CONDITIONED ERROR: A STUDY INTO THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF

NOTE-CENTRIC THEORY OF MUSIC

C Parthapratim

ABSTRACT
The dominant streak of the theoretical discourse regarding Hindustani Classical music rests its
weight on the note-centric vision of music, which demands in turn the existence of absolute or
ideal notes. It seems to override the other possible discourses that would put words (alankar)
and/or phrases (anga) at the centre. The skewed discourse has affected the practitioners view as
well as some of the attempted mathematical models. This paper challenges the very idea of
existence of such ideal notes and proves that such notes do not exist in a system where the tonic is
flexible. The notes used are based purely on the musicians perception owing to the musicians
individual traits as well as the schooling.

Keywords: North Indian Classical Music, Acoustics, Harmonics, Shruti, Convergence

INTRODUCTION
When reading a literary piece, even when one intends to read it critically, one doesnt count the as and bs
in it. Counting the letters or graphemes individually would be ridiculous in that context, though sometimes
words are counted. However, in case of a musical piece, especially Hindustani Classical Music (HCM),
even the hardcore mathematicians aspiring to present a mathematical model that would represent the
melody start counting the notes. They would do everything from invoking Graph Theory i to Fractals ii
without an iota of insight into the actual musical process. One wonders what on earth would be the
significance of a statistical estimate based on the frequency of occurrences of a given note. A close
introspection would however reveal that such distortion of understanding is not to be attributed to the
people who want to understand music by translating it to a different domain of knowledge such as
mathematics, but to the music-insiders themselves. In most theory books, the quasi-empiricaliii measures
like Alpatwa and Bahutwa are wrongly explained; Vadi-Samvadi (the sonant-consonant pair) iv is not
explained at all. While it is difficult to know how it was in the medieval ages or before, but it is evident that
the post-colonial musicians as well as theorists vision is mostly note-centric while the actual music keeps
building itself around the words and phrases. This distortion gives birth to an unbridgeable gulf in the
theory and practice on one hand, while on the other the able practitioners tend to dish out weird theories
regarding the significance of notes. In this paper we are not going into the alternative ways how music
analysis could be word-centric or phrase-centric for that matter. We are here to discuss only the inherent
impossibility of a note-centric vision. The expected logical structure is somewhat like the following:

The tonic is flexible, located anywhere in the practicable interval

Two different scale systems operate together; the 12-tone chromatic, and the 22-TET Shruti scale

The known theories draw a connection between these two, but in reality these two systems are
mutually exclusive

An ideal set of tones are imagined, often extracted from the Shruti scale, but attempts continue to
produce an amicable approximation by means of the Pythagorean principle of small fractions

Scrapping the small fractions, tones obtained from a set of rational multipliers with large
denominators may converge to an ideal set of tones

However, because of the human aural limitations, the denominators are upper-bounded

Hence the notes always belong to a cloud to chose from, and there is no ideal note

Hence the foundation of the note-centric theory is vulnerable.
PROBLEM DOMAIN DEFINED
In order to being note-centric, one would expect a set of absolute notes around which the theory would be
built; notes of which the frequencies would be measured, frequency of occurrence would be estimated, that
would become the nodes/vertices of the graphs, of the fractal etc.. However in HCM, there are no absolute
pitches, nor notes. There is the usual grind of not having a standardised pitch in the first place. Unlike the
Western post-Romantic classical music, there is no A440v or A432vi standard piano in India against which
all voices and instruments would be calibrated. The tonic here, Sa, is flexible depending on the timbre of
the voice or instrument, and the fundamental frequency of the tonic can be literally anywhere in the
audible range. Rest of the notes can be derived from the variable .

Our proposition in this paper is to raise an objection to the last statement; one can take any value for as
the tonic, but the rest of the notes do not follow automatically. Once the Sa is fixed, the rest of the
notes are automatically derived in absolute terms such is the belief. We will see that this belief is a myth.
The notes are actually dependent on individual perceptions as well as schooling.

STEP 1: ASSESSING THE FLEXIBILITY OF THE TONIC

Nevertheless, the theoretical possibility of lying anywhere between 20 Hz and 20 KHz is severely curbed
by several other practical considerations. We list them as follow

1. Music is a three octaves affair. Hence when is the tonic, every activity between /2 and 4
must be discreetly audible.
2. The minimum difference between two tones to be differentiable is ~3.6 Hz so that we dont hear
them only as beat frequenciesvii.
3. Our ears are most sensitive to small variations of frequencies between the range of 1-4 KHzviii
4. There must coexist at least one integral harmonic of the fundamental frequency for a tone to
become a musical note.

TWO SCALES SYSTEM

To get in the details, we must investigate the concept of Swarasthana first. Between and 2, 12
chromatic notes are placed in HCM, among which 7 are considered pure (Suddha) and 5 Vikrit
(Teevra/Komal) or altered notes. The 7 notes give birth to the Indian diatonic (heptatonic) scale. The 12
note chromatic scale is different from the equal tempered Western scale (12TETix). However, it is assumed
that the chromatic notes are actually placed on a latent equally tempered scale of microtones (Shruti) and
enjoy a peculiar distribution of 4-3-2-4-4-3-2x adding up to 22 Shruti-s in total.

RECONCILING THE TWO SCALES

Indian scholars have often debatedxi the exact pattern of this distribution on two points: one, whether the
Shruti-s are equal; and two, whether the notes are placed on the first (Swaswadya) or the last (Swaswantya)
Shruti of the respective groups that are 2, 3, 4 Shruti-s strong. About the first point, we take the very
definition of Shruti literally that is all Shruti-s are the smallest audible units. Now if they are unequal,
then there is one Shruti that is larger than another, and so the larger Shruti ceases to be the smallest. Some
argued, drawing references to Natya Shastra xii that they might be unevenly sparse. The confusion is
perpetrated by those who thought that Shruti intervals (Shrutyantar) would be equidistant, that is on an
arithmetic progression. However, that is not possible with a variable tonic ; but they can always be on a
geometric progression. Hence the microtonal scale becomes 22-TET vis--vis 12-TET Western chromatic
scale. The microtones are in a GP, and the common factor there is 22nd root of 2.

The general mathematical expression for any Shruti n where is the tonic is given by

n = [1+{(n-1)log2/22log}], n being a non-zero integer -- -- -- (1)

 (Solving the 1+x = 2 equation for x and dividing the solution in 22 equal steps)

so that 1 is Sa, and 23 is Sa again, an octave higher. We refrain from discussing the second point of the
age-old debate; for mathematically that means only a translation of n to n so that n=n-3 and it doesnt
affect the equation at all. Our preference goes to the Swaswadya pattern for several reasons; one of them
being in North Indian variant, we use three forms of Komal Rishabh (r) the standard one, the sharper one
for Marwa, Bhatiyar, Gurjari etc., and the flatter one for Multani, Puriya itself. It becomes possible only
when the three remaining Shruti between Sa and Re are used, and that implies Sa being placed on the
Shruti of its quota. However, the translation would affect the 12 tone chromatic scale a little, but that has no
bearing on our statement here.

If Multani is sung or played, at the Mandra Saptak (lower register), one needs to demonstrate the flatter
variant of (r), which is just one Shruti apart from lower Sa. The difference has to be distinctly audible.
Therefore,

X 1.032 > 3.6 Hz => > 112.47 Hz => Sa > 224.94 Hz (lower bound)

On the other hand, second partial of the uppermost Sa = 8<4000 Hz => < 500 Hz (upper bound)

On these considerations taken together, we find that the tonic must be placed between ~225 Hz and 500 Hz.

(225 Hz, 500 Hz) ...... (2)

However, it doesnt solve the problem of finding the notes of the 12 tone chromatic scale in the octave.
Typically, the pure notes are to be found with n = 1, 5, 8, 10, 14, 18, 21 respectively; but it doesnt exactly
match the conventional scale. At least two notes, Ma (Madhyam) and Ni (Nishad) sounds off-key, and also
14 generates a beat frequency with the conventional Perfect Fifth (Pancham) Pa in HCM. The microtone
for Ma is approximately 11 and that too would vary in different contexts.

The musicians as well as the old-school theorists however, take on the chromatic scale on a different line.
From Pythagorasxiii to Helmholtzxiv, everybody seems to agree to the basic principle that multiplying by a
fraction of small integers the fundamental frequency of the tonic gives rise to the notes in the scale.
For example the sequence of rational fractions {r | r (1, 2)} may look like {1, 9/8, 5/4, 11/8 (not 4/3 as Fa
obtained from 2/3-rd of 2 is quite off-key for Ma), 3/2, 27/16, 15/8} with reasonable approximation for
some. This sequence reduces to a thumb rule that validates every f = (f1+f2)/2. A lot more observations on
the sequence {r} as tonal intervals are possible leading to various speculations, some musical, some notxv. It
is however presumed without any proof that these chromatic notes are nodes on the Shruti scale that form
the intersection of these two sets of tones.

Nevertheless, this sequence of rational fractions {r} generates a completely different scale from the 22-TET
Shruti scale with no intersection between these two.

STEP 2: TESTING THE NULL HYPOTHESIS H0

Theorem 1 There is no r {r} so that r = n for any integer value of n, n>1.

Proof If it is assumed that for some value of , n and r there is an intersection i.e. a shared note between
these two scales, then

[1+{(n-1)log2/22log}] = r; Taking log on both sides

[1+{(n-1)log2/22log}] x log = log r + log
log + {(n-1)log2/22log} x log = log r + log
log r = (n-1) x (log 2)/22
n-1 = 22 log r / log 2
But 1 < r < 2, therefore (log r / log2) (0,1)
 In order to make n an integer it is required that log r/log2 = , or 1/11, or 1/22

r2, or r11, or r22 =2

In neither case r remains a rational fraction.

Hence n is never an integer, and the theorem is proved by contradiction.

Musically speaking, it is absurd to find the exact Shruti in the chromatic scale.

Now, the whole theory of {r} is validated by certain observations in acoustics and psycho-acoustics. Along
with the fundamental frequency , in order to make the tonic a musical sound, quite a few harmonic
partials of that is the integral multiples of are essentially present there. Hence, whenever is played, it
comes with , 2, 3, 4, 5 ad infinitum, or as long as the human hearing system permits. However, the
aural system has a tendency to hear some imaginary lower harmonicsxvi of the higher frequencies that go far
off the limits of the octave. Hence, 3 is heard as 3/2, 5 is heard as 5/4 and so on. This is how the
third and fifth harmonics of give the fifth and third notes in the octave. The gains of the higher harmonics
are diminishing gradually, but the third and fifth are still strong enough to be clearly audible. It becomes
then easy to determine the other notes of both tetra-chords. It is to be noted that the interpolated frequencies
too have their audible harmonics. Thus the fifth of the fifth is easily audible as 9/4, which is then
interpolated back as 9/8 in the octave, so that Re is audible. Again, Ni is audible too as the fifth of
the third, i.e. 15/8. For the same reason, the 11th harmonic as well as the 27th is hardly audible, hence the
confusion regarding Ma and Dha prevails.

However, the chromatic scales reliability too doesnt look very prospective. Most people, even musicians,
do not perceive the note one octave higher at exactly 2. There is a common tendency of the aural system
to place the higher Sa at a frequency slightly higher than 2, say at 2+, being a non-zero real number,
however small. Here is the general error estimate not quantified so far. Hence, that probable error is
further propagated when hearing the imaginary harmonic or the missing fundamental i.e. the note in the
octave. Worse still, this error does not have any pattern, so that virtual pitch that is the acceptable note in
the octave is different for every musician and listener. If the fifth (Pa) is interpolated as 3/2 from the 3rd
harmonic, then what is actually heard is (3+`)/2; and then that one is settled on for Pa. The error
percentage increases as the higher the harmonic is. Its gross for the fourth, and its massive for the sixth
(Dha). In case of most vocalists, even at the maestros level, these two notes are the most vulnerable. The
old school theory somehow tries to normalize the error by proposing that these notes change their character
according to the context, that is different Raga with Suddha Ma may use different forms of the same note.
But then, its admitting enough that the notes, even the pure notes, are not so sacrosanct.

STEP 3: LOCATING THE CLOUD OF NOTES

Now let us for a moment presume that in an ideal situation, the rational fraction coefficients work as they
are supposed to, so that there are fractions of the form rk = m/2k with 2k < m < 2k+1 such that rk is a
reasonably accurate representation of the true note in the octave. It is obvious that as k increases, the
chances towards getting an accurate estimate increase too. For example, when k=3, the denominator
becomes 8, and the possible values of m are 9, 11, 13, and 15. Of these 4 values of m, 3 are already used
for three different notes that is Re, Ma, and Ni while 13/8 is too close to 27/16 that apparently generates
Dha (Dhaivat, the sixth pure note). Evidently, no option for fine-tuning is left in the case k=3. For k=4, the
options just double up and one may argue whether 30/16 is more Ni or 31/16. We have a cloud of
possibilities to choose from, though this requires a large number of trials.

However, k is upper-bounded. Since m>2k AND m < 20 KHz, upper bound of m, m|max belongs to the
interval (40, ~175), otherwise the harmonic itself falls outside the audible range and no question of
extrapolated imaginary lower harmonic arises. Hence the upper bound of k is 7 for all practical purposes.

From some elementary observations, it is tempting to believe that fractions of larger numbers would
represent the chromatic notes more correctly, and attempts have been made towards thatxvii. It is then even
more tempting for a mathematician to conjecture that as k tends to infinity, some kind of convergence to
the ideal values given by the underlying Shruti scale would be possible, if not direct, at least a weak
convergence in probability. However, it can be shown that irrespective of the bounded nature of k, there is
no convergence at all. Let us see how

Both the scales defined by the forms n=.2(n-1)/22 and C = .(m/2k) where 2k < m < 2k+1 are actually
exponential functions of the general form y=ax. [{(n-1)log2/22log} = 2(n-1)/22 being an identity] Its only
because m, n, k are integers by definition that illusion of convergence appears. Let us examine the
possibility of C n. Since is a constant, it requires m/2k 2(n-1)/22. Again, m can be written as 2k + X,
X is typically an odd integer, but for the sake of convenience we assume that X is a real number, as X R.
Our goal is to find X that is closest to an integer, so that m/2k remains a rational fraction, with some error.

Now, (2k + X)/ 2k - 2(n-1)/22 0

2k + X 2k+(n-1)/22 0

X 2k (2(n-1)/22 -1) ... ... ... (3)

Again an exponential function of the general form y=ax once the parameter n is fixed, in case we assume
that at some limit X = 2k (2(n-1)/22 -1). For the values of n, where C is close to or 2, the formula works
well. For example, with n=2, and X=1, rk. is closest to .2(1/22), if k=5. For other values of k, rk. wildly
diverges from 2 that is Ati Komal Rishabh. Similarly, when n=22, with X =-1 (2k+1-1/2k yielding closest to
2), k=4 gives the closest approximation to 22. Again, for n=14, the closest approximation is to be found
at k=7, and X=1. Let us examine the table below.

The algorithm of the table requires some explanation. Elements in the Column 1 are the pure notes in the
Indian diatonic scale with being the fundamental frequency of Sa, (225Hz, 500Hz). Column 2
represents the Shruti scale, elements being numbered according to their relative distribution against the
chromatic scale on the left. The third column elements are the real number multipliers of to obtain the
individual Shruti, given by the formula (1). Row 2, column 5 onwards are the powers of 2 in the
denominator of the rational fraction m/2k so that the tones and microtones are approximately obtained as
.(m/2k). Rows 3 to 24, and columns 5 to 11 represent the data set obtained assuming (3) as equality. These
are the values of the variable X (n, k) where X R, the set of real numbers. Theorem 1 has shown that X
has to be a real number, though X = m 2k requires that X is an integer. Let |X| denote the nearest integer
of X. We take only those values of X(n, k) as acceptable so that (|X|-X) (-0.1, 0.1). Column 4 represents
the list of rational fractions with such acceptable values of X only. Those entries in column 4 are marked
with red where either the value of k yielding an acceptable X exceeds the audible limit, or the fraction
r(n, k) overlaps with its neighbouring one, i.e. is non-unique. The other values in the column 4 are not
accurate, but are approximations up to 3 decimal places, that is to say the error there is limited below 10-3.

Now, X = 2k (2(n-1)/22 -1) being an acceptable near integer is a problem in Number Theory. It requires
either n-1 being a multiple of 22 for a trivial solution, which is satisfied only at , 2, 4 etc. However,
the non-trivial solutions are not that easy to find. However, a regression analysis of the data obtained gives

k = -8.72377474210-3 n3 + 2.81811247510-1 n2 - 2.296099548 n + 10.61031366 (4)

Such that (|X|-X) (-0.1, 0.1), R2 = 1.32762037610-1, RSS = 540.2479535

This is certainly not the best fit polynomial given the high RSSxviii. The degree of the polynomial might be
increased to find a more accurate polynomial here. However, substituting k in (3) by (4) improves nothing!

STEP 4: THE CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS.

From the table above, it becomes obvious that only a few notes in the whole octave are obtainable directly
from the higher harmonic partials by means of the principle of imaginary missing partials, that too
assuming that the aural systems calibration always works perfectly. These notes are Sa (Satja), Ati Komal
Rishabh (the note that is used in Puriya, Multani etc and are achieved through an undulation with Sa),
standard Komal Rishabh, Suddha Rishabh, Ati Komal Gandhar (the one used in Jaijaiwanti, Darbari in
undulation with Re), Suddha Gandhar, two variants of Madhyam of which only one is used, Pancham, one
variant of Komal Dhaivat (the sharper one as in Marwa), and two different variants of Suddha Nishad.
These notes too, are available only at the approximate places, not accurately there on the Shruti scale, and
there is no further adjustment possible because of the monotonic divergent nature of the y=ax curve.

Only 5 pure notes of the chromatic scale and 12 Shruti in total are thus available acoustically. This number
reduces further if we take into account the fact that in adult human beings the upper limit of hearing is
given by the thumb rule U = (20225 166 X age) Hz. That is some individual 50 years old can hear up to
11.925 KHz only, and that limits k further down to 4, which means s/he would hear only 7 out of 22 Shrutis
and that would be devastating for his/her musical perception.

This however doesnt apply for a comparative hearing that is when there is a reference note already to be
compared with. The Teevra Komal Re on the fourth Shruti, as is said to be used in Marwa, Bhatiyar etc. is
never audible for that matter, but artists can hit a note there purely by comparison with standard Komal Re,
and Suddha Re on both sides. The desired note is usually placed between (as in arithmetic mean) the
reference notes and always falls flatter than the actual, 1.094 < 1.099. The same goes with all notes
between Pancham and Suddha Nishad. A pair of young ears can possibly hear the Dhaivat for Marwa, but
no other notes are acoustically derivable within the physical limits. Hence all these notes are sung or played
based purely on the musicians perception, and there always is a high risk of hearing error.

How does then the system of music work at all? The answer is, we are conditioned to the errors, or a
particular set of erroneous hearing which we learn to accept as the notes and microtones without even
questioning. That is why a disciple of one school may differ in his perception with another from a different
school. Hence the entire system of music which is based on notes and tonal intervals is a system of
conditioned errors, and so far we have no clue, no neurological observations, about the nature and amount
of such error. Therefore, any theory of music being based on such notes and tonal intervals, be it
mathematical or descriptive, is simply absurd.
i
Sarma, Nandini; Stochastic modeling and statistical analysis of some aspects of North Indian classical music; Chap. 8,
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/88606 (Doctoral dissertation)
ii
Choudhury, Manoranjan; Roy Pradipta Ranjan; Measuring Similarities Across Musical Compositions: An Approach
Based On The Raga Paradigm; http://www.utdallas.edu/~pradiptaray/pdfs/choudhuryjsra03.pdf
iii
Usually, the term "quasi-empirical" refers to the means of choosing problems to focus on (or ignore), selecting prior
work on which to build an argument or proof, notations for informal claims, peer review and acceptance, and incentives
to discover, ignore, or correct errors. In this context, we focus on the meaning informal claims.
iv
Epitome of blunders quoted first: De, Bhutnath, Origin of Music,
https://www.academia.edu/7813229/It_is_most_important_now_a_days_to_preserve_and_promote_Indian_classical_
Music_and_Dance_amongst_the_young_generations. Another example in the public domain is here:
https://www.swarganga.org/articles/icmconcepts/icm14.php where both definitions are wrong or misinterpretations by
one way or other. The correct definition, albeit still without an explanation is to be found here, or the original text of
Sangita Ratnakara, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangita_Ratnakara
v
Karp, Theodore (1983). Dictionary of Music. Northwestern University Press. p. 406. ISBN 9780810106598.
vi
http://www.wakingtimes.com/2015/09/14/the-a432-hz-frequency-dna-tuning-and-the-bastardization-of-music/
vii
Olson, Harry F (1967), Music, Physics and Engineering, Dover Publications, pp. 248251. ISBN 0-486-21769-8
However, their experiment was conducted in the octave 1 KHz- 2 KHz. We, in the absence of any more credible data
would use the same for lower frequencies, too.
viii
Some believe it is 1-5 KHz. Gelfand, S A., 1990. Hearing: An introduction to psychological and physiological
acoustics. 2nd edition, New York and Basel: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
ix
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_temperament
x
Ratanjankar, Shrikrishna (2015). Chaturdandi Prakashika, Hindi Traslation. Sanskar Prakashan; where it says that S,
M, P have four Shruti each, R, D have three each, and G, N are blessed with two each. In Chromatic order, it becomes
4-3-2-4-4-3-2. This distribution was first proposed arguably by Bharata. More detailed discussion is to be found at
Sangit Parijat Prabeshika by Ahobal; Annotated translation by Mitra, Sachindranath, Pp. 115.
xi
Nayar, Sobhana; Bhatkhande's Contribution to Music: A Historical Perspective; It seems that a serious debate about
the usage of Shruti groups has started only after 1630 CE.
xii
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natya_Shastra
xiii
Pythagoras proposed that the musical intervals are marked as frequency ratios of two subsequent chromatic notes as
either power of three divided by power of two, or vice versa. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_interval#12-
tone_Pythagorean_scale
xiv
https://www.amazon.com/Sensations-Tone-Dover-Books-Music/dp/0486607534
xv
Trivia: a close observation on the sequence {r} would show that the fractions are in an AP with common difference
1/8 so that 9/8 -1 = 5/4 -9/8 = 11/8-5/4 etc. However, 13/8 and 14/8 are missing in the series while their arithmetic
mean 27/16 is present. Inserting the missing fractions (and taking out the Suddha Dhaivat) one gets a scale S-R-G-M-
P-d-n-N-S`. Again, finding the ratios of the consecutive rs in the series interpolated above, one would realize that they
come in the uniform form (n+1)/n=1+1/n 9/8, 10/9, 11/10 etc. Whatever is its musical or mathematical significance,
it is tempting to speculate that Suddha Dhaivat is an artificial note interjected later on, or at least something happened
to the upper tetra chord at some point of time that disrupted the arithmetic uniformity.
xvi
Jan Schnupp, Israel Nelken and Andrew King (2011), Auditory Neuroscience MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-11318-X;
John Clark, Colin Yallop and Janet Fletcher (2007), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Blackwell
Publishing, ISBN 1-4051-3083-0; Christopher J. Plack (2005), Pitch: Neural Coding and Perception,
Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-23472-4 The effect is commonly known as the missing fundamental or the virtual pitch.
Examples include common telephone speakers that cannot produce frequencies lower than 300 Hz, but that doesnt
stop a male voice speaking at around 150 Hz to get recognized. The GCD of the harmonics present is extrapolated by
the brains audio processing system even though the source sound does not contain that partial at all.
xvii
Narayan, Ashok; Mathematical basis of Notes Shrutis and Grams; (Doctoral Thesis)
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/58942
xviii
Linear regression calculates an equation that minimizes the distance between the fitted line and all of the data
points. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression minimizes the sum of the squared residuals. In general, a model fits the
data well if the differences between the observed values and the model's predicted values are small and unbiased.