Intermediate Value Theorem(IVT)

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 1 / 12

Intermediate Value Theorem(IVT)

A function is said to have the intermediate value property if it never

takes on two values without taking on all the values in between.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 1 / 12

Intermediate Value Theorem(IVT)

A function is said to have the intermediate value property if it never

takes on two values without taking on all the values in between.
The Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and if y0 is any
value between f (a) and f (b), then y0 = f (c) for some c in [a, b].

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 1 / 12

Intermediate Value Theorem(IVT)

A function is said to have the intermediate value property if it never

takes on two values without taking on all the values in between.
The Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and if y0 is any
value between f (a) and f (b), then y0 = f (c) for some c in [a, b].

Consequences of IVT

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 1 / 12

Intermediate Value Theorem(IVT)

A function is said to have the intermediate value property if it never

takes on two values without taking on all the values in between.
The Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and if y0 is any
value between f (a) and f (b), then y0 = f (c) for some c in [a, b].

Consequences of IVT
It is on the basis of IVT, we can assert that continuous functions on an
interval I cannot have any breaks. It will be connected, a single,
unbroken curve, like the graph of sin x.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 1 / 12

Intermediate Value Theorem(IVT)

A function is said to have the intermediate value property if it never

takes on two values without taking on all the values in between.
The Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b], and if y0 is any
value between f (a) and f (b), then y0 = f (c) for some c in [a, b].

Consequences of IVT
It is on the basis of IVT, we can assert that continuous functions on an
interval I cannot have any breaks. It will be connected, a single,
unbroken curve, like the graph of sin x. Also, another interesting
application is that to solve for f (x) = 0, where f (x) is continuous, once
we can find an interval on which f (x) changes signs, we know that the
root will be in the interval.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 1 / 12

Derivatives

EXAMPLE:
Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 x 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 2 / 12

Derivatives

EXAMPLE:
Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 x 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.

Definition
The derivative of a function, f , with respect to the variable x, is the
0
function f , whose value at x is

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 2 / 12

Derivatives

EXAMPLE:
Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 x 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.

Definition
The derivative of a function, f , with respect to the variable x, is the
0
function f , whose value at x is
0 f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h0 h
provided the limit exists.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 2 / 12

Derivatives

EXAMPLE:
Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 x 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.

Definition
The derivative of a function, f , with respect to the variable x, is the
0
function f , whose value at x is
0 f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h0 h
provided the limit exists.

QUESTION:
What can be said about the domain of the derivative?

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 2 / 12

Derivatives

EXAMPLE:
Show that there is a root of the equation x 3 x 1 = 0 between 1 and 2.

Definition
The derivative of a function, f , with respect to the variable x, is the
0
function f , whose value at x is
0 f (x + h) f (x)
f (x) = lim
h0 h
provided the limit exists.

QUESTION:
What can be said about the domain of the derivative?
Investigate the differentiability of the function y = |x|.
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 2 / 12
Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has
1 a corner

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has
1 a corner
2 a cusp

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has
1 a corner
2 a cusp
3 a vertical tangent

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has
1 a corner
2 a cusp
3 a vertical tangent
4 a discontinuity

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has
1 a corner
2 a cusp
3 a vertical tangent
4 a discontinuity

Theorem
A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Remark
A smooth function will fail to have a derivative at a point where the graph
has
1 a corner
2 a cusp
3 a vertical tangent
4 a discontinuity

Theorem
A function is continuous at every point where it has a derivative.

Proof.
0
Given that f (c) exists, we must show that lim f (x) = f (c). Equivalently,
xc
lim f (c + h) = f (c).
h0

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 3 / 12

Proof Continued...

Proof.
If h 6= 0, then

f (c + h) = f (c) + f (c + h) f (c)
f (c + h) f (c)
= f (c) + .h
h

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 4 / 12

Proof Continued...

Proof.
If h 6= 0, then

f (c + h) = f (c) + f (c + h) f (c)
f (c + h) f (c)
= f (c) + .h
h
Taking the limit, as h 0, we get,

f (c + h) f (c)
lim f (c + h) = lim f (c) + lim . lim h = f (c)
h0 h0 h0 h h0

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 4 / 12

Intermediate Value Property of Derivatives

Theorem
If a and b are any two points in an interval on which f is differentiable,
0 0 0
then f takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 5 / 12

Intermediate Value Property of Derivatives

Theorem
If a and b are any two points in an interval on which f is differentiable,
0 0 0
then f takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).

QUESTION:
Can every function be a derivative of some other function?

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 5 / 12

Intermediate Value Property of Derivatives

Theorem
If a and b are any two points in an interval on which f is differentiable,
0 0 0
then f takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).

QUESTION:
Can every function be a derivative of some other function?

Remark
When can a function be the derivative of another function?

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 5 / 12

Intermediate Value Property of Derivatives

Theorem
If a and b are any two points in an interval on which f is differentiable,
0 0 0
then f takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).

QUESTION:
Can every function be a derivative of some other function?

Remark
When can a function be the derivative of another function? - This was one
of the central questions of in all of calculus.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 5 / 12

Intermediate Value Property of Derivatives

Theorem
If a and b are any two points in an interval on which f is differentiable,
0 0 0
then f takes on every value between f (a) and f (b).

QUESTION:
Can every function be a derivative of some other function?

Remark
When can a function be the derivative of another function? - This was one
of the central questions of in all of calculus. We will discuss the answer to
this question as the course progresses.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 5 / 12

The Chain rule

When we have composition of two or more functions, how do we handle

taking the derivative? For example, if f (x) = sin(x 2 4), what is its
derivative. Of course, we know what the derivative of sin x and the
derivative of x 2 4, are.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 6 / 12

The Chain rule

When we have composition of two or more functions, how do we handle

taking the derivative? For example, if f (x) = sin(x 2 4), what is its
derivative. Of course, we know what the derivative of sin x and the
derivative of x 2 4, are.
Theorem
If f (u) is differentiable at the point u = g (x) and g (x) is differentiable at
x, then the composite function f g (x) = f (g (x)), is differentiable at x
0 0 0
and is given by (f g ) (x) = f (g (x)).g (x).

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 6 / 12

The Chain rule

When we have composition of two or more functions, how do we handle

taking the derivative? For example, if f (x) = sin(x 2 4), what is its
derivative. Of course, we know what the derivative of sin x and the
derivative of x 2 4, are.
Theorem
If f (u) is differentiable at the point u = g (x) and g (x) is differentiable at
x, then the composite function f g (x) = f (g (x)), is differentiable at x
0 0 0
and is given by (f g ) (x) = f (g (x)).g (x).
d(sin(x 2 4))
So, using the theorem above, we get, = cos(x 2 4).2x
dx

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 6 / 12

The Chain rule

When we have composition of two or more functions, how do we handle

taking the derivative? For example, if f (x) = sin(x 2 4), what is its
derivative. Of course, we know what the derivative of sin x and the
derivative of x 2 4, are.
Theorem
If f (u) is differentiable at the point u = g (x) and g (x) is differentiable at
x, then the composite function f g (x) = f (g (x)), is differentiable at x
0 0 0
and is given by (f g ) (x) = f (g (x)).g (x).
d(sin(x 2 4))
So, using the theorem above, we get, = cos(x 2 4).2x
dx
EXERCISE:

Find the derivative of y = x 2 + 1, y = tan (5 sin 2t).

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 6 / 12

Chain Rule

EXERCISE:
Suppose that f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = |x|. Then the composite function,
|x|2 = x 2 is differentiable at x = 0, even though g itself is not
differentiable at x = 0. Does this contradict the Chain Rule?

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 7 / 12

Chain Rule

EXERCISE:
Suppose that f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = |x|. Then the composite function,
|x|2 = x 2 is differentiable at x = 0, even though g itself is not
differentiable at x = 0. Does this contradict the Chain Rule?

Implicit Differentiation
Let us now review the important concept of implicit differentiation.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 7 / 12

Chain Rule

EXERCISE:
Suppose that f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = |x|. Then the composite function,
|x|2 = x 2 is differentiable at x = 0, even though g itself is not
differentiable at x = 0. Does this contradict the Chain Rule?

Implicit Differentiation
Let us now review the important concept of implicit differentiation.
EXAMPLE:
dy
Find , if y 2 = x.
dx

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 7 / 12

Chain Rule

EXERCISE:
Suppose that f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = |x|. Then the composite function,
|x|2 = x 2 is differentiable at x = 0, even though g itself is not
differentiable at x = 0. Does this contradict the Chain Rule?

Implicit Differentiation
Let us now review the important concept of implicit differentiation.
EXAMPLE:
dy
Find , if y 2 = x.
dx
dy dy 1
Differentiating both sides, 2y = 1, which means, = .
dx dx 2y

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 7 / 12

EXERCISE:
dy
Find , if 2y = x 2 + sin y .
dx

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 8 / 12

EXERCISE:
dy
Find , if 2y = x 2 + sin y .
dx

EXERCISE:
d 2y
Find , if 2x 3 3y 2 = 7.
dx 2

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 8 / 12

EXERCISE:
dy
Find , if 2y = x 2 + sin y .
dx

EXERCISE:
d 2y
Find , if 2x 3 3y 2 = 7.
dx 2

Remark
Slope of the tangent to a curve f (x) at a point x0 , is given by the
0
derivative f (x0 ).

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 8 / 12

Related Rates

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 9 / 12

Related Rates

QUESTION:
How rapidly will the fluid level inside a vertical cylindrical tank drop if we
pump the fluid out at the rate of 3000 L/min?

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 9 / 12

Related Rates

QUESTION:
How rapidly will the fluid level inside a vertical cylindrical tank drop if we
pump the fluid out at the rate of 3000 L/min?

QUESTION:
A hot-air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by a range
finder 500m from the lift off point. At the moment the range finders

elevation angle is , the angle is increasing at the rate of 0.14rad/min.
4
How fast is the balloon rising at the moment?

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 9 / 12

Related Rates

QUESTION:
How rapidly will the fluid level inside a vertical cylindrical tank drop if we
pump the fluid out at the rate of 3000 L/min?

QUESTION:
A hot-air balloon rising straight up from a level field is tracked by a range
finder 500m from the lift off point. At the moment the range finders

elevation angle is , the angle is increasing at the rate of 0.14rad/min.
4
How fast is the balloon rising at the moment?

QUESTION:
Water runs into a conical tank at the rate of 9 m3 /min. The tank stands
point down and has a height of 10m and a base radius of 5m. How fast is
the water level rising when the water is 6m deep?
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 9 / 12
Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12

Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application. One of the simplest such
approximation is linearization.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12

Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application. One of the simplest such
approximation is linearization. As we move closer and closer to a point at
which a function is differentiable, it resembles its tangent more and more.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12

Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application. One of the simplest such
approximation is linearization. As we move closer and closer to a point at
which a function is differentiable, it resembles its tangent more and more.
We exploit this fact to come up with the approximation of the function at
the point.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12

Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application. One of the simplest such
approximation is linearization. As we move closer and closer to a point at
which a function is differentiable, it resembles its tangent more and more.
We exploit this fact to come up with the approximation of the function at
the point.
If f is differentiable at x = a, then the approximating function,
0
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x a)

is the linearization of f at a.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12

Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application. One of the simplest such
approximation is linearization. As we move closer and closer to a point at
which a function is differentiable, it resembles its tangent more and more.
We exploit this fact to come up with the approximation of the function at
the point.
If f is differentiable at x = a, then the approximating function,
0
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x a)

is the linearization of f at a. The approximation

f (x) L(x)

of f by L is the standard linear approximation of f at a.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12

Linearization
Suppose we want to approximate a complicated function with a simple one
that is accurate enough for our application. One of the simplest such
approximation is linearization. As we move closer and closer to a point at
which a function is differentiable, it resembles its tangent more and more.
We exploit this fact to come up with the approximation of the function at
the point.
If f is differentiable at x = a, then the approximating function,
0
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x a)

is the linearization of f at a. The approximation

f (x) L(x)

of f by L is the standard linear approximation of f at a. The point

x = a is the center of the approximation.
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 10 / 12
Linearization and Differentials

EXAMPLE:
0 1
1 + x at x = 0. f (x) = (1 + x)1/2 .
Find the linearization of f (x) =
0
2
We have f (0) = 1 and f (0) = 1/2, giving the linearization

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 11 / 12

Linearization and Differentials

EXAMPLE:
0 1
1 + x at x = 0. f (x) = (1 + x)1/2 .
Find the linearization of f (x) =
0
2
We have f (0) = 1 and f (0) = 1/2, giving the linearization

0 1 x
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x a) = 1 + (x 0) = 1 +
2 2

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 11 / 12

Linearization and Differentials

EXAMPLE:
0 1
1 + x at x = 0. f (x) = (1 + x)1/2 .
Find the linearization of f (x) =
0
2
We have f (0) = 1 and f (0) = 1/2, giving the linearization

0 1 x
L(x) = f (a) + f (a)(x a) = 1 + (x 0) = 1 +
2 2

EXERCISE:

Find the linearization of f (x) = cos x at x = .
2

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 11 / 12

Differential
Definition
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an
independent variable. The differential dy is
0
dy = f (x)dx

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 12 / 12

Differential
Definition
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an
independent variable. The differential dy is
0
dy = f (x)dx

Remark
We use the Leibniz notation dy /dx to represent the derivative of y with
respect to x.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 12 / 12

Differential
Definition
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an
independent variable. The differential dy is
0
dy = f (x)dx

Remark
We use the Leibniz notation dy /dx to represent the derivative of y with
respect to x. Contrary to its appearance, it is not a ratio. The above
definition introduces two new variables, dx and dy with the property that
when their ratio exists, it is equal to the derivative.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 12 / 12

Differential
Definition
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an
independent variable. The differential dy is
0
dy = f (x)dx

Remark
We use the Leibniz notation dy /dx to represent the derivative of y with
respect to x. Contrary to its appearance, it is not a ratio. The above
definition introduces two new variables, dx and dy with the property that
when their ratio exists, it is equal to the derivative. Geometrically
speaking, the differential dy is the change in the linearization of f when
x = a changes by an amount dx = x.

Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 12 / 12

Differential
Definition
Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The differential dx is an
independent variable. The differential dy is
0
dy = f (x)dx

Remark
We use the Leibniz notation dy /dx to represent the derivative of y with
respect to x. Contrary to its appearance, it is not a ratio. The above
definition introduces two new variables, dx and dy with the property that
when their ratio exists, it is equal to the derivative. Geometrically
speaking, the differential dy is the change in the linearization of f when
x = a changes by an amount dx = x. The differential dy represents the
amount the tangent line rises or falls when x changes by an amount
dx = x.
Chandra Vaidyanathan (DSU) Continuity and Derivatives September 7, 2015 12 / 12