CHAPT::K: 7 Measurements of Force, Torque, Acceleration and Vibration 161

.r
easurement of t-orce, Spring alloys are used for spring materials and refinements
high accuracy over the ambient temperature
in construction
range from approximately
are effected in order to attain
ooe to S06C:
The ordinary springs are capable for giving results accurately within the accuracy of 0.5 to 1.0%.

Torque, Acceleration 7.1.3 Proving Rings

\

I and Vibrations The proving rings are steel rings which are used as force standards. They are particularly useful for calibration
of material testing machines in situations where dead weight standards are impracticable to use on account
-I of their physical bulk.

The proving rings are most commonly used in industries for measurement of very heavy forces.
The proving (stress) ring is a ring of known physical dimensions and mechanical properties. On the
7.1 MEASUREMENT OF FORCE application of an external compressive or tensile load to the lugs or external bosses,the ring changes
.7.1 Measurement of Force ,
" ..:.Scales 'andBal'lnc~s - Springs in diameter; the change being proportional to the applied force. The deflection of the ring is
Force is defined as any cause that produces, stops or changes the
- Proving RIngs": Load Cells measured by means of a micrometer screw and a vibrating reed which are attached to the internal
motion of a body or tends to produce these effects.
'7.2 MeasUi-emeritofTofq~e
~.-,.. " ~' bosses. During use the tip of the micrometer is advanced and its contact with the reed is indicated by

'
I,.. An unknown
incorporating
force
the following
may be measured
principles:
by the methods " "',."
. _.

"- Introduction-- Torque

Measuring Metholis' ...
considerable damping of the reed vibration. The difference in readings of the micrometer before and
after the application of load gives the amount
" 13 MeaSuteriient of Acceleration
I 1. Balancing the force against a known gravitational force on of compression or the elongation of the ring.
- Piezo-electric Acceleromeler- 1-- External boss
It :' a standard mass, ..Scales and balances Seismic Accelerometer .'. The deflection of the ring can also be measured
2. Translating the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring by using L VDT which senses the movement of
I f "~I the resulting pressure.
,. 7.4 Measurement of Vibrations ;
-,Intio~!"c!!p~ - Causes of ." . a core which is attached to the ring and moves
Internal
boss :::1

II:' :;
'" Yibrations in Machines and their
'" :: ... Hydraulic and pneumatic load cells
Harmful Effects - Methods of
due to deflection of the ring .
, -.~I
f:! 3. Applying the force to some elastic member and then measuring The maximum deflection is typically of the
. \ \ Vibrating 1111
111
Vibration - Measurement . reed
t ". the resulting deflection. ...Proving ring - Highlights - Theoretical q~de-rijf. 1 percent of the outside diameter of
4, Applying the force to a known mass and then measuring the Proving
I' -.
1,,'1
Questions the ring. Micrometer \ \ 1
ring
\, .~~ resulting acceleration. Proving rings are normally used for force
: ~ ~I

1I :l~. 5. Balancing
interaction
the force against a magnetic force developed
of a magnet and a current carrying coil.
by within the range of 2 kN to 2MN.
t".
The rings are very stable and accurate to
''1
..~;, ", 0.1 percent but because deflection is not
7.1.1 Scales and Balances linear the actual force is determined by Fig. 7.1 Proving ring,
reference to a calibration curve.
A weighing machine, commercially known as scales is used for the measurement of force and torque by
comparison of weights. It is based on the principle of equilibrium, produced by two torques as a result of
forces acting at equal or different distances from the fulcrum. The "even-arm balance" and "even-arm
7.1.4 Load Cells
scale" are seldom usedfor force measurement because of the time consumed in the measuring operation. Load cells are elastic devices that can be used for measurement of force through indirect methods i.e.,
The beam scale is used for spring-testing devices because its accuracy permits testing a wide range of through use of secondary transducers.
springs with high accuracy. Load cells utilize .an elastic member as the primary transducer and strain ga~ges as secondary transducer.
The use of pendulum scales requires that the force should be steady for 2 to 3 seconds for the scale to When the combination of the strain gauge-elastic member is used for weighing, it is called a "load cell".
come to rest. While designing load cells using strain gauges the following factors should be considered:

(i) Stiffness of the elastic element.

7.1.2 Springs
(ii) Optimum positioning of gauges on the element.
The springs are frequently used for the measurement of force.
1~,ii:; (iii)' Provision for compensation of the temperature.
I~I l~ The spring scales are available in capacities from a few 'grams to 20000 kg or more.
:1 J' , Whe~ large loads are to be measured, the direct tensile-compressive member may be used, whereas, in I II
case of small loads, strain amplification provided by bending may be used with advantage.
II"
liQ , 160
'1::1,
 k of Measurement and Metrology
CHAPTER: 7 Measurements of Force, Torque, Acceleration and Vibration 163
eulic Load Cell
7.1.4.4 Piezo-electric Load Cells
.LJshows a hydraulic load cell.
The principle of working of a piezo-electric load cell is that when pressure is applied across certain crystals
dere the force variable is impressed upon a diaphragm which deflects and thereby transmits the force to (quartz etc.) then an electrical charge proportional to the pressure is developed across certain well-defined
iquid. The liquid medium contained in a confined space, has a preload pressure of 2 bar. On the application 'aces of the crystal.
of the force the liquid pressure increases and equals the force magnitude divided by the effective area of the
These are used for measuring forces, particularly of a transient or rapidly changing variety.
diaphragm. The pressure is transmitted to and read on an accurate pressure gauge' calibrated directly on force
units. Suitable for measuring forces from 5 N to 20 kN.

These cells have been used to measure loads upto about 25 MN (with an accuracy
scale); resolution is about 0.02 per cent.

~\ Pressure
gauge
(p ec F)
of 0.1% offull
7.2 MEASUREMENT

7.2.1 Introduction
OF TORQUE

To transmit energy by rotation it necessary

tangentially and in the plane of transverse
Q
to apply a turning force. In case of a shaft if the force is applied
cross-section the torque or twisting moment may be calculated by
Force, F multiplying the force with the radius of the shaft. If the shaft is subjected to two opposite turning moments it
is said to be in pure torsion and it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross-section which is
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
The measurement of torque is carried out because of the reasons:

(0 It is of considerable interest for its own sake;

,-
."
,(ii) It is required to obtain load information
(iii) It is often associated with determination
necessary
of mechanical
for stress and deflection
power.
analysis;
..
.'
;~
:::
7.2.2 Torque Measurement Methods i~
Torque may be measured by the following methods:
.'
t'
Fig. 7.2 Hydraulic load cell. 1. Gravity balance method.
2. Mechanical torsion meter. t'
7.1.4.2 Pneumatic Load Cell 3. Optical torsion meter.
4. Electrical torsion meter.
This cell operates on the force-balance principle. It employs a nozzle-flapper transducer similar to the
conventional relay system. For any constant applied force, the system attains equilibrium at a specific nozzle 5. Strain-gauge torsion meter.
opening and corresponding pressure is indicated by the height of mercury column in a manometer.
1. Gravity balance method
The commercially available load cells (operating on this principle) can measure loads upto 25 kN This method is illustrates in Fig. 7.3. A mass m is moved along an arm until the value of the torque exerted by
with an accuracy of 0.5% of full scale.
the mass balances the unknown torque.

7.1.4.3 Strain Gauge Load Cells Unknown torque, T= Fx r ...(7.1) Arm

These cells convert weight or force into electrical outputs which are provided by the strain gauges; these
where, F = mg = force exerted by the mass

outputs can be connected to various measuring instruments for indicating, recording and controlling the This method utilizes the movement of a constant
weight or force. mass, m, over a variable distance. Alternatively,
Usually the strain gauges are directly applied to the force-developing device, and the device is calibrated magnitude of the mass may be varied, keeping the
against strain-gauge output. radius (r) constant. T = Unknown
These are .excellent force-measuring devices, particularly for transient and non-steady forces. In both of the above cases, the arm must be kept torque

These are used in conjunction with eRO (for display purposes) for measurement of rapidly changing horizontal so that arm distance is perpendicular to
the line of action of force. Since the shaft is supported Bearing F = mg
loads. ~~~
at the bearing, there may be a friction torque (due to Fig. 7.3 Gravity balance method.
 erement and Metrology CHAPTER: 7 Measurements of Force, Torque, Acceleration and Vibration 165

.mng) leading to error in the measurement of torque. This error may be eliminated (II) A measure of the time between pulses from the two wheels, this signal is proportional to the twist 8
equal and opposite force. and hence T, in the shaft.
By combining the above two signals, T and 0), the power being transmitted by the shaft can be calculated .
J torsion meter:
..ving relationship holds good (within elastic limits) for the angular deflection of a shaft subject to Strain-gauge torsion meter:
.. ure 7.6 shows a general configuration of a strain gauge bridge circuit widely employed for torque
T t C8 ,,/lII/S/lrementfrom a rotating shaft.
-=-=- ...(7.2)
Ip r I
Shaft
ere, T: = Torque transmitted by the shaft,
Ip = Polar moment of inertia of the shaft section, Rg2' ,Rg..
t = Maximum shear stress induced at the outside surface, Axis of- . ._ . "':~~4.5:'" . Strain
r = Radius at which maximum shear stress occurs, rotation
,.~ '-::J 45 gauges

Rg,/' ',Rg3
I
C = Modulus of rigidity of the shaft material,
8 = Angular twist, and
I = Length of the shaft over which the twist is measured.
rl~Q~1
The above relation gives: ~O,,~,.... \:'
Si
T = ( I: )x t,. or, T = constant x t ...(7.3) .~ ,

'~:i
....
j"
-,.
T=(I~C}8, or, T=constantx8 ...(7.4)
11'1
:!~
Thus, torque (T) can be calculated by measuring either the :
ximum shear stress co
or the angle of twist (8). '::1
In a mechanical torsion meter (Fig. 7.4) the angular
lection of a parailellength of shaft is used to measure torque. I~
Rotating I IIII I '1
: angular twist over a fixed length of the bar is observed on shaft ~~i
.alibrated disc (attached to the rotating shaft) by using the Fig. 7.6 Strain gauge torsion-meter.
"
p~oscopic effect of intermittent viewing and persistence of
$mOO""" ~
'onstruction. Four bonded-wire straia gauges are mounted on a 45 helix with the axis of rotation; and are
ion.
placed inpairs diametrically opposite. When the gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristics,
As the torque changes, the system gives a varying angle
Fig. 7.4 Mechanical torsion meter. the system is temperature compensated and insensitive to bending anti thrust or pull effects. Any change in
twist between the driving engine and the driven load.
the gauge circuit then results only from torsional deflection. .
Optical torsio~ meter: Working. When the shaft is under torsion, gauges 1 and 4 will elongate as a result of the tensile component
this meter the angular twist of a .rotating shaft is detected by an optical method. of a pure shear stress on one diagonal axis, while 2 and 3 will contract due to compressive component on the
other diagonal axis. These tensile and compressive principal strains can be measured and hence shaft torque
Electrical torsion meter: calculated.
Slotted disc
gure 7.5 shows such a
system using two
Advanl4ges:
otoelectric or magnetic transducers, involving
o sets of measurements:
(I) A count of the impulse from either slotted
~-,-,-,-,pJ This arrangement has the following advantages;
1. Fully temperature compensated.
wheel; this count gives the frequency yf Transducer -t"'1'--- Leads to
electronic unit 2. Gives the maximum sensitivity for a given torque.
shaft speed/ 3. Provides automatic compensation for bending and axial loads.
Fig. 7.5 Electrical torsion meter.
 .oook of Measurement and Metrology c;:..: ..:;..~--=:~:-; Measurements of Force, Torque, Acceleration and Vibration 167

Advantages:

."in limitation/difficulty associated with the use of this arrangement is the connection of the bridge I, I. Small size and a small weight.
power source and display arrangement. Slip rings are used for this purpose. These are conducting rill~' 2. High output impedance.
attached to the shaft, but insulated from it, with one of the slip rings connected to each of the bridge terminal 'j
3. Can measure acceleration from a fraction of g to thousands of g.
Slip rings are mercury filled and transmit the signal to a stationary member where it is amplified and dlsplayed 4. High sensitivity,
or recorded. 5. High frequency response (10 Hz to 50 kHz).

Good results from the strain gauge method are available only when the shaft experiences sufficient Disadvantages:
strain to produce a measurable output signal. In case the torque is small the gauge bridge wi II nlll
1. Unsuitable for applications where the input frequency is lower than 10 Hz,
give adequate output signal for measurement. In such cases z flexible coupling is introduced in thl'
2. Subject to hysteresis errors,
shaft. The coupling incorporates one or more elastic members (elastic member may be a different
3. Sensitive to temperature changes,
shaft or a commercial torque meter) to which the gauge may be attached. The elastic members are S(I

designed that they produce sufficiently large deflection even under light load conditions. This large 7.3.2 Seismic Accelerometer
deflection produces large strains resulting in large output of the strain gauge bridge,
In a seismic (displacement sensing) accelerometer, the displacement of a mass resulting from the applied
7.3 MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION force is measured and correlated to the acceleration,

Housing frame
The acceleration of a moving body is generally measured by means of sensors called accelerometers. FOI'
measurement of acceleration, generally following types of accelerometers are used:
Displacement
I. Piezoelectric type transducer
2. Seismic type.

7.3.1 Piezo-electric Accelerometer

.
,-

Refer to Fig. 7,7. A piezo-electric accelerator is probably the simplest and most commonly used transducer for
measuring acceleration.

onstruction. It consists of a piezoelectric crystal sandwitched between two electrodes and has mass placed
on it. The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration characteristics are to be obtained. The can threaded
to the base acts as a spring and squeezes the mass against the crystal. Mass exerts a force on the crystal and
a certain voltage output is generated. Fig. 7.8 Schematic diagram of a seismic transducer,

Working. When the base is accelerated

A schematic diagram of this accelerator is shown in Fig. 7.8. The mass is connected through, the parallel
downward inertial reaction force on the base
spring and damper arrangement to the housing frame. The housing frame is connected to the source of
acts upward against the top of the can. This vibrations whose characteristics are to be measured. The mass has tendency to remain fixed to its spatial
relieves Stress on the crystal. According to position so that the vibrational motion is registered as a relative displacement between mass and housing
Newton's second law of motion,jorce = mass frame. This displacement is sensed and indicated by an appropriate transducer.
x acceleration, since the mass is a fixed
Base
This accelerometer may also be used as a vibration sensor (vibration refers to the repeated cyclic
quantity, the decrease in force is
oscillations of a system).
proportional to the acceleration. Similarly,
an acceleration in the upward direction
would increase the force on the crystal in
proportion to the acceleration. The resulting
Acceleration .1 7.4 MEASUREMENT

7.4.1 Introduction
OF VIBRATIONS

change in the output voltage is recorded

Fig. 7.7 Piezo-electric accelerometer.
and correlated to the acceleration imposed If the displacement time variation is generally in continuous form with some degree of repetitive nature, it is
on the base. called a vibration, When the action is of single event form, a transient, with the motion generally decaying or
damping out before further action takes place, then this may be referred to a shock.

_._--- ..----- ... d_~

 .easurernent and Metrology
CHAPTER: 7 Measurements of Force, Torque, Acceleration and Vibration 169
vibrations may be made with a transducer sensitive to amplitude (displacement).
6. Timely replacement of worn out moving parts, slides and bearings with excessive clearance.
ration. The output of this transducer after necessary signal conditioning is fed to the
7. Isolating vibrations from other machines and sources by providing vibration insulation pads in the
. indicates the original measured variable or another variable derived from it either through
machine foundations.
.z or differentiation. Since the output of the transducer is pulsating the frequency may be measured
8. Making machine foundations on compact ground and making them sufficiently strong, so that they
.igital frequency meter at a suitable stage of signal conditioning process.
do not yield or settle under the load of the machine.

7.4.2 Causes of Vibrations in Machines, Their Harmful Effects and Remedies

7.4.3 Methods of Vibration Measurements
Causes of vibrations:
The methods of vibration measurement may be classified as follows:
Some of the important causes of vibrations in machines are listed below:
1. Methods based on sensory perception-Vibrating wedge.
1. Unbalanced reaprocating machine parts.
2. Mechanical methods-Dial type of micrometer.
2. Unbalanced rotating machine parts.
3. Electrical methods.
3. Incorrect alignment of the transmission elements such as coupling etc.
4. Optical Methods.
4. Use of simple spur gears for power transmission.
S. Worn out teeth of the gears for power transmission. The following are the instruments which are used for the measurement of vibrations:
6. Impact taking parts of the machines or explosion or impact of working fluids in prime movers. (i) Absolute vibration sensor.
7. Loose transmission belts and chains. (ii) Electro-mechanical relative vibration pick-up for rectilinear vibrations.
8. Loose fastenings of the moving parts. (iii) . Relative displacement pick-up with differential transformer.
9. Vibration waves from other sources and machines installed nearby, due to improper isolation of (iv) Electromagnetic relative vibration pick-up.
vibrations fromthem. (v) Strain gauges:
10. Due to more material contact such as bases plates on the foundations for the pedestal bearings.
Frequency meter
II. Non-rigid machine foundations due to lack of compact soil below, causing settlement of foundation
Phase indicator
which may, in turn cause misalignment of machine components. ~
Vibrometers.
Harmful effects ofvibrations:

Some of the harmful effects of vibrations in the machines are as follows: HIGHLIGHTS
1. Excessive wear of machine components resulting in reduction in their useful life.
I. An unknownforce may be measured by the following:
2. Machine parts are subjected to excessive stresses and strains.
(z) Scales and balances; (il) Springs;
3. Machine components may fail due to fatigue failure.
(iiz) Proving rings; (iv) Load cells.
4. Reduction in useful life of buildings and structures around the machines.
2. Load cells are elastic devices that can be used for measurement of force through indirect methods, i.e., through use
5. Workers and other human beings around the machines are subjected to discomfort in the form of of secondary transducers.
physical and mental strains. 3. Torque may be measured by the following methods:
6. In case of machine tools and other production machinery poor finish on the work is produced. (z) Gravity balance method (ii) Mechanical torsion meter
(iil) Optical torsion meter (iv) Electrical torsion meter,
Remedies:
(v) Strain-gauge torsion meter.
Although it is impossible to eliminate the vibrations, yet these can be reduced by adopting various remedies, 4. The following methods may be used to measure vibrations:
some of the remedies are listed below: (z) Vibrating wedge; (iz) Dial type micrometer;
(iil) Electrical method; (iv) Optical methods.
I. Partial balancing of reciprocating masses.
2. Balancing of unbalanced rotating masses.
3. Using helical gears instead of spur gases. THEO'RETICAi.. QUESTIONS
4. Proper tightening and locking of fastenings and periodically ensuring it again .:
1. How is an unknown force measured?
5. Correcting the mis-alignment of rotating components and checking it from time to time.
2. What is a proving ring? How is it used to measure force?
 "'---

8.1 SEISMIC ACCELEROMETERS (upTU2011-12,6Marks]

CHAPTER These make use of a spring-mass damper system. The mass is connected to the housing frame using
spring on one side and a damper on the opposite side, On the third side, a suitable displacement
transducer is connected with mass and housing frame as shown in figure 8.1. The instrument is placed
on the vibrating body, appropriately connected so as to measure the vibration characteristics. While the
housing frame tends to viberate along with the vibrating body, the seismic mass has the tendency to
remain fixed in its spatial position due to inertia. Hence, the vibrational motion is registered as relative

VIBRATION MEASUREMENT displacement between mass and the housing frame. This displacement is indicated by the displacement
transducer. Seismic accelerometer can be used to indicate displacement or acceleration for vibration
measurement. For displacement indication, a large mass and a soft spring arc desirable, while for
acceleration indication, small mass but a stiff spring should be used.

OVERVI EW
B Housing frame
In this chapter we.shall learn .'




Seismic accelerometers
Vibration pickups
Frequency meter
Need of viberation measurement,
X2(t) I Seismic
mass \.-m---I
M
Displacement
transducer
k

8.0 INTRODUCTION ,771"11/)/7/7/////7/7////7//;/17///1//1//////;'////7); t X1 = Xo cos et

Specimen
Vibration is a common physical characteristic found in machines, Vibration refers to repeated cyclic
oscillations of a system, the oscillations may be sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal in nature, vibrations may Fig. 8.1. Seismic acceleromter
be induced due to misalignment of mating parts, unbalanced rotating parts, or external unbalanced forces Damping force at any time is directly proportional to velocity. Using Newton's second law, the
ere. Excessive vibrations in machines can lead to accumalation of stress, fatigue and ultimately failure differential equation for the system can be written as follows.
of parts, It can induce dimensional errors in the components being machined, It can also lead to noise, If M is the seismic mass, B is the damping coefficient and k is the spring stiffness, then
chatter and discomfort to the machinest. Thus, it is of paramount importance to keep viberation at' By force balance
minimum possible level. If a transducer is mounted onto the vibrating body itself, it will provide a 2
reading of absolute vibrations relative to a fixed point in space. However, if the transducer cannot be Bd(xi -X2) k( ) Md x2
dt + XI-x2 = ~
mounted on the vibrating surface due to lack of space or change in effective mass of the part, non-
contacting proximity probe can be used to detect the vibrations. Vibration is generally expressed in turns dZx, dx2 B
dx , kx ... (8.1)
or M--- +B--+kxz = --+ I
of displacement, velocity or acceleration. In the following text, we shall study various vibrations dtZ dt dt
measuring instruments enumerated below: Assuming that a harmonic vibratory motion is impressed on the instrument,
1. Seismic accelerometers displacement XI = Xo COS Olt
These are of following configurations : dXI .
velocity V = - = -(J)X Sin Olt
(I) LVDT accelerometer dt 0
(i/) Strain gauge accelerometer
dv d2xI
(ii/) Piezoelectric accelerometer acceleration a = - e- -- = -(J)2x cos Olt
dt dt2 0
122
 Measurement and Metrology I I Vibration Measurement _
_,t! (() = Znf, fbeing the frequency of viberation.
The strnln gauge senses the strain induced due to viberatory displacement of the seismic mass. The
Our objective is to obtain an expression for relative displacement (x - xI) in terms of viberatory
2 housing fr.unc is filled with damping fluid. This viscous fluid provides necessary damping to the
motion. Solution of equation (8.1) gives
vibrationnl million of seismic mass. The leads of the strain gauges are connected to an appropriate bridge
0) 2 Xo circuit ollt~lllc: the frame whose output indicates the relative displacement between the mass and the
2 housing fuunc,
x - XI = , [1 ( (() 1- \ ')2 { \( \}21~' ( B I 0) 1 Scmlcomtucror strain gauges with piezoresistive sensors can also be used as transducers in such
O)~ I -lO);') + 2lc:)l~J seismic .lu(l\'rometers. These instruments are incorporated with semiconductors bonded to the cantilever
mass. Thr rlcformarion of the mass under the action of viberatory forces is indicated as the change in
where natural frequency (()n and critical damping coefficient Cc are given by resistance which is measured by a wheatstone bridge. During the vibration, while one gauge senses
tension, Iht: other senses the compression.
(j)
n
=

c, = 2.fMk
IE 8.1.3 Plozoelectric Accelerometer
A piezoelectric accelerometer makes use
The phase angle is given by <I> where Housing
of piezo-leuric crystal which when deformend frame
induces clcculc charge over the crystal. The Damping
.I ( B I(ro.LI
tan ~c~H(()) charge so generated is proportional to the acting visciousfluid
<1>= , force. Piezoelectric accelerometer is shown in
1_(0l1- fiigure 8 .3 . It IS use d lor
c: high fr
I equency VIibrati crystal I I
ration Piezoelectric ~- Eo
~(j) measurement. The device is rugged, in
expensive and is commonly used for measuring
The seismic instrument can also be used for measuring velocity of viberations by using a variable
reluctance pickup as the sensing transducer. The output of such a pick will be proportional to relative viberations. It can measure acceleration over a Fig. 8.3. Piezoelectric accelerometer.
wide range but it is prone to hysteresis error
velocity magnitude i.e.,- xI)' It is apparent that seismic accelerometers are very versatile
~(X2 and can also be sensitive to changes in ambient temperature.
dt
instruments, hence have been adopted for many commercial vibration and acceleration pickup
instruments. 8.1.4 Capacitive Accelerometer
In this instrument, a thin diaphragm with spiral flexures acts as Electrode_~ ~
8.1.1 LVDT Accelerometer
spring, mass and moving plate of the differential capacitor. It is
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) has also been employed for measuring relative bounded by spacer and electrode on both sides as shown in figure
displacement between seismic mass and accelerometer housing frame. This device is called LVDT 8.4. The motion of the plate between the two electrodes pumps air
accelerometer however its use is restricted to low frequency response applications. It is lighter in through holes in the plate to provide squeeze film damping action. spacer_~ ~
construction and has good resolution.

8.1.2 Strain Gauge Accelerometer [UPTU 2014-15, 6 Marks} 8.2 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE ACCELEROMETER
seismiC_~
The electrical-resistance strain gauge can also be employed as displacement transducer. The sesrnic It works on the principle that force acting on the mass in proportional element ~
mass is mounted at the end of the cantilever and the strain gauge is bonded on each side of the beam to the acceleration. A variable reductance accelerometer is shown in
as shown in figure 8.2.

Housing -------------
figure 8.5. It consists of iron mass suspended by cantilever springs.
There is one E-shaped iron frame on either side of the mass which
is excited by 10 V, 10000 Hz AC voltage. When the instrument is
spacer_~ )
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~ Strain gauge
Oamping fluid
exposed to vibrations, the springs supporting the mass deflects in
proportion to the acceleration. Thus, displacement measurement is
Electrode_~: ~
used for acceleration measurement. The iron mass serves two
Cantilever beam
functions. It acts as inertial element and transduces acceleration to
force, at the same time it acts as a magnetic circuit element and Fig. 8.4. Capacitive
===== == ===== ==== ===== == ===. accelerometer.
transduces motion to reluctance. A suitable external circuit is used
Fig. 8.2. Strain gauge accelerometer. to obtain the output.

---rmr' m:-r'ffiIWYTPT~""" == 'W \&i!i \lDDtqm i!&B tiM ~ -"