
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) is a versatile, but older format. It allows for both
uncompressed and lossy or lossless compressed storage. It supports the same file types as
JPEG and BMP, and also allows for a signed 16-bit integer format. The format is not standard,
however, and is not recommended since files saved in the format cannot be opened in some
applications. It stores calibration information, and contains several other obscure features. The
file extension is .tif.
PNG
Portable Network Graphics (PNG) is a newer lossless compressed format. It supports a 16-bit
integer storage format, as well as 8-bit integer and color. Calibration information can be saved
along with the image. The user can specify a compression level, but all levels are lossless. The
file extension is .png.
AIPD
AIPD is an uncompressed format used internally by LabVIEW to store images of any type, along
with calibration information and other specifics that define the image characteristics completely.
The file extension is .apd.
AVI
AVI is a file type that stores multiple images in a single file. AVI is provided with NI-IMAQ or
Vision, but if NI-IMAQ is the only software installed, users will only be able to write
uncompressed AVIs. If users have Vision installed, they will be able to read and write
compressed or uncompressed AVIs. The file extension is .apd.
NOTE: 16-bit TIFF images do not have a standard file format. If you save a 16-bit TIFF file using
IMAQ Vision, you may not be able to use that image in other applications.
Use the PNG file format to save overlays, calibration information, user text, and pattern
matching template information for an image. Saving this information eliminates the need to
repeat the learning phase each time you run the application.
NOTE: This image information can only be saved in the PNG file format, and you must call an
API-specific IMAQ Vision function to read images that you save in this manner.
For LabVIEW, call IMAQ Read Image and Vision Info
For CVI/C, call imaqReadVisionFile
For Visual Basic, call CWIMAQVision1.ReadImageAndVisionInfo
Save your images using the appropriate IMAQ Vision function to ensure that the image and its
learned information are saved together.

2. Common Applications
Store images for later viewing or processing. Retrieve same images or others created outside
IMAQ Vision.
3. What To Expect
You will be able to save any image from within your application as one of the standard file
formats listed above. You will also be able to open any images that follow these formats.
BMP
The BMP file format (Windows bitmap) handles graphic files within the Microsoft Windows OS.
Typically, BMP files are uncompressed, and therefore large and lossless; their advantage is their
simple structure and wide acceptance in Windows programs.
The BMP file format, also known as bitmap image file or device independent bitmap (DIB) file
format or simply a bitmap, is a raster graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital
images, independently of the display device (such as a graphics adapter), especially on
Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems.
The BMP file format is capable of storing two-dimensional digital images of arbitrary width,
height, and resolution, both monochrome and color, in various color depths, and optionally with
data compression, alpha channels, and color profiles. The Windows Metafile (WMF)
specification covers the BMP file format. Among others wingdi.h defines BMP constants and
structures.
Device-independent bitmaps and the BMP file format

The structure of the bitmap image file

Microsoft has defined a particular representation of color bitmaps of different color depths, as an
aid to exchanging bitmaps between devices and applications with a variety of internal
representations. They called these device-independent bitmaps or DIBs, and the file format for
them is called DIB file format or BMP image file format.
According to Microsoft support
A device-independent bitmap (DIB) is a format used to define device-independent bitmaps in
various color resolutions. The main purpose of DIBs is to allow bitmaps to be moved from one
device to another (hence, the device-independent part of the name). A DIB is an external format,
in contrast to a device-dependent bitmap, which appears in the system as a bitmap object
(created by an application...). A DIB is normally transported in metafiles (usually using the
StretchDIBits () function), BMP files, and the Clipboard (CF_DIB data format).
The following sections discuss the data stored in the BMP file or DIB in detail. This is the
standard BMP file format. Some applications create bitmap image files which are not compliant
with the Microsoft documentation. Also, not all fields are used; a value of 0 will be found in these
unused fields.
FILE STRUCTURE
The bitmap image file consists of fixed-size structures (headers) as well as variable-size
structures appearing in a predetermined sequence. Many different versions of some of these
structures can appear in the file, due to the long evolution of this file format.
Referring to the diagram 1, the bitmap file is composed of structures in the following order:

Structure
Optional Size Purpose Comments
name

To store general
Bitmap
information about Not needed after the file is loaded
file No 14 bytes
the bitmap image in memory
header
file

To store detailed
Fixed-size
information about
DIB (7 different Immediately follows the Bitmap
No the bitmap image
header versions file header
and define the
exist)
pixel format

Present only in case the DIB

3 or header is the
Extra bit 4 DWORDs To define the pixel BITMAPINFOHEADER and the
Yes
masks (12 or 16 format Compression Method member is
bytes) set to either BI_BITFIELDS or
BI_ALPHABITFIELDS

To define colors
Color Semi- used by the Mandatory for color depths 8
Variable-size
table optional bitmap image bits
data (Pixel array)

An artifact of the File offset to

Structure
Gap1 Yes Variable-size Pixel array in the Bitmap file
alignment
header

The pixel format is defined by the

To define the DIB header or Extra bit masks.
Pixel
No Variable-size actual values of Each row in the Pixel array is
array
the pixels padded to a multiple of 4 bytes in
size

Structure An artifact of the ICC profile data

Gap2 Yes Variable-size
alignment offset field in the DIB header

ICC color Yes Variable-size To define the color Can also contain a path to an
profile profile for color external file containing the color
 profile. When loaded in memory
as "non-packed DIB", it is located
management
between the color table and
Gap1.

DISPLAY ADAPTER
A display adapter is an electronic device that converts information in memory to video output to
a display.
A display adapter is an expansion board that is plugged into one of the slots on the computer
motherboard which converts the images created in the computer to the electronic signals
needed by the monitor to display those images.
A plug-in card in a desktop computer that performs graphics processing. Also commonly called
a "graphics card" or "video card," modern display adapters use the PCI Express interface, while
earlier cards used PCI and AGP. The display adapter determines the maximum resolution,
refresh rate and number of colors that can be displayed, which the monitor must also be able to
support. On many PC motherboards, the graphics circuits are built into the chipset, and a
separate plug-in card is not required.
1 - The Graphics Pipeline
The modern display adapter performs two operations. The first is the graphics rendering, which
moves the graphics data through a pipeline that creates the image frames and adds texture and
shading, all functions previously done by the CPU in the first PCs. A high-end display adapter is
a sophisticated parallel processing computer. See GPU and graphics pipeline.
2 - Analog and Digital Outputs
The second and more elementary purpose is to continuously convert the graphic patterns
(bitmaps) that have been rendered in the memory frame buffers into signals for the monitor's
screen.
VGA
Short for Video Graphics Array, VGA is a popular display standard developed by IBM and
introduced in 1987. VGA provides 640 x 480 resolution color display screens with a refresh rate
of 60Hz and 16 colors displayed at a time. If the resolution is lowered to 320 x 200, 256 colors
are shown. It is an antiquated computer display hardware used functionally in the IBM PS/2,
VGA has become widely identified as an analog computer display standard, the 15 pin D-
subminiature VGA connector, or the 640 x 480 resolution which it displays. This was the last
graphical standard which IBM produced, and to which the majority of PC clone manufacturers
conformed. What this basically means is that VGA is the lowest common denominator that all
PC graphics hardware supports before a driver specific to a particular device is loaded.
VGA referred to an array as opposed to an adapter, as it was implemented as a single chip from
the time of its conception. This replaced the Motorola 6845 and dozens of discrete logic chips
covering the full length of the ISA boards of the MDA, CGA, and EGA. There are several
specifications of the VGA it consists of 256 KB of video RAM, it contains 16 color and 256
color modes, it has a 262,144 value color palette (meaning there are six bits each for red,
green, and blue), it has a maximum of 800 horizontal pixels and 600 lines, it has a refresh rate
of up to 70 Hz, and it also supports split screen features.
VGA pin functions
The illustration shows the 15-Pin VGA connector, its pin assignments, and size dimensions. As
can be seen, the VGA connector has 15 holes and each hole (pin) has its own function as
explained in the below chart, which describes each pin function.

Pin Function

1 Red Video
2 Green Video
3 Blue Video
4 Monitor ID 2
5 TTL Ground (monitor self-test)
6 Red Analog Ground
7 Green Analog Ground
8 Blue Analog Ground
9 Key (Plugged Hole)
10 Sync Ground
11 Monitor ID 0
12 Monitor ID 1
13 Horizontal Sync
14 Vertical Sync
15 Monitor ID 3

VGA symbol
A rectangle with two lines on the left and right side is a symbol used to represent the VGA
connector on many computers and devices.
SVGA
Short for Super Video Graphics Array, SVGA is a set of video standards one step above VGA.
SVGA monitors are capable of displaying up to 16 million colors with a resolution of 800 x 600
on 14 inch monitors and up to a 1200 x 1600 resolution on a 20 inch. The picture shows what
the typical VGA/SVGA connection. Today, SVGA is being phased out by the connection known
as DVI. SVGA is an all-encompassing term defining a variety of computer display standards.
Originally, SVGA was an extension of Video Graphics Array (also known as VGA); however, it
was then defined by the Video Electronics Standards Association (or the VESA), which is an
open consortium set up to promote interoperability and define standards.
SVGA had an initial resolution of 800 x 600 four bit pixels meaning that each pixel could be
any of 16 different colors; however, the resolution was upgraded almost instantaneously to 1024
x 768 eight bit pixels (and so on as the software became more sophisticated). In theory,
however, there is no limit to the number of different colors that are capable of being displayed as
far as the monitor itself is concerned. The output of both the SVGA and VGA card is analog;
however, the internal calculations which the card performs in order to come to the output
voltages are all digital. There is no change necessary to increase the number of colors an SVGA
display system can reproduce; however, the video card must be able handle much larger
numbers, and might need to be redesigned.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT GRAPHIC PRIMITIVES?
There are four basic graphics primitives. They are the simple graphics objects which can be
produced in ROOT. All the graphics produced by ROOT is a combination of them. They are
located in the graf module.

Lines and polylines are created in

ROOT using classes
like TLine and TPolyLine. They allow to
draw simple lines (TLine) or broken lines
(TPolyLine) . The graphics attributes are
the line color, the line style and the line
width and are defined in a single
dedicated object TAttLine.

The filled areas (polygons) have a

similar structure as the polylines: a set of
vertice. Therefore there is not specific
class to make a fill polygon, TPolyLine is
used with a specific option meaning it is
a polygon. The graphics attributes for
polygon are the color, and the type of
filling (hollow, solid, patterns). These
attributes are managed with TAttFill.
 Markers and polymarkers are created
in ROOT using classes
like TMarker and TPolyMarker. They
allow to draw one single marker
(TMarker) or several (TPolyMarker). The
graphics attributes are the marker color,
the maker type and the marker size and
are defined in a single dedicated
object TAttMarker.

The basic graphics primitive to

produce text is TText. The graphics
attributes are the text color, the text font,
the text size, the text angle, and the text
alignment. These attributes are defined
in the object TAttText.