Hypothesis experiment : The behavior of guppies (Poecilia reticulata) will change

along with the changes in the surrounding temperature. And he will choose the
place where he lives in accordance with the existing temperature level.
Basic theory :
The success of an organism to survive and reproduce reflect the overall
tolerance of the whole set of environment variables faced by these organisms,
This means that every organism must adapt to the environmental conditions.
Adaptation responses in the form of morphological, physiological and behavioral.
In the marine environment, physical, chemical and biological role in the
homeostasis necessary. for the growth and reproduction of aquatic biota (Branch,
2005).

Temperature is an important factor in aquatic ecosystems (Ewusie, 1990).

The increase in water temperature can be cause life of fish and other aquatic
animals disturbed (Aprianto and Liviawati, 1992). According Soetjipta (1993),
water has several unique thermal properties, so that changes in the temperature
of the water runs more slowly than air. Furthermore Soetjipta added that
although the temperature is less volatile in water daripadadi the air, but the
temperature is a major limiting factor. Therefore, aquatic creatures often have
narrow tolerances.

Carbon-based approaches for saving

rainforests should include biodiversity
studies pendekatan berbasis karbon-untuk menyelamatkan hutan hujan
harus mencakup penelitian keanekaragaman hayati

Carbon-based approaches for saving rainforests should include biodiversity

studies

New study finds that a universal relationship between biodiversity,

carbon storage in tropical forests may not exist as once assumed
Date: March 10, 2017
Source: Wildlife Conservation Society
Summary: Conservationists working to safeguard tropical forests often assume
that old growth forests containing great stores of carbon also hold high
biodiversity, but a new study finds that the relationship may not be as strong as
once thought, according to a group of researchers.
A rainforest in Gabon. Conservationists working to safeguard tropical forests often assume
that old growth forests containing great stores of carbon also hold high biodiversity, but a
new study finds that the relationship may not be as strong as once thought.
Credit: Miguel Leal

Conservationists working to safeguard tropical forests often assume that old growth forests
containing great stores of carbon also hold high biodiversity, but a new study finds that the
relationship may not be as strong as once thought, according to a group of researchers with
contributions from WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society) and other organizations.

Tropical forests are exceptionally rich in both carbon and biodiversity, but the study recently
published in the journal Scientific Reports indicates that, within the tropics, tree diversity and
forest carbon do not necessarily correlate, and that there is no detectable relationship between
the two factors across a region, a scale relevant for conservation planning and the
establishment of protected areas. For instance, in Central Africa, some areas that are
dominated by one or a few tree species are high in carbon density, whereas some forests with
many more tree species have a lower carbon density.

The study titled "Diversity and carbon storage across the tropical forest biome" can be
accessed here.

"The findings of the study show that there is not always a win-win situation whereby, when
you conserve high-carbon forest stocks, you also automatically conserve high tree diversity,"
said Miguel Leal, WCS scientist and a co-author on the study. "Forest carbon density maps
are increasingly easy to create from remote-sensing data. If the high carbon density and high
species diversity were invariably in the same places, we could easily pinpoint the areas
important for conservation. That would make our work more efficient and save scarce
resources, because biodiversity assessments are expensive and time consuming,"

Leal added: "As a conservation NGO, WCS wants to ensure that biodiversity is given due
consideration in efforts to mitigate climate change. This study demonstrates that it is not safe
to assume that, by simply protecting high-carbon forests, we are protecting all the areas with
high levels of biodiversity."

Most of the countries with large tracts of tropical forests are pursuing the REDD+ (Reduced
Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) program under the UNFCCC to
safeguard areas with large carbon stocks. Previous studies found that, at a local scale, higher
carbon also implied higher tree species richness. However, this larger, more comprehensive
study shows that this is not the case over most tropical areas.

The scientists compared data from 360 plots in old-growth rainforests in Latin America,
Africa, and Asia to examine the relationship between tropical tree diversity and the amount of
carbon stocks contained above ground in those same plots. The results of the study revealed a
weak relationship between tree diversity and above ground carbon stocks in Asia, and no
statistical connection between the two factors in Africa and Latin America. The team did find
a weak positive relationship between tree diversity and carbon stocks at scales much smaller
than a hectare.

The research team asserted that the absence of a clear relationship between tree diversity and
carbon storage meant that using carbon-centered metrics alone to guide conservation
planning may be missing many ecosystems with high biodiversity. For the future, the authors
recommend that effective tropical forest conservation requires that an explicit distinction be
made between tree diversity and carbon stocks, and that both be considered in parallel.

The authors added that only in places where the relationship between high tree diversity and
carbon levels has been established can one be used as an indicator for the other. Specifically,
the plots examined in Southeast Asia were found to be both diverse in tree species and carbon
biomass, a finding that underlines the need to protect such forests.

Wildlife Conservation Society. "Carbon-based approaches for saving rainforests

should include biodiversity studies: New study finds that a universal relationship
between biodiversity, carbon storage in tropical forests may not exist as once
assumed." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 10 March 2017.
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/03/170310132634.htm

Carbon-based approaches for saving rainforests should include

biodiversity studies.
New study finds that a universal relationship between biodiversity, carbon
storage in tropical forests may not exist as once assumed
Conservationists working to safeguard tropical forests often assume that old growth forests
containing great stores of carbon also hold high biodiversity, but a new study finds that the
relationship may not be as strong as once thought, according to a group of researchers.

Hierarchy of Complexity

The biosphere is the thin life-bearing outer layer of the Earth. It extends from the
deepest parts of the ocean to miles high into the atmosphere. It is very large and very
complex. To study the relationships in nature, ecologists (scientists who study ecology)
investigate different levels of organization or smaller pieces of the biosphere. The levels
increase in complexity as the numbers and interactions between organisms increase, which is
why it is called the hierarchy of complexity.
The levels of organization are:
Individual organism - the lowest level of organization is the organism itself - one
organism of one (any) species; an example can be one elk (as in the picture above) or one
pine tree or one bacteria.
Population - the number of organisms of a single species that occupies a certain area
at a certain time; for example, the population of betta fish in our classroom yesterday was 2;
the population of humans in our classroom on Tuesday, Dec. 4th during 3rd & 4th period was
__(and zero on the same day at 10 pm).
Biological community - a group of interacting populations that occupy the same area
at the same time For example, the populations interacting in our classroom last week during
Intermediate Science included 16 humans, one each of 5 different species of plants, a tobacco
hornworm pupae, a few box elder bugs we didn't count. Note that I specified the different
populations of each species present in a particular location (our classroom) at a particular
time (last week during Intermediate Science). Note also that I did NOT include any abiotic
component.
Ecosystem - a biological community AND all the abiotic factors that affect it
Abiotic factors include many things, such as temperature, precipitation, availability of water,
air, light, and other non-living features such as rocks, soil, mountains etc.
It's important to note that an ecosystem can be as small as the little pond at the end of the
drainpipe or the soles of your feet and as big as a forest growing on a mountainside.
Ecosystems have no strictly defined boundary, and they can overlap with other ecosystems
(just as a turtle that is part of a river ecosystem might leave the river to lay her eggs in a
grassy riverbank and become part of the grassland ecosystem).
Using our classroom as an example, we could list all the populations in the biological
community AND the abiotic factors such as the temperature (determined by how we set the
thermostat), precipitation (none-unless the roof leaks), amount of sunlight or electric light,
the walls and floor and furniture in the classroom, the glass of the windows, the water coming
through the faucet and every other abiotic thing that is in our classroom. Another example
could be the prairie next to our playground and say the time frame is the last 6 months - the
biological community would include different species of bacteria, worms, various species of
birds, deer, fox, humans, different species of flowering grasses and plants etc. and the abiotic
parts would include the average temperature, the amount of sunlight and precipitation, the air,
the slope of the hill and the soil and rocks that make up the hill etc.
Biome - large geographic areas on the planet that have two things in common: 1)
they share the same climate and 2) have similar, but not necessarily identical types of
plant/animal communities; biomes can be in very different locations, even on different
continents, but still belong to the same biome
Biosphere - the thin life-bearing outer layer of the Earth that extends from the deepest
parts of the ocean to miles high into the atmosphere "bio" is latin for life and "sphere" is
geometric shape similar to a ball or the earth.
Hierarchy of Complexity

The biosphere is the thin life-bearing outer layer of the Earth. It extends from the
deepest parts of the ocean to miles high into the atmosphere. It is very large and very
complex. To study the relationships in nature, ecologists (scientists who study ecology)
investigate different levels of organization or smaller pieces of the biosphere. The levels
increase in complexity as the numbers and interactions between organisms increase, which is
why it is called the hierarchy of complexity.
The levels of organization are:
Individual organism - the lowest level of organization is the organism itself - one
organism of one (any) species; an example can be one elk (as in the picture above) or one
pine tree or one bacteria.
Population - the number of organisms of a single species that occupies a certain area
at a certain time; for example, the population of betta fish in our classroom yesterday was 2;
the population of humans in our classroom on Tuesday, Dec. 4th during 3rd & 4th period was
__(and zero on the same day at 10 pm).
Biological community - a group of interacting populations that occupy the same area
at the same time .
Ecosystem - a biological community AND all the abiotic factors that affect it
Abiotic factors include many things, such as temperature, precipitation, availability of water,
air, light, and other non-living features such as rocks, soil, mountains etc.
 Biome - large geographic areas on the planet that have two things in common: 1)
they share the same climate and 2) have similar, but not necessarily identical types of
plant/animal communities; biomes can be in very different locations, even on different
continents, but still belong to the same biome
Biosphere - the thin life-bearing outer layer of the Earth that extends from the deepest
parts of the ocean to miles high into the atmosphere "bio" is latin for life and "sphere" is
geometric shape similar to a ball or the earth.
To read more information please go to my blog : http://aushofusy.blogspot.co.id/

Conditions (abiotic factors)

Physicochemical features of the environment that may be altered by the
activities of living organisms, but not consumed
Temperature

Relative humidity

pH

Salinity

Current velocity

Soil structure

Pollutant concentration
Resources
Quantities of something that can reduced by the activities of a living
organism during its growth and development Made less available or
unavailable to other organisms
Solar radiation

Inorganic materials - CO2, water, oxygen, mineral nutrients

(macro-, micronutrients)

Food

Space
To read more information please go to my blog :
Conditions (abiotic factors)
Physicochemical features of the environment that may be altered by the
activities of living organisms, but not consumed
Temperature

Relative humidity

pH

Salinity

Current velocity

Soil structure

Pollutant concentration
Resources
Quantities of something that can reduced by the activities of a living
organism during its growth and development Made less available or
unavailable to other organisms
Solar radiation

Inorganic materials - CO2, water, oxygen, mineral nutrients

(macro-, micronutrients)

Food

Space
To read more information please go to my blog :

Effects of conditions
For each species, there is some level/concentration/intensity of a
factor at which it does best - its optimum for that factor
Optimum conditions result in individuals with the highest fitness
Higher or lower levels of a factor result in reduced fitness or non-
survival
Example of a condition
Temperature - one of the most important factors because of its influence
on metabolism
Homeotherms - maintain constant body temp. as environmental
temp. varies
Poikilotherms - body temp. varies with environmental temp.
 Endotherms - regulate body temperature by internal heat
production, (birds, mammals), Regulators - 35-40C, Constancy of
performance over wide range of temperatures, Large expenditure of
energy to maintain internal heat (large food requirements) (cost), At
higher temps, they alter insulation, shunt blood flow to surface,
pant, seek out cool habitats
Endotherms - regulate body temperature by internal heat
production, (birds, mammals), Regulators - 35-40C, Constancy of
performance over wide range of temperatures, Large expenditure of
energy to maintain internal heat (large food requirements) (cost), At
higher temperature, they alter insulation, shunt blood flow to
surface, seek out cool habitats
Ectotherms - depend on external heat sources, Depend on external
heat sources, Conformers, Can moderate or modify heat exchange
with environment by: Developing various body coverings
(reflective), Simple or complex behaviors and Complex physiological
process (be shivering). Changes in body temperature result in
changes in rates at which physiological processes occur,
Temperature coefficient = Q10
For every 10C increase in temperature, a reaction rate (e.g.,
metabolism, development) increases two times
Q10 = 2
May be higher or lower in some organisms for some reactions
Other effects of temperature on ectotherms
Can become acclimatized to different temperature regimes :
some physiological processes adjust over time to different
temperatures
Temperature may serve as stimulus to begin some process :
Initiate development in some plants and Diapause
High temperatures can Inactivate/denature enzymes, Greatly
increase energy expenditures and Dehydrate (most important for
terrestrials)
Low temperatures can Reduce energy expenditures (also
cease maintenance, repair activities), Induce hardening in plants
(acclimatization to low temperature), Produce chilling injury -
disruption of membrane structure that interferes with water uptake
or retention, and Produce freezing injury/death - ice crystal
formation within cells
Temperature can affect distributions : Organisms generally
found where temperatures are optimum for survival, growth,
 reproduction. Lethal high or low temperatures can limit distributions,
but only need to occur infrequently to do so
Ectotherms - depend on external heat sources, Depend on external
heat sources, Conformers, Can moderate or modify heat exchange
with environment by: Developing various body coverings
(reflective), Simple or complex behaviors and Complex physiological
process (bee shivering). Changes in body temperature result in
changes in rates at which physiological processes occur,
Temperature coefficient = Q10
For every 10C increase in temperature, a reaction rate (e.g.,
metabolism, development) increases two times
Q10 = 2

May be higher or lower in some organisms for some reactions

Other effects of temperature on ectotherms

Can become acclimatized to different temperature regimes :

some physiological processes adjust over time to different
temperatures
Temperature may serve as stimulus to begin some process :
Initiate development in some plants and Diapause
High temperatures can Inactivate/denature enzymes, Greatly
increase energy expenditures and Dehydrate (most important
for terrestrials)
Low temperatures can Reduce energy expenditures (also
cease maintenance, repair activities), Induce hardening in
plants (acclimatization to low temps.), Produce chilling injury -
disruption of membrane structure that interferes with water
uptake or retention, and Produce freezing injury/death - ice
crystal formation within cells
Temperature can affect distributions : Organisms generally
found where temperatures are optimum for survival, growth,
reproduction. Lethal high or low temperatures can limit
distributions, but only need to occur infrequently to do so

Relative humidity
Rate of water loss from evaporation and respiration by terrestrials is
dependent on relative humidity, Higher humidity canlower rate of
loss, Organisms differ in abilities to reduce or counteract losses,
Require different relative humidities Often difficult to separate from
temperature and wind speed
pH
 Altered pH can: Upset osmoregulation and other processes and Alter
availability of nutrients, minerals, toxic metals, Aluminum at pH <
4.0, Alter quality/range of available food resources, Different
organisms have different requirements/tolerances

Salinity
Organisms possess different requirements/tolerances of salinity -
osmoregulation
Stenohaline - narrow limits
Euryhaline - broad limits

Current velocity
Different requirements of body shape/attachment under different flow
regimes, Low-profile, streamlining, encrusting forms in higher velocities
Low-profile - boundary layer e.g., mayfly nymphs\

Streamlining
Soil structure
Coarse versus fine
Smooth versus rough

Pollutants

Differing tolerances to various pollutants