29

AUG

2013

Child Labor in Europe Still Exists?

Rope isolated on white background

Many people today think that child labor in Europe must not exist anymore. For such a
developed area of the world, dependency on children for work seems both outdated and
absurd. However in reality, child labor still maintains a hold in Europe.

According to UNESCO, 29% of children from age 7 to 14 in the country Georgia are
working. Similarly, in Albania, 19% of children of that age group work. Additionally, an
estimated 1 million children are laborers in Russia. Even in Italy, 5.2% of children under
the age of 16 are working. There are still millions of other unreported cases of child labor
across the continent.

Many of these working children in Europe work highly dangerous jobs in agriculture,
construction, or small factories. In Bulgaria, child labor is fairly common in the tobacco
industry, some children working up to 10 hours a day. Reports from Moldova also reveal
that school directors and agricultural farm cooperatives often sign contracts that require
students to work for the harvest. Reports of long hours and hard work also come from
children in Portugal and even the U.K.

Work in these industries often involves use of hazardous machinery and equipment,
extremely heavy loads and dangerous chemicals. Moreover, like all working children
across the world, such hard labor puts each of Europes working children in positions of
abuse and exploitation. Particularly at risk are accompanied children of migrants from
developing countries.

There is speculation that austerity policies in Europe have devastated living standards so
much that child labor has returned in greater force. Countries badly affected by this
economic downturn and austerity include Greece, Italy, and Portugal, amongst many
others. A recent article in the French Newspaper Le Monde highlights the rise of child
labor in Europe. The article uses an example of how thousands of children in the Italian
region of Naples have quit school to find jobs in order to feed families. It cites reports
from a local government that suggested that 54,000 children left education in the year
between 2005 and 2009. Of these children, 38% were less than 13 years old.

The case of these Italian children leaving school points out the desperate plight of
children affected by high rates of unemployment and economic difficulty. With austerity
has come decreased access to welfare benefits for the poor. Thus children in poverty are
required to work harder and at a younger age to support families. Moreover, child labor is
not simply an Italian question. Child labor is a problem is that all of Europe must face in
the advent of economic crises. Moreover, it is a cyclical problem.

The more children work at a younger age, the more unlikely that it is that they return to
education systems, perpetuating the cycle of poverty. Child labor is real and it thrives
even in the most unlikely places of Europe. Most importantly, it is an issue worth
addressing by both governments and individuals alike.

Grace Zhao

Sources: World Socialist Web Site, Human Rights Comment

I.1 Historical perspective

Historical studies suggest that child work was widespread in Europe in the 19th century,
but declined very rapidly at the turn of the 20th century. The available historical evidence
seems consistent with the fact that industrialisation in western European countries
initially increased the demand for child labour, but then eventually contributed towards
its elimination (see Cunningham, H., & Viazzo, P. P. (1996) 1 and the references therein).
The following two visualizations show the share of children in employment for Italy and
the UK at the turn of the 20th century century.
Child labour in Europe: a challenge to be tackled, not ignored

November 4, 2015 4.25am AEDT

Author

Nuno Ferreira

Senior lecturer in law, University of Liverpool

Disclosure statement

Nuno Ferreira does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any
company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no
relevant affiliations beyond the academic appointment above.

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Unveiling of the completed 50 for Freedom panel on the World Day Against Child
Labour at the 104th International Labour Conference in Geneva. June 12, 2015.
International Labour Organization/Flickr, CC BY

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Today a vast number of children defined as anyone under 18 by the UN Convention on

the Rights of the Child work in Europe. There could be as many as 7.5 million children
working for pay, profit or family gain across the continent. The socioeconomic crisis that
began in 2008 has made the problem worse: trade unions, the media and UNICEF have
all reported that an increasing number of children are dropping out of school to take care
of siblings or serve as farm labourers, shop assistants, or join local mafias working as
panhandlers, prostitutes or drug dealers.

The Council of Europes Commissioner for Human Rights, Nils Muinieks, has
highlighted that the austerity measures in several European countries have had a direct
impact on child labour, especially in hazardous occupations such as agriculture and
construction. Even when children work lawfully, horrific injuries can occur, and even
death.

What can be done?

The appropriateness of children working has long been debated, and the responses
depend on many factors. Abolitionists or welfarists advocate removing children from
work environments, especially when it may be detrimental to their development, arguing
they should receive education and socio-cultural development through other means.
Regulationists or autonomists favour regulation of child work and furthering
childrens range of choices, so satisfying childrens wishes to be socially independent and
contribute to their families well-being.

Terminology is important here. When work becomes detrimental to childrens

psychological and physical development, the notion of child labour can be used. While
in some cases the term child work may be acceptable (especially in the case of older
children), the expression child labour is generally used only for those cases where the
work in question is legally or morally unacceptable.

When children are sufficiently skilled, the work environment is safe and the employers
supervision is appropriate, then child work may be acceptable, and so simply be
considered child work. Only when it somehow harms the childs development does it
become child labour. Where exactly this threshold is crossed will always be
contentious even within Europe let alone at a global scale.

Politicians need to be more assertive on this question. As reflected in the work of the
International Labour Organization and the European Commission, it has long been
known that both children and wider society reap enormous benefits when education is
prioritised over work. Yet this should not be seen as the primary aim of stricter child-
labour policies, but simply as a positive side effect. The cornerstone of policy-making
should be the childrens rights and well-being.

In the European context, there are sufficient resources political will allowing to
ensure that all children can concentrate on their education and not on work. Keeping
childrens future employment prospects in mind, vocational training or traineeships are
much more valuable than the type of unskilled and poorly paid work that most working
children carry out.

One may criticise this stance by saying that it limits childrens autonomy and their right
to participate in society, but the autonomy of adult workers is similarly curtailed for
legitimate reasons for example, by EU rules on working time and pregnancy. So there is
no reason why childrens autonomy may not also be curtailed in their best interests
something required by Article 3 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.
A role for the EU

The European Union can play a key role in leading the fight against the negative
consequences involved with work carried out by children. The Young Workers Directive
needs to be amended to reach the international standards.

There is clear scope for improvement of the directive:

It should apply to all work by children, not just formal employment;

The general minimum employment age should be raised from 15 to 16 at the very least;

Terms such as dangerous work and light work should be more clearly defined;

Member states should be required to gather hard data and implement the rules through
rigorous inspection procedures, as labour inspection services have historically been
deficient in relation to child work.

These amendments would reduce the number of loopholes and, more importantly, make
the Young Workers Directive that much stricter.

The EU can do all this on the basis of its labour law-making competence, but it alone
cannot ensure that children have the educational opportunities and the social safety net
required to preclude the need and motivation to work.

It is for EU member states to ensure that appropriate educational and welfare systems are
in place, and that can only happen if national budgets are not prey to drastic austerity
measures. By following these recommendations, we will be on a better path to liberating
children from life-long cycles of low qualifications, low skills and low income.

Child Labour

What is meant by child labour?

Child labour means work that is prohibited for children of certain age groups. It is work
performed by children who are under the minimum age legally specified for that kind of
work, or work which, because of its detrimental nature or conditions, is considered
unacceptable for children and is prohibited.

Today, throughout the world, around 215 million children work, many full-time. They do
not go to school and have little or no time to play. Many do not receive proper nutrition
or care. They are denied the chance to be children. More than half of them are exposed to
the worst forms of child labour such as work in hazardous environments, slavery, or other
forms of forced labour, illicit activities including drug trafficking and prostitution, as well
as involvement in armed conflict.

Guided by the principles enshrined in the ILO's Minimum Age Convention No. 138 and
the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention No. 182, the ILO InFocus Programme on
Child Labour (IPEC) works to achieve the effective abolition of child labour.

Labour Standards

One of the major aims set for the International Labour Organization (ILO) at its
foundation in 1919 was the abolition of child labour. Historically, the ILOs principal tool
in pursuing the goal of effective abolition of child labour has been the adoption and
supervision of labour standards that embody the concept of a minimum age for admission
to employment or work. Furthermore, from 1919 onwards the principle that minimum
age standards should be linked to schooling has been part of the ILOs tradition in
standard setting in this area. Convention No. 138 provides that the minimum age for
admission to employment shall not be less than the age of completion of compulsory
schooling.
The ILOs adoption of Convention No. 182 in 1999 consolidated the global consensus on
child labour elimination. It provided much-needed focus without abandoning the
overarching goal, expressed in Convention No. 138, of the effective abolition of child
labour. Moreover, the concept of the worst forms helps set priorities and can be used as
an entry point in tackling the mainstream child labour problem. The concept also helps to
direct attention to the impact of work on children, as well as the work they perform.

Child labour that is proscribed under international law falls into three categories:

The unconditional worst forms of child labour, which are internationally defined as
slavery, trafficking, debt bondage and other forms of forced labour, forced recruitment of
children for use in armed conflict, prostitution and pornography, and illicit activities.

Labour performed by a child who is under the minimum age specified for that kind of
work (as defined by national legislation, in accordance with accepted international
standards), and that is thus likely to impede the childs education and full development.

Labour that jeopardizes the physical, mental or moral well-being of a child, either
because of its nature or because of the conditions in which it is carried out, known as
hazardous work.

An Encouraging Trend

The new global estimates and trends are presented in terms of three categories:

economically active children,

child labour and

children in hazardous work.

The new estimates suggest that there were about 317 million economically active
children aged 5 to 17 in 2004, of whom 218 million could be regarded as child labourers.
Of the latter, 126 million were engaged in hazardous work. The corresponding figures for
the narrower age group of 5 to 14 yearolds are 191 million economically active children,
166 million child labourers, and 74 million children in hazardous work. The number of
child labourers in both age groups of 5-14 and 5-17 fell by 11 per cent over the four years
from 2000 to 2004. However, the decline was much greater for those engaged in
hazardous work: by 26 per cent for the 5-17 age group, and 33 per cent for 5 to 14 year-
olds.

The incidence of child labour (percentage of children working) in 2004 is estimated at

13.9 per cent for the 5-17 age group, compared to 16 per cent in 2000. The proportion of
girls among child labourers, however, remained steady.

The global picture that emerges is thus highly encouraging: Child work is declining, and
the more harmful the work and the more vulnerable the children involved, the faster the
decline.

Minimum Age for Work

The minimum age for admission to employment among the member States ratifying
Convention No. 138

15 - 73 member States

16 - 41 member States

14 - 49 member States

One of the most effective methods of ensuring that children do not start working too
young is to set the age at which children can legally be employed or otherwise work. The
main principles of the ILOs Convention concerning the minimum age of admission to
employment and work are listed below.

Hazardous work

Any work which is likely to jeopardize childrens physical, mental or moral heath, safety
or morals should not be done by anyone under the age of 18.

Basic Minimum Age

The minimum age for work should not be below the age for finishing compulsory
schooling, which is generally 15.
Light work

Children between the ages of 13 and 15 years old may do light work, as long as it does
not threaten their health and safety, or hinder their education or vocational orientation and
training.

Understanding the Problem

Few child labour cases make it to Court

Despite some positive enforcement developments it still appears that few cases
concerning child labour make it to the Courts. Only 1.5 per cent of reports received by
the CEACR concerning child labour contain information on Court decisions. This
compares with 8 per cent of the CEACR reports on discrimination.7.8 per cent on forced
labour and 5.8 per cent on freedom of association.

A better conceptual grasp of child labour has also gone hand in hand with a better
understanding of the shape of the problem and its causes.

Across All Economic Sectors

The 2002 Global Report indicated that the vast majority (70 per cent) of childrens work
is concentrated in the agricultural sector and that the informal economy harbours most
child labour across all economic sectors.

In addition, gender plays a significant role in determining the different types of work
done by girls and boys. For example, girls predominate in domestic work, while boys are
heavily represented in mining and quarrying. The situation is made worse when, as for
domestic work in many countries, the kind of work is excluded from regulation in a large
proportion of countries.

Our understanding of the causes of child labour has also become more sophisticated as
different academic perspectives have been brought to bear on the problem. Seeing child
labour as a product of market forces supply and demand has been a fruitful approach,
taking in the behaviour of employers as well as of individual households.
Child Labour and Poverty

Poverty and economic shocks clearly play an important if not a key role in determining
the market for child labour. Child labour in turn contributes to the perpetuation of
poverty. For example, recent empirical findings by the World Bank from Brazil
demonstrate that early entry into the labour force reduces lifetime earnings by some 13 to
20 per cent, increasing signifi cantly the probability of being poor later in life.

However, poverty in itself is not a sufficient explanation of child labour, and it certainly
fails to explain some of the unconditional worst forms of child labour.

Child Labour and Human Rights

A human rights perspective is necessary for a fuller understanding of child labour, as it

focuses on discrimination and exclusion as contributing factors. The most vulnerable
groups when it comes to child labour are often those subject to discrimination and
exclusion: girls, ethnic minorities and indigenous and tribal peoples, those of low class or
caste, people with disabilities, displaced persons and those living in remote areas.

The United Nations General Assembly Special Session on Children in 2002 endorsed a
mainstreaming approach placing child labour on the development agenda. This implied
that a new ambition had to be set for the worldwide movement against child labour. In
political terms this means putting child labour on the agenda of fi nance and planning
ministries after all, the worldwide movement has to convince governments to act to end
child labour. Child labour elimination comes down to a set of political choices rather than
a technocratic exercise. And everyday realities of instability and crisis challenge attempts
at making progress.

Child labour in Europe: a persisting challenge

Print Child labour in Europe: a persisting challenge English English franais franais

HEADLINE STRASBOURG 20/08/2013

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Many observers thought that child labour was a thing of the past in Europe. However,
there are strong indications that child labour remains a serious problem and that it might
be growing in the wake of the economic crisis. Governments need to monitor this
situation and to use the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the European
Social Charter as guidance for preventive and remedial action.

Vulnerable people are always disproportionately affected in times of economic down-

turn. The link between declining economic growth and increasing child labour is
therefore no surprise. With the recession many European countries have drastically cut
social aid. As unemployment soars, many families have found no other solution than
sending their children to work.

Hazardous and dangerous jobs

The prevalence of child labour in developing countries is a well-known problem

according to the International Labour Organisation today more than 250 million children
between the ages of 5 and 14 work. In trying to map the situation in Europe, however, my
Office has found that information is very sparse. In fact, it seems to be a taboo subject.
But we have been able to accumulate enough information to see a grim picture.

According to UN research, in Georgia 29 percent of children aged 7-14 are working. In

Albania the figure is 19 percent. The government of the Russian Federation has estimated
that up to 1 million children may be working in the country. In Italy, a study of June 2013
indicates that 5.2 percent of children younger than 16 are working. But from most other
countries no data are yet available.

Many of the children working across Europe have extremely hazardous occupations in
agriculture, construction, small factories or on the street. This has been reported for
example in Albania, Bulgaria, Georgia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey
and Ukraine. Work in agriculture may involve using dangerous machinery and tools,
carrying heavy loads and applying harmful pesticides. Working in the streets leaves
children vulnerable to abuse and exploitation.
In Bulgaria child labour is apparently very common in the tobacco industry, with some
children working up to 10 hours a day. In Moldova reports indicate that school directors,
farms and agricultural cooperatives have signed contracts that require students to help
with the harvest.

Other countries at risk are those that were badly affected by austerity measures: Cyprus,
Greece, Italy and Portugal. Many children reportedly work long hours also in the United
Kingdom.

Throughout Europe Roma children are especially at risk. Another particularly vulnerable
group are unaccompanied migrants under 18, originating from developing countries.

What should be done

Governments urgently need to pay specific attention to the problems of child labour, to
investigate, collect data and monitor. Most countries have adequate legislation but fail to
monitor actual practices.

The best interests of the child should be the guiding principle, as stated in the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child and the standards of the European Social Charter.

The authorities should carefully evaluate the potential impact on child labour caused by
budgetary cuts in the field of education and training.

They should also evaluate the impact on child labour of cuts in social policies and
support to families: the main cause for children having to work is poverty.

Labour inspection agencies should be in a position to do their work adequately.

States should vigorously combat trafficking of children for work and exploitation. The
seven Council of Europe member states who have not yet ratified the Convention on
Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings should do so, and all member states should
cooperate with the monitoring group GRETA.
What future for these children?

I am deeply concerned that limited attention is being paid to the risks of child labour in
Europe. In most countries officials are aware of the problem, but few are willing to tackle
it. That data and figures are almost non-existent or highly approximate is a point of worry
in itself. One cannot fight a problem without information about its extent, character and
effects.

A particularly worrying aspect is that work interferes with childrens schooling: their
results are soon affected and many eventually drop out of school. This only perpetuates
the cycle of poverty. Choosing education over work for children is the only way for a
country to develop.

Many concrete measures need to be taken. Last year we saw one such action in Turkey
when the government passed a law that raised the age of compulsory education to 17 in
order to minimise the risk of labour exploitation. More such initiatives are needed.

Letting the problem of child labour go unaddressed not only puts the future of these
children at risk. It also raises the question of what our societies will look like in the future
when these children grow up having missed the chance to play and to learn at school, but
having been exposed to various health risks at an early age. We need to act now for the
future of these children and our own societies.

Nils Muinieks