CHAPTER 5:

LEARNING

OBJECTIVES

To discuss different Learning theories

To describe how to shape behaviour

To describe the contingencies of reinforces

To describe the process and principles of behavioural modification

DEFINITION

Learning is any relatively permanent change in knowledge or skill which occurs as a result of
practice or experience.

LEARNING AND ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Attitude, Skill, Motivation are all learned

It has marked effect on Training

It offers significant insights into controlling employees behaviour

Learning has its contribution in the process of socialization in organization

THEORIES OF LEARNING

1
 Classical Conditioning

Operant conditioning

Cognitive Learning

Social Learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Developed by Ivan P. Pavlov

A procedure for studying the development of associations between stimuli and reactions that are
not themselves under the control of the individual

Example

Stimulus (S) Response (R)

The individual stuck by a pin Flinches

BASIC PROCEDURE

It begins with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that is, known, a priori, to elicit certain action or
unconditioned response (UR)

A neutral stimulus is introduced and paired its presentation with the unconditioned stimulus.

Eventually, given the appropriate time interval and sequence of events, this neutral , conditioned
stimulus (CS) elicits a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original UR.

2
 STAGES OF PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING

Stage 1: Before Conditioning

US UR

CS Orienting Response

Stage 2 : Acquisition

CS (then) US UR

Stage 3 : After Conditioning

CS CR

EXTINCTION: The ability of the CS to elicit CR would gradually diminish and disappear if the
CS were presented without the US for a number of trials.

Applications of Classical Conditioning in Human Behaviour

Treatment of phobias, in which an irrationally severe emotional response is elicited by particular

stimulus

Customer preferences for certain products can be explained through classical conditioning

Training- Learning to response in a novel/ different stinulus

LAW OF EFFECT

3
 E. L. THORNDIKE

Of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied or closely
followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) will be more likely to recur, those which are
accompanied or closely followed by discomfort will be less likely to occur

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning argues that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Learning occurs as
a consequence of behaviour.

Response (R) Stimulus (S)

The individual increases productivity Receives Merit Pay

REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcer in operant conditioning is any stimulus or event which when produced by a response,
makes that response more likely to occur in future and increases the strength of response.

Positive reinforcement- When a response is followed by something pleasant is called Positive

Reinforcement

Negative response- When a response is followed by the termination of something unpleasant is

called Negative Reinforcement.

Reward- A reward is something that the person who presents it deems to be desirable.

Punishment- Anything that weakens behaviour and tends to decrease its subsequent frequency.
Punishment usually consists of the application of an undesirable or noxious consequence or
withdrawal of a desirable consequence.

4
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

Classical Conditioning: SR bond

Operant Conditioning: RS bond

Classical Conditioning: Behaviour elicited

Operant Conditioning: Serves as a cue for person to emit a response

Classical Conditioning: The unnconditioned simulus, serving as a reward, is presented every time

Operant Conditioning: The reward is presented if the organisms gives the correct response

COGNITIVE LEARNING

Propounded by Edward Tolman

Cognitive learning situations are those in which without explicit reinforcement, there is a change
in the ways in which information is processed as a result of some experience a person has had

Cognitive Learning consists of a relationship between cognitive environmental cues and

expectation

Learning the association between cues and expectancy (Stimulus- stimulus)

Expectancy is a three-unit association

(a) Knowledge that in a certain situation

(b) a certain type of behaviour

(c) will be followed by a certain stimulus

Reward is unnecessary for learning and the key result of learning is the knowledge about the
correlation between events

5
INSIGHT LEARNING

A type of Cognitive Learning. In a typical insight situation, a problem is posed, a period follows
during which no apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly.

The insight involves a perceptual reorganization of elements in the environment- new

relationships among objects and events are suddenly seen

6
SOCIAL LEARNING

Learning through observation & direct experience. The influence of model is central to the social
learning process

Learning is largely an information processing activity in which information about the structure of
behaviour and about environmental events is transformed into symbolic representations that serve
as guides of behaviour (Bandura, 1986)

Process of Social Learning

Attention Process- People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its
critical features

Retention process: A models influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the
models action after the model is np longer readily available.

Reproduction Process- Watching must be converted to doing.

Reinforcement Process- Reward motivates the individual exhibit the learned behaviour

METHODS OF SHAPING BEHAVIOUR

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Punishment

Exinction

PUNISHMENT

7
 Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable
behaviour

It is contingent on the occurrence of a particular response

It tends to decrease the likelihood of occurrence of a particular response

It promotes the learning of what not to do

EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT

Punished behaviour tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather than permanently changed

Punished person tends to get anxious & resentful of the punisher

It is a lose-lose approach

Punisher may feel guilty

EFFECTIVE PUNISHMENT

It must be

applied before the undesirable behaviour has become well learnt

fairly intense

Followed immediately the undesirable behaviour

Specific

Consistent across persons

Applied every time the act occurs

Accompanied by reward for the desired behaviour

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Continuous: Reinforces desired behaviour each and every time it is demonstrated

8
 Intermittent:Each reinforcement is not reinforced, but reinforcement is given often enough to
make the behaviour worth repeating

INTERMITTENT SCHEDULES

Fixed Interval:Critical variable time is held constant

Variable Interval: Rewards are distributed in time so that RF is unpredictable

Fixed Ratio: A reward is given after a fixed or constant number of responses

Variable Ratio: Reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual

9
 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT & BEHAVIOUR

Continuous: Helps to direct behaviour towards desired goals quickly; Likely to weaken very
rapidly when RF is stopped; Important for learning new responses

Fixed Interval : Reduce motivation for hard work; behaviour vary in rate during interval;
necessary to reduce anxiety

Variable Interval: Moderate and steady rate of response; desired behaviour s are sustained over
time

Fixed Ratio : High rate of vigorous & steady response

Variable Ratio : High rate of vigorous, steady response, resistant to extinction

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT : A COMPARISON

Continuous RF: Effective in the early stage of learning

Ratio schedules are more effective because RF is contingent upon behaviour

Variable schedules generate responses that are more difficult to extinguish

Some fixed interval RF is necessary to reduce anxiety

A fixed ratio schedule is easier to handle than variable schedule

10
 ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

Step1: Identification of Critical Behaviours that play key role in job performance

Step 2: Measurement of base rate at which critical behaviour are occurring

Step 3: Functional Analysis- ABC analysis

Step 4: Design of the Intervention Strategy- Identification of positive reinforcers and arranging
conditions so that these are contingent upon performance of the desired behaviour

Step 5: Systematic Evaluation- Final behaviour is compared with the initial behaviour to assess
changes produced by OB

FEW APPLICATION OF LEARNING THEORIES IN ORGANISATIONS

Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism

Well pay versus sick pay

Employee Discipline

Developing Training Program

Creating Mentoring Program

Self-management

11