Important Works For Drum Set As A Multiple Percussion Instrument

University of Iowa
Iowa Research Online

Theses and Dissertations
Spring 2012
Important works for drum set as a multiple

percussion instrument
Kevin Arthur Nichols
University of Iowa
Copyright 2012 Kevin Arthur Nichols
This dissertation is available at Iowa Research Online: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2952
Recommended Citation
Nichols, Kevin Arthur. "Important works for drum set as a multiple percussion instrument." DMA (Doctor of Musical Arts) thesis,
University of Iowa, 2012.
http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2952.
Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd
Part of the Music Commons

IMPORTANT WORKS FOR SOLO DRUM SET
AS A MULTIPLE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENT
by
An essay submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the
Doctor of Musical Arts degree
in the Graduate College of
The University of Iowa
May 2012
Essay Supervisor: Professor Daniel Preston Moore

Graduate College
The University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
_____________________________
D.M.A. ESSAY
_____________
This is to certify that the D.M.A. essay of
has been approved by the Examining Committee for the essay requirement for the Doctor
of Musical Arts degree at the May 2012 graduation.
Essay Committee: ______________________________

Daniel P. Moore, Essay Supervisor
______________________________
David Gier
______________________________
Richard Heidel
______________________________
William LaRue Jones
______________________________
Kevin Kastens
Dedicated with love to Thea, Samantha, and Charley
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To Dr. Dan Moore whose support, patience, and unselfish giving of time is most
appreciated. To Mark Austill whose proofreading has been helpful and being my musical
sibling has been inspirational. To Josephine Gilmore who has edited this document,
motivated me for the past seven years, and helped make this project possible. Finally, I
would like to thank Phyllis and Richard Nichols whose nurturing let me be myself, a
musician.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES vi
CHAPTER ONE JUSTIFICATION 1
Introduction 1
Purpose of the study 3
Survey and review of existing research 4
Method of research 6
Delimitations of Study 8
CHAPTER TWO DEFINITION AND EXPANSION OF THE DRUM SET 9

CONCEPT
Brief History of the Early Formation of the Drum Set 9

Double Drumming 10
Bass Drum Pedal 11
Cymbals 12
From Low Boy to High Hat 13
Ride Cymbal 14
Advent of the Trap Set 15
Tom Toms 16
Established Fundamental Configuration 16
Initial Role of the Drum Set and its Evolution in Popular Music 17
Evolution of Soloing 18
Significant Artists Who have Contributed to Drum Set Vocabulary 21
Warren Baby Dodds 21
Max Roach 23
Elvin Jones 25
Ed Blackwell 26
Milford Graves 28
Terry Bozzio 29
Fritz Hauser 31
Glenn Kotche 32
Conclusion 36
CHAPTER THREE ANNOTATED LIST OF COMPOSITIONS FOR SOLO 37

DRUM SET
Annotation components 37
Compositions 38
Cage, John. One4 for Solo Drummer (1990). Edition
Peters/Henmar Press, Inc. New York, NY 38
Cucinotta, Cucinotta. The Sky is Waiting(1977).
Lang Percussion, Inc. New York, NY 44
iv
Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979). Hinricshen Editions/
Peters Edition, LTD. London 54
Mercer, Janis. Air (1988; revised 1993-4). Media Press.
Champaign, IL 62
Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001). Smith Publications.
Baltimore, MD 75
Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002). Kris Tiner,
ASCAP. San Diego, CA 81
Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No.1 (1976). Munchkin Music 86
CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH 91
Conclusion 91
Suggestions for Future Research 92
APPENDIX A: SOLO LITERATURE 94
APPENDIX B: E-MAIL INTERVIEWS 110
BIBLIOGRAPHY 125

v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Basic drum set configuration: 1. snare drum, 2. mounted tom, 3. bass drum,
4. floor tom. Grey circles represent cymbals - (clockwise starting with bottom
left: high hat, crash cymbal, and ride cymbal. 17
Figure 2. Milford Graves drum set configuration, 1993. 1. snare drum, 2. Left side
bass drum, 3. bongo drum, 4. mounted tom, 5. Right side bass drum, 6. Floor tom.
Grey circles represent cymbals: high hat and ride cymbal. Other percussion:
woodblock, talking drum, wall of small gongs, and large tam tam. 29
Figure 3. Glenn Kotches prepared snare drum. 34
Figure 4. One4 for Solo Drummer (1990) by John Cage 39
Figure 5. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 1. 46
Figure 6. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 5. 47
Figure 7. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 5 49
Figure 8. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting, pg. 5. 49
Figure 9. Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979), pg. 9. 56
Figure 12. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 3. 63
Figure 17. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), introductory page. 69
Figure 19. Drum set performer Bill Bruford and his drum set configuration with remote
cable high hat and placement of toms. 73
vi
Figure 20. Recommended configuration for Air. 1. Bass drum, 2. Snare drum, 3. Small mounted
tom, 4. Medium mounted tom, 5. Floor tom. Also included: high hat, splash cymbal,
crash cymbal, ride cymbal, saron, and gong. 74
Figure 21. Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001), pg. 1. 77
Figure 22. Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001), pg. 2. 79
Figure 23. Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002). 82
Figure 26. Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No. 1 (1976). 88
vii
1
CHAPTER ONE JUSTIFICATION
Introduction
At the start of the twentieth century, the drum set was in its earliest stage of
development. Over time and for many reasons it became necessary for drummers to play
the bass drum and/or cymbals with their feet. Although the drum set as an instrument was
not yet established or even imagined, this new performance practice began to influence
orchestral music with the conception of the multi-percussionist introduced in Igor
Stravinskys Histoire du Soldat (1918).1 Almost immediately, the multi-percussion
performance model rose to a virtuosic paradigm with works by Darius Milhaud, Aaron
Copland, and William Walton.2 In early jazz compositions, the nature of the music as
dance music, defined the drum set performers activity and presence. Drum set
performance practices in the jazz idiom were centered on a supportive or timekeeping
role until the big band swing era.
As jazz drumming evolved through the bebop era, the performers role became
more active in the compositional process. Looking to expand their musical vocabulary,
performers discovered the possibilities of exhibiting melodic and harmonic compositional
techniques on instruments of indefinite pitch. Max Roach (1924 2007) felt that the
drum set was a multi-percussion instrument capable of melodic and harmonic
components, in addition to the rhythmic and pulse oriented roles previously established.3
Performers such as Elvin Jones (1927 2004) continued Roachs performing aesthetic
and expanded the vocabulary with polyrhythms and four-limb technique. Shortly after,
1 Van den Toorn, Pieter C. The Music of Igor Stravinsky. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press, 1983, pg. 198.
2 La Creation du Monde (1923) by Darius Milhaud, Music for Theatre (1925) by Aaron
Copland, Facade (1922) by William Walton.
3 Spagnardi, Ronald. The Great Jazz Drummers. 1992, pg. 42.
2
free jazz performers further applied these skill sets in a more lyrical or speech-like
manner. Performers such as Ed Blackwell (1929 1992) and Milford Graves (b. 1941)
assimilated all of the drums and cymbals into one instrument, masking the steady pulse
with textures and irregular rhythms. As opposed to the original concept of giving the
illusion of many performers, these performers became capable of musical expression in
the same singular voice manner as other instrumentalists.
Although the art form of solo drum set may seem to have come to fruition in the
later part of the twentieth century, some performers explored these ideas from the earliest
days of the instrument. One such catalyst was Warren Baby Dodds (1898 1959), who
in 1946 recorded arguably the first drum solo. Intended to document Dodds artistry for
posterity, the recording also highlighted his, and the instruments, solo voice capability.
Later in the drum set evolution, Max Roach exploited these possibilities further by
presenting complete recordings and solo recitals of his unaccompanied compositions. In
the 1980s and 1990s, Terry Bozzio expanded the art, and advanced technologies in drum
set design, broadening the sound palette. Most recently, Glenn Kotche has contributed to
the art form with his modern approach to the trap set. Kotche utilizes a wide spectrum
of different instrumental components fused with delegation of sound in a dramatic or
programmatic manner. He uses various techniques and implements to manipulate sounds
in the same manner as an academically trained orchestral percussionist, and adds a

prepared element to the instrument, much in the manner of John Cage.
At the time of this writing, there are fewer than 200 published compositions for
unaccompanied solo drum set. Important composers in developing this body of literature
include John Cage, Stuart Saunders Smith, James Dillon, and Frank Zappa. The
Percussive Arts Society (PAS) held international composition competitions in 1980 and
1991 to further develop the body of literature for solo drum set.4
4 http://www.pas.org/experience/contest/solowinners.aspx (accessed October 18, 2011).

3
Purpose of Study
In the initial stages of preparing a solo drum set work, a performer will find three
main obstacles. The first obstacle is that many of these works require a different
prioritization of skill sets. Drum set study is traditionally focused on preparation for
employment, i.e., what technical and musical resources a performer would need to sustain
a career in music as a drummer. The teaching is focused on developing a stylistic
vocabulary, timekeeping ability, and an understanding of contemporary or popular
groove based music. Soloing or melodic playing for many is a small supplement to the
learning process, typically utilizing preconceived jazz melodies and structures presented
through recordings and embellished through improvisation. These works exploit the
melodic side of drum set performance. Although establishing a pulse and keeping time is
an important component, timekeeping is implied and not executed in the same traditional
manner. The second obstacle that these works need to be taught by an instructor who
can decipher unique musical notation well and has the facility to offer technical guidance
is perhaps more critical. Finally, with such a wide spectrum of percussion instruments,
many instructors limit solo literature to snare drum, keyboard percussion, multi-
percussion, and timpani.
At this time, no comprehensive study or method book investigates solo literature

written for drum set as a multi-percussion instrument, or offers applications of such
literature. Most analytical and pedagogical literature for drum set deals with stylistic
concepts, independence development, or transcriptions. The pedagogical literature that
exploits melody-based techniques most often emphasizes improvisation.
While there are a few excellent examples of repertoire for solo drum set, there is
still a need to be filled. It is the authors desire to encourage solo drum set performance
and composition by making this music and these concepts more widely known and
understood.
4
Survey and Review of Existing Research

To the authors knowledge, there has not been a study that expounds the benefits
of studying contemporary compositions for solo drum set. Peter Franklin Pollacks The
Forming of a Literature for the Solo Drum Set (2000) is the only dissertation that
acknowledges a body of works for solo drum set.5 In this document, Pollack offers a
historical view of both the drum set and multi-percussion from an instrumental and
musical perspective. He acknowledges other chamber and orchestral works influenced by
the drum set and early jazz, and presents a brief recognition of artists involved in
presenting the drum set in a soloistic manner. This document does not include a current
comprehensive list of compositions. However, Pollack does offer a detailed description
of performance practices and program philosophy for specific solo works.
Susan Marie Martins A Comprehensive Curriculum for Drum Set in the College
Percussion Studio (1994) compiles a list of books, videos, and recordings that are
marketed as teaching methods.6 For the time of publication, the list is quite
comprehensive. She continues the document with suggestions of literature for different
curricula. Based on students musical and technical needs, the curriculum is intended as a
skeletal plan for university percussion educators to use as a four-year course of study.
Daniel Owen Dunavans document, A Comprehensive Performance Project in

Percussion Literature with an Essay Entitled Some Solutions to the Problem of Reading
Music Written for Drum Set, isolates the nomenclature used in writing drum set parts in
5 Pollack, Peter Franklin. The Forming of a Literature for the Solo Drum Set. DMA
diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2000.
6 Martin, Susan Marie. A Comprehensive Curriculum for Drum Set in the College
Percussion Studio. DMA diss., University of Arizona, 1994.
5
a jazz band situation.7 Dunavan clarifies some of the standard notation for style
requirements, timekeeping, and other performance practices, and offers printed
suggestions for techniques that usually require an improvisational approach.
In Daniel Adams article The Drum Set as a Solo Multiple Percussion
Performance Medium, the author provides concise insight on the history and
performance practices for drum set, as well as information regarding the early evolution
of multiple percussion.8 Adams briefly examines five compositions for drum set, each
work vastly different from the next. He identifies pedagogical benefits such as technical
facility, style development, improvisation development, and the application of rhythm
and timbre. Adams also highlights required skill sets that a performer would need
initially. Excerpts for most of the works are included in the article and assist in a better
understanding of the notation and the composers expectations for the work.
In 1994, Dennis Rogers, Director of Percussion Studies at Missouri Western State
College, wrote an article that identified composed works for drum set as a supplement to
best teach students at the collegiate level.9 Based on his tenure in higher education,
Drum Sets Struggle for Legitimacy recognizes that the study of these works is an
effective component in a comprehensive percussion curriculum. The legitimacy aspect
that he is trying to promote is that it is beneficial to showcase drum set skills on juries
and recitals along with the other areas of percussion study. In addition to his own
compositions, Rogers highlights works by Billy Childs, John Serry, Less Hooper, and
7 Dunavan, Daniel Owen. A Comprehensive Performance Project in Percussion

Literature with an Essay Entitled Some Solutions to the Problem of Reading Music Written for
Drum Set. DMA diss., University of Iowa, 1987.
8 Adams, Daniel. The Drum Set as a Solo Multiple Percussion Performance Medium.
Journal of the National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors. Vol. LII, No. 4,
Spring 2005, pgs. 4-13.
9 Rogers, Dennis G. Drum Sets Struggle for Legitimacy. Percussive Notes. Vol. 32,
No. 3, June 1994, pg. 28.
6
Rod Lincoln. Rogers opinion is that implementation of solo works would be a beneficial
component in structuring a balanced drum set curriculum that fuses of the practical,
theoretical, and pedagogical approaches to drum set study.
Written by Murray Houllif, Benefits of Written-Out Drum Set Solos is an
article that echoes the pedagogical importance mentioned by Rogers.10 With a private
teacher point of view, Houllif makes a case for the use of these composed works as a
springboard in the process of learning improvisation and stylistic attributes in groove
based music. Based on his experiences as a teacher and performer, he believes these solos
will fill a void and expedite the developmental process for students who do not have the
time or patience for the listening and transcribing process that many drummers through
the years have used in their own development. Included in the text are four excerpts of
solos that support the goal of developing appropriate stylistic language.
Method of Research
The author will examine a small body of literature composed for unaccompanied
solo drum set. Specific compositions will be identified for their significance in promoting
personal growth as a drum set artist. In support of this goal, performance practices used
in these particular works will be analyzed. To organize the body of literature, the author
will categorize and develop a list of these works for pedagogical accessibility and
application.
The author will:
1. Consider evolution of the drum set and identify its components.
2. Research the drum sets evolution regarding musical role and language.
3. Collect and study scores of compositions for solo drum set.
10 Houllif, Murray. Benefits of Written-Out Drum Set Solos. Percussive Notes.

February 2006, pgs. 12-14.
7
4. Compile a list of these works with concise information to assist teachers

and performers in choosing a composition to study.
Interview composers to gain a better understanding of specific works.
Following this assessment, approaches and suggestions to aid in a better understanding of
this musical genre will be offered.
In this study, the author will:
1. Define the instrumental setup and variations of the instrument.
2. Discuss the evolution of the drum sets musical role and language.
3. Compile a list of solo works for unaccompanied drum set.
4. Offer a brief description of each work to aid in selecting appropriate
literature, including:
a. Title
b. Composer
c. Publisher/ Availability
d. Time duration of work
e. Level of difficulty to be identified as beginning, intermediate,
intermediate +, advanced, and advanced +
f. Instrumentation basic configuration (bass drum, snare drum,
mounted tom, floor tom, high hat, and two suspended cymbals),
basic configuration + a few duplicate components, extended
instrumentation, and abbreviated instrumentation
g. Notes pedagogical (referring to works that are intended to be a
teaching resource), extended techniques, rhythmic application (odd
groupings, polyrhythms), stylistic elements, and other technical or
compositional attributes
8
5. An annotated bibliography of the following works:
One4 for Solo Drummer (1990) by John Cage

The sky is waiting (1977) by Robert Cucinotta
Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979) by James Dillon
Air (1988; revised 1993-4) by Janis Mercer
Brush (2001) by Stuart Saunders Smith
Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002) by Kris Tiner
The Black Page No.1 (1976) by Frank Zappa
Delimitations of Study
This study will focus on unaccompanied solo literature for drum set. This is
limited to compositions that utilize all four limbs, the configuration contains the core
components (snare drum, bass drum with foot), and where the performer needs to be
sitting down. Works involving electronic percussion are not considered in this document.
Compositions in the annotated bibliography were selected according to the
following criteria:
Originally composed for unaccompanied drum set

Departure from jazz language
Improvisation as a primary or secondary component
Generally, non-idiomatic timekeeping approach to drum set
Integrated melodic and harmonic elements
Intended to expose or express virtuosic capability of instrument

All components integrated equally into the compositional process creating
a unified and cohesive whole
Significant in promoting personal growth
9
CHAPTER TWO DEFINITION AND EXPANSION OF THE

DRUM SET CONCEPT IN CONTEMPORARY MUSIC
Brief History of the Early Formation of the Drum Set

Derived from orchestral practices formulated in previous musical eras, early
twentieth century percussion performances were a collective endeavor. If an orchestral
composition was scored for bass drum, snare drum, and hand cymbals, three
percussionists would be required for the performance. The same practice was
implemented in brass bands of New Orleans. The city, rich with diverse musical cultures,
had an abundance of street performing brass bands. As the activity evolved, several
factors influenced a shift from a multi-performer model within the brass band to a single-
performer on several instruments that would eventually evolve into the drum set.
As the popularity of these brass bands grew, the economics of effectively
managing and sustaining large groups became an issue. If there was a way to achieve the
same sound with fewer personnel, then the bandleader or manager would have fewer
payments to disburse.1 Simultaneously, percussionists were contemplating that if the
same sound could be produced with fewer people, there would be fewer personnel to split
the same funds.2 Both philosophies drove the adaptation of a percussion group (multiple
players with several instruments) into a drum set (one player with many instruments)
concept.
Other factors continued the re-evaluation of performance practices. The brass
bands that once filled the streets began forming smaller ensembles to play indoors for
1 Aukes, Antoon. Second Line: 100 Years of New Orleans Drumming. Oskaloosa, IA:
C.L. Barnhouse Company, 2003, pg. 19.
2 Ibid, pg. 19.
10
dances or concerts.3 Indoors, there was no marching component, alleviating the need for
multiple people to wear and carry multiple instruments.
There might also have been a concern caused by absent performers. With the
percussion section scaled down to just two members, a missing performer had a greater
impact on a performance. Executing the fundamental musical components for bass drum
and snare drum with two fewer hands, the performer needed to come up with a solution
to produce the desired sound. Each of these factors led to a series of adaptations in
technique that paved the way for the modern drum set.
Double Drumming
One of the first adaptations made was to adopt a performance practice called
double drumming.4 The goal was to enable one person to cover multiple instruments,
which required the performer to configure the instruments in close proximity to each
other. In double drumming the performer would sit behind the snare drum, and with the
bass drum on the floor, the drummer could easily reach over to play both drums at the
same time.5 This configuration established the basic concept of the drum set, but many
more technical advancements lay ahead.
The snare drum was the first component recognized to have a need for better
accessibility. Originally, a regular wooden chair was used to position the snare drum off
the floor without the performer having to wear it. In 1898, Ulysses Leedy developed an
3 Ibid, pg. 19.
4 Ibid, pg. 76.
5 In double drumming the bass drum was likely set up to the performers left, which
would accommodate the traditional left hand grip of cradling the stick across the palm between
the thumb and forefinger.
11
adjustable snare drum stand.6 This stand, made of metal tubing, allowed a percussionist
to set up the drum in a position suitable for seated playing. Leedy also, invented a
mechanism that would adjust the angle of the drum to accommodate the traditional left
hand grip. This had the added benefit of making it easier to move between the snare and
bass drum for double drumming.
Although under most conditions both sounds could be generated at the same time,
some techniques and musical gestures that required both hands on the snare drum made it
virtually impossible to integrate both drums. Some drummers may have begun to kick the
drum whenever the hands alone would not effectively execute the music. Arguably, this
is something that may have inspired the next development: the bass drum pedal.
Bass Drum Pedal

In order to facilitate rhythms on the bass drum, inventors developed various
mechanisms to allow a drummer to use a foot to execute them. Looking to assist the
theatre orchestra percussionist, Cornelius Ward, a nineteenth century instrument builder
from London, is documented to have invented the first bass drum foot pedal sometime
before 1850.7 At the beginning of the twentieth century, three types of pedals were in use
in the United States: the heel pedal, the overhanging (or swing) pedal, and the toe pedal.8
All three mechanisms were made of wood and included an attached cymbal striker.
6 Robinson, J. Bradford. Drum Kit. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. http:
//www.oxfordmusic.com.proxy.lib.uiowa.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/42868 (accessed
October 18, 2011).
7 Ibid.
8 Blades, James. Percussion Instruments and Their History. Westport, CT: The Bold
Strummer, LTD, 1992, pg. 473.
12
Apparently short lived, the heel pedal did not attain the popularity of the overhanging
pedal preferred by the New Orleans drummers that became the preferred model.9
Chicago percussionist and inventor, William F. Ludwig, Sr., believed the
overhanging pedal was inadequate.10 Ludwig designed the pedal that would set the
standard for the future: the toe-pedal allowed a percussionist to apply the more natural
motion of tapping the toe to execute the sound. Another advantage over previous designs
was the control the mechanism allowed for a consistent sound. With the beater ball being
pulled directly to the head by the act of pressing on the footplate, the ball struck the head
at a typical beating spot and then rebounded naturally. After Ludwig was awarded a U.S.
patent in 1909, the popularity and availability of his pedal accelerated the evolution of
drum set performance practices.
Cymbals
Due to the role the cymbals played in marching ensembles, early cymbals
available were small in diameter, thick for sake of durability, and had a heavy articulation
appropriate for the volume required outdoors. When incorporated into the drum set,
these cymbals had a singular purpose: to accent and punctuate a phrase, specifically the
shout chorus of a song. Realizing that a thinner cymbal would more effectively blend
with music, performers such as Warren Baby Dodds sought out these cymbals.
The original Turkish marching cymbals were difficult to find at the beginning of
the twentieth century. That changed in 1929 when the Avedis Zildjian Cymbal Company
10 Ludwig, William F. My Life at the Drums. Chicago: WFL Drum Company, 1952, pg.
3.
13
moved from Constantinople, Turkey, to Quincy, Massachusetts.11 With the company

established on U.S. soil, cymbals became readily available. Combined with the
performers preference for thinner cymbals, the savvy business sense of Avedis Zildjian
III opened the doors to performers who began to seek out sounds that would complement
the music and help it evolve.12
From Low Boy to High Hat

Through the 1920s the high hat rapidly evolved as performers discovered and
developed its musical identity. In the early stages of drum set, the non-bass drum foot
would be unutilized. Dodds stated that some performers would physically react to the
music and that other foot would commence stomping or dancing to the rhythms.13
Percussion inventors and performers thought about using the unused limb to do the work
of the brass band bass drummers coat hanger: hitting the backbeat.14
In The Baby Dodds Story: As Told to Larry Gara, Dodds mentions a time in 1919
when William F. Ludwig attended one of his performances to measure his left foot.15
Ludwig constructed a new device by attaching two small cymbals to pieces of wood that
were connected by a hinged joint. Known as the snowshoe, this entire contraption set on
the floor, and resembled the opening and closing of a clam.
11 Cohan, Jon. Zildjian: A History of the Legendary Cymbal Makers. Milwaukee, WI:
Hal Leonard Publishing, 1999, p. 16.
12 Russell, Bill. Baby Dodds: New Orleans Drumming. American Music. New Orleans,
LA, 1953.
13 Gara, Larry. The Baby Dodds Story: As Told to Larry Gara. Alma, Michigan: Rebeats
Publications, 2002, pg. 27.
14
Conceived by Vic Bernton and produced by the Walberg and Auge Company, the
low boy kept the cymbals in a horizontal position, but affixed the bottom cymbal atop a
tube approximately fifteen inches off the floor.16 The advantage of this mechanism was
that if the foot remained stationary after the cymbals struck one another, the cymbals
would cancel the vibration, resulting in a staccato sound. The disadvantage is that the low
profile only allowed the foot to generate a sound. This was clearly an improvement;
however, it did not completely meet the challenge.
In 1927, the Walberg and Auge Company made modifications to the low boy so
that both the feet and the hands could play the component.17 Walberg and Auge extended
the tubing and center post, raising the playing surface to the same height or above the
snare drum, which allowed the performer to play the high hat with sticks.
Ride Cymbal
Larger versions of the thinner cymbals came about in the late 1930s. Renowned
drummer Gene Krupa asked Zildjian to develop a cymbal with a sound that could be used
to generate forward momentum in a piece of music, while still allowing the rest of the
ensemble to be heard.18 While a lot of the early jazz timekeeping was done with the
snare drum, the move toward what became known as the ride cymbal allowed for more
clarity within the ensemble without overpowering other instruments. The ride eventually
became the sonic focal point in timekeeping as jazz progressed through the bebop era.
16 Pinksterboer, Hugo. The Cymbal Book. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Publishing,
1992, pg. 19.
17 Ibid, pg. 20.
18 Cohan, Jon. Zildjian: A History of the Legendary Cymbal Makers. Milwaukee, WI:
Hal Leonard Publishing, 1999, pg. 24.
15
Advent of the Trap Set

Drummers began to collect and add a variety of small accessory instruments to
their setups. This collection of instruments became known as the trap set. In the article
The Heritage of the Drumset, Royal Hartigan states, Snare and bass drums of the
concert and marching bands in New Orleans provide a base to which, from 1900 to 1930,
other accessories or trappings hence the name traps were added.19 The spectrum
of sounds allowed the performer to accompany live theater and films by playing the
music and by accentuating physical and verbal activities. Although some instruments
were from orchestral percussion, others were the result of the cultural influence of a
world event.
That event was the 1884 Worlds Fair hosted by New Orleans.20 As with many of
the early Worlds Fair events, this exposition focused on trade and offered access to
various musical cultures. Drums and percussion are often an integral part of the music of
non-western cultures. The musicians of New Orleans, experiencing this music for the first
time, began to look for ways to incorporate these instruments into their setups. These
instruments included Turkish cymbals, Chinese temple blocks, woodblocks, cymbals, and
tom toms, and African drums and bells.
These international additions were especially important to movie-house
drummers. Temple blocks and woodblocks offered a warm and articulate sound that
imitated the clomping of clog dancers.21 African slaves coming by way of Haiti infused
19 Hartigan, Royal. The Heritage of the Drumset. African American Review, Vol. 29,
No. 2, Special Issues on The Music (Summer, 1995), pg.234
20 Kendall, John. History of New Orleans. The Lewis Publishing Company. Chicago
and New York, 1922
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/Louisiana/New_
Orleans/_Texts/KENHNO/29*.html (accessed October 20, 2011).
21 Smith, Steve. Drumset Technique/History of the U.S. Beat. Hudson Music LLC, 2002
dvd.
16
music with the sound of various bells that eventually led to the adoption of the cowbell, a
variation of the West African Gankoqui bells. Often, the bells were treated as the metallic
siblings of woodblocks, and most performers would have at least two cowbells in their
trap set.
Tom Toms
In addition to wooden accessories, the Chinese culture had an elaborate array of
drums. With an abundance of these drums left behind from the 1884 Worlds Fair,
performers realized how they might complement the snare drum and bass drum.
Unfortunately, these Chinese toms had fixed drumheads, and were heavily affected by the
climate and the physical nature of drumming. Trade restrictions after World War I made
the Chinese toms less accessible.22
As a result, American drum companies begin to manufacture tom-toms. In 1939,
these new toms were designed with modern components to affix and tune a drumhead so
performers now had the capability to personalize their sound. Additionally, toms of
different dimensions became available. An outcome of this development was that drum
sets were available with at least one or two toms mounted to the bass drum. Expanding
this instrumental component further, manufacturers enlarged the drums dimensions,
added legs, and introduced the floor tom to the configuration.
Established Basic Configuration

With the floor tom in place, the basic configuration of the drum set was
established by 1940.23 The configuration consisted of snare drum, bass drum, mounted
22 Robinson, J. Bradford. Drum Kit. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. http:
//www.oxfordmusic.com.proxy.lib.uiowa.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/42868 (accessed
October 18, 2011).
23 Ibid.
17
tom, floor tom, high hat, ride cymbal, and at least one crash cymbal. The configuration is
occasionally referred to as a jazz kit. In figure 1, the diagram displays an overhead
view of a typical setup for the basic configuration.
Figure 1. Basic drum set configuration: 1. snare drum, 2. mounted tom, 3. bass drum,
4. floor tom. Grey circles represent cymbals - (clockwise starting with
bottom left: high hat, crash cymbal, and ride cymbal.
Initial Role of the Drum Set and its Evolution in Popular Music
Initially, the function of drum set was to perpetuate the rhythmic motion/pulse of
a particular piece. Performers would use a series of repeated concise rhythms to audibly
mark the pulse of a composition. The function of this timekeeping was to rhythmically
connect all of the performers within the ensemble, since most of the early jazz groups did
not have a conductor. Therefore, jazz musicians primarily utilized their aural skills to
18
play together as opposed to the balanced combination of both aural and visual that an
orchestral performer would use.
In the early stages of jazz, timekeeping evolved from being articulated solely
through the bass drum and snare drum, to include the application of cymbals. The
staccato sound of the high hat evoked a metronome-like element, and the larger
cymbal, which became known as the ride cymbal, melded with the sound of the
acoustic bass. With the advent of rock and roll, the snare drum and bass drum once again
became the sonic focal point due to the amplification applied to bass, guitar, and
keyboards.
Evolution of Soloing
The main focus of the swing era was dance music.24 Therefore, a consistent beat
was the foundation of many early drum solos. The bass drum functioned as the main
ostinato holding a steady pulse over which with semi-rudimental gestures were played
on the snare drum. Although technically a drum solo, the primary goal was to maintain
the dance feel rather than to display the virtuosity of the drum set as an instrument.25
Although soloing was not a vital part of the drummers vocabulary, there were
glimpses of solo work embedded in what became known as drum breaks. These short
phrases would allow the drum set performer to improvise in a more virtuosic manner, yet
still in a subservient role. Four bar breaks were often used to cue the final shout chorus or
to facilitate a key change. In the case of the latter, the band would finish a melodic phrase
and the drummer would the play a four-measure drum break. With no tonal center present
24 Legends of Jazz Drumming. Alfred Publication. Van Nuys, CA. 2005 dvd.
25 Ibid.
19
during the drum solo, the remainder of the band would return with the same material
modulated to a different key.
As newer components were added to the drum set, they were immediately
exploited in drum solos. The floor tom was the soloistic centerpiece in Benny Goodmans
Sing, Sing, Sing. This composition, featuring Gene Krupa on drums, was the first
recorded extended drum solo, and arguably became the catalyst for the swing era.26
Krupa is also credited as the person responsible for making the drum solo not only
acceptable but musically and commercially viable.27 With the addition of the high hat,
performers such as Papa Jo Jones of the Count Basie Orchestra eloquently made the
high hat into a vital component. Through excessive use of the open and closed effect, and
the addition of a visually beautiful gymnastic approach implemented by Papa Jo, the
expressive nature of solo high hat performance was revealed.28
Many of the swing era drum solos were a separate entity from the compositions
played by the band as a whole. Usually unaccompanied, these solos not only featured the
drummer, but also gave the rest of the musicians a break. The drummer was free to
improvise on any material he chose, but was expected to continue to keep time for the
dancers. Solos often consisted of rudimental snare drum flurries, implementation of toms,
then cymbal tricks, and back to the snare drum for a long roll followed by a full drum set
assault. Cymbals, snare drum, or a vocal count off would be used to bring the other
musicians back in.
In the 1950s, as jazz groups became smaller, the music expanded with more
active contributors to the spontaneous compositional process. Each member of the
26 Korall, Burt. Drummin Men The Heartbeat of Jazz: The Swing Years. pg. 42.
27 Ibid, pg. 122.
28 Ibid, pg. 122.

20
ensemble had more responsibility for exchanging ideas. The drummer now had more
freedom not only in accentuating the melody, but also in adding counterpoint and
harmonic components. The drummer still had limited soloing opportunities, and the
majority of the time continued as supporting the soloist and/or the melody.
If a drum set performer was given an opportunity to solo, it remained in the
context of a particular composition. One opportunity for solo playing was called trading
fours. This practice was based on the form of a given tune in which the drummer would
exchange four measure phrases with another performer.
Other opportunities for soloing came by way of playing over the form.
Essentially, a drummer would solo in a similar manner as the other performers within the
structure of the composition. With this practice, drummers would organize musical
components (ideas and technique) in the same phrase parameters and then relate the
musical components.29 The approach began to evolve further when drummers began
simulating the harmony through textural changes. Some of these changes included
contrasting instrumental sounds, special effects, or even a singular sound progressing to
interplay between two or more instruments.30
As grooved-based music progressed in both jazz and rock settings, soloing
vocabulary expanded with numerous technical attributes, the first being an integration of
sound sources. Performers slightly stepped away from the constant driving bass drum
pulse and began to use it in conjunction with the snare and toms as a third hand. Through
the integration of the bass drum (or sometimes two bass drums) it was necessary for the
performers limbs to function similar to the fingers of a pianist.31
29 Terry OMahoney. Motivic Drumset Soloing: A Guide to Creative Phrasing and

Improvisation. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2004, pg. 1.
30 Ibid, pg. 75.
31 The practice of additional bass drums was first seen in 1946 and later became popular
in rock music.
21
With drum solos transforming from a short afterthought into an opportunity for
well thought out musical statements, drummers began to craft an art form. The majority
of drummers exploited these opportunities within the confines of various ensembles and
genres of music, while other drummers expanded the art form as a solo voice in a more
intimate environment.
Significant Artists Who Have Contributed to Drum Set Vocabulary

Warren Baby Dodds (1898 1959)
In an attempt to effectively archive performances by a performer considered by
many to be the preeminent jazz drummer, music historian Fred Ramsey invited Warren
Baby Dodds to join him in a recording studio early in 1945.32 The result was a
documentary titled New Orleans Drumming. In the beginning of the twentieth century,
technology was not effective in recording drum set in the context of an ensemble, let
alone by itself. Therefore, many early recordings of Dodds can be considered an
inaccurate representation of his performance practices. The Ramsey session included
Dodds performances of unaccompanied drum set parts from various early jazz tunes,
discussion regarding his performance practices, and a few unaccompanied solos, and far
surpassed the goal of simply archiving Dodds timekeeping role.
Three elements of Dodds aesthetic were highlighted in this recording. The first
was Dodds development of his sound palette. Expanding the palette from just snare and
bass drum, Dodds employed multiple toms, stating in the documentary, that his melodic
approach is dependent on tuning his toms with an interval of a perfect fifth between them,
which allowed for clarity and assisted in achieving an open, resonant sound.33 Some of
33 Russell, Bill. Baby Dodds: New Orleans Drumming. 1953.
22
the components that were unique to his setup were a result of his respect and
understanding of the role that his instruments needed to fulfill.
In contrast to his drum sound, Dodds palette included softer, more articulate
sources that revealed control of timbre. Focusing on wood sounds, he went from the
Chinese woodblock, a staple in early configurations, to exploring striking the rim (hoop)
of the bass drum. Dodds remarked that the tone of the bass drum hoop was appealing due
to being a slightly darker sound that sweetened the overall texture.34
Ramseys recording truly brought Dodds affection for melody to the forefront.
Dodds believed that just being a timekeeper was not musical.35 By being actively
involved with the melody, Dodds displayed the ability to solo in a manner that was
equivalent to any musicians solo. One piece in particular, Spooky Drums #2, highlights
his ability to spontaneously construct a solo. In an article by Guy Remonko, the author
acknowledges that Dodds developed this solo from one simple, syncopated rhythmic
motive.36 Dodds stated the melody and then applies beat displacement, rhythmic
embellishment, and timbre changes in an organized manner. The variations retain a
typical four or eight measure phrasing, then seamlessly return to the melody to conclude
the work.
The recorded solos reveal Dodds innate ability to organize elements of music to
present a complete and concise statement in the form of a solo. Although this entire
recording project was a spontaneously composed adventure, Dodds performances gave
the illusion that he sat down, collected his themes and variations, knew how he was going
35 Ibid, pg. 3.
36 Remonko, Guy. Spooky Drums #2/Warren Baby Dodds. Percussive Notes. Vol.
31, No 2. December 1992, pg. 55.
23
to manipulate his sound palette, and presented them in a manner to which every listener,
no matter what their musical background, could relate.
Max Roach (1924 2007)

Max Roach often referred to the drum set as a multiple percussion instrument.
Usually using a simple five-piece drum configuration with three suspended cymbals and
a high hat, he developed a complete sound palette. The added dimension provided by the
feet revealed many more musical opportunities than just using the hands.37
Roach was never satisfied with the drum set being one-dimensionally assigned to
a supportive role within the music. In an interview, Roach stated, The horns were the
front line and the drummer was like the nigger of the band. He was the guy who was
always waiting, and then when he did play an extended solo, everybody would go off the
stage and leave him up there. It didnt become musical until the front line came back. I
resented all that.38
This frustration fueled Roachs motivation to compose and integrate the drum set
beyond the timekeeping role. In 1953, he enrolled in the Manhattan School of Music to
study composition. While at Manhattan, Roach attended a concert by Ravi Shankar that
would expand Roachs solo voice. During the performance, tabla performer Chatur Lal
performed an extended unaccompanied solo that Roach found to be the most fascinating
and musical presentation that he had ever heard. With additional inspiration from Art
Tatum, Andre Segovia, and Pablo Casals, Roach sought to utilize the drum set as a solo
voice.39
37 Fisk, Scott K. Innovators of Jazz Drum Set: Part II. Percussive Notes. December,
1994, pg. 24.
38 Ibid, pg. 24.
39 Mattingly, Rick. Hall of Fame 1982: Max Roach. Percussive Arts Society. [Online]
http://www.pas.org/About/HofDetails.cfm?Ifile=roach (accessed October 20, 2011).
24
In 1966, Roach released the album Drums Unlimited, the first recording in which
Roach was able to present his solo compositions. Prior to that, recording music
executives told him that there was no marketability in such recordings. Whether or not it
was profitable, Roach proved that the drum set could speak as a solo instrument.
Roach describes his solo works as being the creation of organized sound.40
Loosely borrowing compositional techniques from outside jazz, Roach manipulated and
developed textures and rhythms for the sole purpose of expression. In his solo, The Drum
Also Waltzes, Roach applied a rondo form. In the work, he states the theme, then
interjects new material, and repeats this cycle. Other than an ostinato with the feet
throughout the work, the new material has little or no melodic or textural relevance to the
original theme. Other works he would let breathe, allowing tranquil textures to slowly
evolve from a soothing shimmer, generated through brushes on drums and cymbal rolls,
to a thick membranophone thunder.41
In the 1980s, Roach presented his solo drum set compositions in a more intimate
setting typically used by classical musicians a solo recital. In the recital at the 1982
Kool Jazz Festival in New York, Roach challenged himself to be expressive and to prove
that the drum set could speak in the same manner as other performing instruments.42
Through his abilities in organizing sound, he demonstrated themes, implemented
variations on those themes, and manipulated rhythm to express music that engaged the
listener. Music critic Richard S. Ginell wrote that Max Roach had the ability to play a
solo with a definite storyline, mixing up pitches and timbres, the deft use of silence use
40 Bravos, Tony. Drum Set Forum: An Interview with Max Roach. Percussive Notes.
June 1982, pg. 40.
41 Roach, Max. Max Roach: In Concert and In Session. CPP Belwin, 1982 vhs.
42 Ibid.
25
cymbals as gongs and play mesmerizing solos on the tom-toms, creating atmosphere
43
Elvin Jones (1927 2004)

At age 13, Elvin Jones knew that he would be a drummer. His mother played
piano and he sang in the Baptist church choir with his brothers, Thad and Hank. In
addition to his brothers jazz influence, Kenny Clarke and Papa Jo Jones influenced
Elvin Jones.44 After joining an American Legion Drum Corps, Jones combined jazz
drumming heritage with rudimental drumming facility. After playing with Charlie Parker
and John Coltrane, Jones began to perform in more of an intuitive manner. Jones states,
I grew up with the old methods and I learned them, and then I had to reject them.45
This was by no means a revolt against the drumming tradition, but rather an intuitive
change in expressing the music.46 Up to this point, timekeeping was focused on the ride
cymbal and high hat as the primary sound sources. Jones integrated the entire sound
palette and made the subdivisions of the beat more audible while supporting a soloist.
In order to accomplish this new approach, Jones further developed his own
version of a technique known as four-limb independence described by educator Jim
Chapin as an ability to perform two or more disconnected actions simultaneously.47
43 Ginell, Richard S. Max Roach: Biography [Online]

http://www.allmusic.com/artist/max-roach-p7429/biography (accessed October 20, 2011).
44 Hunt, Joe. 52nd Street Beat: In-Depth Profiles of Modern Jazz Drummers 1945-1965.
New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold Jazz, Inc., 1994, pg. 44.
45 Spagnardi, Ronald. The Great Jazz Drummers. Cedar Grove, NJ: Modern Drummer
Publications, pg. 97.
46 Hunt, Joe. 52nd Street Beat: In-Depth Profiles of Modern Jazz Drummers 1945-1965.
New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold Jazz, Inc., 1994, pg. 46.
47 Chapin, Jim. Advanced Techniques for the Modern Drummer: Coordinated
Independence as Applied to Jazz and Bebop, Volume 1. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred publishing Co.,
Inc., 2002, pg. 1.
26
The initial concept is to be able to continue an ostinato on the ride cymbal while
executing counter rhythms in the snare drum and bass drum. By doing so, a drummer
would add depth to his musical contribution as both a timekeeper and interactive
accompanist. Jones intertwined the independence with linear drumming.48 Although still
defining the time, Jones approach offered an ambiguous feel that gave a soloist more
rhythmic freedom.
Rhythm was vital in Jones exploration and expression of the music. Similar to
Dodds rhythmic embellishment, Jones could develop a rhythm through ornamentation,
beat displacement, and a variation of emphasis. Displaying a one instrument concept,
Jones also applied his technical facility to disperse the parts of the rhythms throughout
the drum set.49 Other rhythmic devices used by Jones included polyrhythmic application
and an overlaying of meters.50
Ed Blackwell (1929 1992)

With the path paved by Elvin Jones and his collaboration with John Coltrane,
drum set performers such as Ed Blackwell discovered a sense of liberation in the free jazz
era. As other musicians were looking to disassemble the harmonic regulations established
by earlier generations, Blackwell and other drummers were looking to free jazz
drumming from timekeeping.51 Author John Litweiler writes, How does a completely
liberated drummer play? He interacts with soloists on the complex levels of Elvin Jones,
48 Linear drumming is an approach in which no two limbs strike an instrument at the

same time.
49 Riley, John. Elvin Jones Comping. The Jazz Drummers Workshop: Advanced
Concepts for Musical Development. Cedar Grove, NJ: Modern Drummer Publications, pg. 41.
50 Ibid, pg. 41.
51 Litweiler, John. The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958. New York, NY: William
Morrow and Company, Inc., 1984, pg. 158.
27
without Joness distracted timekeeping. Or he plays responses, to horns lines, so dense

and intimate that he moves far away from the horns directions. Or he plays pure sound,
thus creating an essential element of ensemble atmosphere without motivating the
performance rhythmically.52
Blackwell was born in New Orleans and was directly influenced by area
drummers such as Paul Babarin, Zutty Singleton, and Baby Dodds. His style could be
described as a fusion of the New Orleans marching tradition with African, Afro-Cuban,
and bebop. Max Roach heavily influenced Blackwells deeply rooted melodic approach.
Blackwell states, The way Max developed melodic lines along the structure of the tunes,
I just enhanced it more by playing with Ornette. This enhancement primarily consisted
of setting up counter-rhythms between his hands and feet.53
Blackwells innate ability to shift meters and spontaneously evolve a sonic palette
within a piece propelled him into the forefront of the free jazz movement.54 Through
collaborations with Ornette Coleman, Blackwell was forced to develop active listening
within a composition. Colemans music continually shifted the downbeats and displayed
irregular phrasing lengths. Blackwell would listen carefully and, as he stated, support
the leaders wish that rhythm should (be) as natural as patterns of breathing.55 So that
he could control and manipulate his sound within a composition, Blackwell tuned his
drums higher than some of his peers. He also used cymbals that had less sustain or even
52 Ibid, pg. 158.
53 Spagnardi, Ronald. The Great Jazz Drummers. Cedar Grove, NJ: Modern Drummer
Publications, pg. 79.
55 Ed Blackwell. (online Drummerworld.com)
http://www.drummerworld.com/drummers/Ed_Blackwell.html
28
taped them to reduce the ringing properties. This drier sound allowed Blackwell to offer
texture that still supported the other musician and assisted in clarity of dialogue.56
Milford Graves (b. 1941)

Helping lead the free jazz movement in the 1960s with Albert Ayler, Paul Bley,
Don Pullen, and the New York Art Quartet, Milford Graves is considered to be one of the
first performers to use polytempic applications in his playing. The concept refers to an
application of abruptly changing tempos within a short period of time. With the idea of
the music being a direct expression of the performer, Graves adds a more humanistic
element to the music, in a manner similar to a person changing demeanor as an
immediate response to a statement or environment. Graves states, The role of the
drummer has got to be more internal, more subjective, as opposed to the older drummer,
who was external, more just a timekeeper.57
Graves also expands the sound palette through the integration of world
instruments and his own voice. In addition to the basic configuration, his ever-evolving
setup includes an additional bass drum, bongos, tabla, woodblocks, cowbells, Indian
temple bells, various gongs, and a variety of African drums such as djembes, djun djun,
and talking drum. Figure 2 is an example of his setup used in a 1993 concert with
percussionist Toshi Tsuchitori.58
57 Kettle, Ruppert. Re: Milford Graves. Percussive Notes, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1967, pg. 9.
58 Milford Graves and Toshi Tsuchitori Live Concert in Tokyo Ginza Saison Theatre
1993. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnGMwK4DGow&
feature=results_main&playnext=1&list=PLD25A730F25AC00FD. (accessed December 27,
2011).
29
Figure 2. Milford Graves drum set configuration, 1993. 1. snare drum, 2. Left side
bass drum, 3. bongo drum, 4. mounted tom, 5. Right side bass drum, 6.
Floor tom. Grey circles represent cymbals: high hat and ride cymbal. Other
percussion: woodblock, talking drum, wall of small gongs, and large tam
tam.
As an extension of Graves studies of various ethnic drums, he integrates these

instruments and utilizes them in a manner that is arguably unconventional to traditional
performance practices. Graves primary interest is in the various sounds and inflections
that the instruments offer.59
Terry Bozzio (b. 1950)

Terry Bozzios plunge into solo drum set performances was a result of his own
musical and professional evolution. With an early pedigree established in concert
percussion studies, Bozzio was exposed to the music of Aaron Copland and Igor
Stravinsky, as well as simultaneously listening to the drumming of Tony Williams and
59 Kettle, Ruppert. Re: Milford Graves. Percussive Notes, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1967, pg. 8.
30
Billy Cobham. After earning the drum set chair with Frank Zappa in the 1970s, Bozzio
was immediately thrown into performing solos during Zappas performances. One night
in Boston, Zappa publically acknowledged Bozzios presentation as not just a solo, but
also a piece of music.60
When asked to present drum set clinics, Bozzio wanted to make a more musical
statement in these presentations. His development of core compositional elements such as
melody, harmony, theme and variations, and the use of ostinatos allowed him to
springboard improvisations that eventually led to complete works. Exploring these
elements had a rabbit hole effect on Bozzio in which he began to feel that an expanding
vocabulary translated to the necessity of additional notes or instruments.61
Bozzio utilized a substantial sound palette. Beginning with the concept that the
drums and cymbals were equivalent to notes on a piano, he applied his philosophy that
The combination of various sounds with other instruments makes orchestral textures
within the drum set alone which can enhance a musical idea.62 Therefore, a larger
number of drums and cymbals equate to an extended range for melodic and harmonic
applications.
Bozzio wanted to treat his drum set compositions in the same way one would
create and perform a piano composition. The next step was to develop the skills to create
an accompaniment for his solos. By using three limbs to create an ostinato, Bozzio could
then use the remaining limb to interject more lyrical ideas.63 The result of this approach
was the illusion of multiple players. After experimenting with ostinatos through
60 Mover, Jonathan. Terry Bozzio: By Design. Drumhead. March-April 2010, pg. 23.
61 Bozzio, Terry. Melodic Drumming and the Ostinato, Vol. 1-3. Slam International
Multi-Media Group. Woodland, CA, 1993 vhs.
62 Bozzio, Terry. Live in Concert. Drum Workshop Inc., 1998 dvd.
63 Bozzio, Terry. Solo Drums. Alfred Publications, 1988 dvd.

31
permutations, textural adjustments, and exchanging melodic ideas from one limb to
another, Bozzio then searched for new ideas by reading the Harvard Dictionary of Music.
During plane flights, he would randomly choose a term and figure out how that approach
could be applied to drum set.64
Terry Bozzio could be considered the most prolific drum set performer actively
involved in solo presentations. His activities have been digitally archived on various
videos, two of which focus on his approach to composing/organizing his solos. He and
former Frank Zappa drum set artist Chad Wakerman collaborated twice on video projects
that include solo and duo performances.65 Bozzios solo and chamber endeavors also
resulted in four audio and five video recording projects.
Fritz Hauser (b. 1953)

In contrast to the other artists who played and composed pieces, Fritz Hausers
primary application of drum set was in serious art music. He regularly collaborated with
contemporary musicians such as Steven Schick, Pauline Oliveros, Stuart Dempster and
Pierre Favre. Although influenced by the sounds of drum rolls at the circus and the rock
music of the Beatles and Rolling Stones, his affection for the drum sets sound palette
focused more on the textural possibilities and less on rhythmic and melodic applications.
In 1989, Hauser made plans to commission numerous compositions for solo drum
set. One of the composers contacted early in the project was Pauline Oliveros. While
discussing other possible composers with Oliveros, Hauser mentioned John Cages name,
64 Cobb, Jared. The Making of a Complex Man. Traps: The Art of Drumming.
Autumn, 2008, pgs. 41-42.
65 Bozzio, Terry and Chad Wakerman. Solos and Duets Featuring The Black Page
(2001) and D2: Duets Volume Two. Drum Workshop Inc., 2005 dvd.
32
and was pleasantly surprised when Oliveros was able to facilitate their introduction.66
The collaboration with Cage resulted in the work One4.
As a performer, Hausers philosophy is that the sound palette and presentation
must be considered simultaneously. He is of the opinion that every venue has a specific
spot for optimum acoustic resonance and a performer was responsible for finding the best
instrument placement to take advantage of it. Referring to it as the sweet spot, Hauser
states, The room influences the sound, the sound influences me, and I influence the
music. The room cannot be separated from the performance if you play acoustically. A
good sounding room can easily be the key to a wonderful performance; a bad sounding
room should not be an excuse for a poor concert.67
In the studio, Hauser was just as meticulous. To obtain the fullest sound from his
cymbals, Hauser would hang the instruments from racks, similar to an orchestral
suspended cymbal.68 With the freedom to vibrate, the cymbals complete sonic
fingerprint of attack, sustain, and decay could be naturally produced.
Glenn Kotche (b. 1970)

According to Glenn Kotche, the drum set is a canvas for his own creativity and
curiosities.69 His aesthetic is influenced by his studies in many facets of percussion that
include orchestral, world, and marching percussion as well as drum set. Kotches
compositions demonstrate a combination of a wide spectrum of rhythmic components
with various colors and textures.
66 Hauser, Fritz. E-mail interview. 4 April 2009.
67 Ibid.
68 Hauser, Fritz. Flip: Solo Drumming. Celestial Harmonies, 2007.
69 Dawson, Michael. Wilcos Glenn Kotche: Painting the Sky Blue Sky. Modern
Drummer. August 2007, pg. 59.
33
Kotche displays a modern day trap set approach through compiling a

heterogeneous mix of instruments. His configurations include almglocken, thumb piano,
various bells, and tambourines. By having such a mix, there is no comparison or
hierarchy within the sound sources such as one mounted tom being higher pitched than
another. Combined with the ability of realizing roles within the limbs, each instrument is
given its own identity and offers an opportunity for Kotche to manipulate the sound
palette.
Using a conventional practice of many percussionists, Kotche applies a wide
spectrum of implements to extract as many sounds from the sound sources as possible.
The usual brushes and hard felt mallets are used, but he also explores and designs
unconventional methods to create sound. His super ball mallets consist of a ball on a
small stick. When the ball is pulled across the surface of a sound source, the friction
causes a wide variety of overtones with a voice-like moan. His spring beaters are a small,
metal spring attached to the end of a stick. When pulled across the surface of an
instrument, the sound is more abrasive.
To extract many sounds from a few instruments, Kotche employs a prepared
application, adding small items such as springs, bells, or rivets to a sound source,
resulting in a textural change. One variation he creates is an old t-shirt with metal rings
attached, which is easily attached to a floor tom. The rings are placed over the drumhead.
The resulting sound is a hybrid of a tom and a maraca. Another application is an egg
shaker attached to a high hat clutch (the mechanism to hold the top cymbal of the high
hat), which extended the depth of timbre. It also made another sound accessible: he could
play with both the high hat cymbals and the shaker, or disengage the high hat and just
have the shaker.
34
Finally, Kotches most elaborate creation is his prepared snare drum, pictured
in figure 3.70 He attaches various lengths of springs and a cuica stick through holes in a
drumhead.
Figure 3. Glenn Kotches prepared snare drum.
Typically the sound produced by a small spring is inaudible, but the snare drum acts as an
amplifier to project a range of sounds, from small, quick, fluttering sounds to something
resembling thunder. A friction noise is achieved by pulling on the longer springs with just
a little pressure to allow the hand to move. The cuica stick, borrowed from the Brazilian
instrument of the same name, is inserted into one of the holes to add yet another friction
noise.
Kotches compositional style exhibits a down-to-earth point of view. First, he
tries to not make the works monumental presentations. He states, Theyre not to launch
70 http://glennkotche.com (accessed December 27, 2011).

35
a solo career theyre launched out of my curiosity of a drummer with rhythm.71

Described by Kotche as solo explorations, his compositional process is initiated by a
series of questions:
1. What are the roles of the limbs? Instruments?
2. Is this composition of interest to the listener?
3. What role is my right hand? Thumb piano, cowbells? (musical component
that pertains to the composition, not just a part of the pattern)
4. When Im doing the solo stuff theres more freedom to incorporate
different ideas, but Im trying to make it interesting for a listener for an
hour, so I have to think a lot about the role that each instrument plays in
the development of each song and the evolution of the set. 72
5. Process developing concepts such as negative rhythm, migratory themes,
and the idea of stretching rhythms73
There is a programmatic element to Kotches music. His musical curiosities lead

him to explore various world music field recordings. His composition, Monkey Chant,
loosely recreates Balinese performance art based on a love story from the Hindu sacred
text, Ramayana, and the ancient Balinese ritual for exorcism. The polyrhythmic melodic
components became appealing to Kotche and with the drum set he imitates their
elements. He states, I realized that different sounds on the snare drum could play the
72 Ray, Linda. Drum Solo: Wilcos Glenn Kotche helps percussion take the lead.
Tucson Weekly. February 22, 2007.
73 Ibid.
36
parts of some of the characters in the story. So I researched the story and assigned five
unique sounds to be five of the six main characters.74
Kotches belief is that composing and performing solo compositions for drum set
was only one factor in his evolution of expression on drum set and a process of satisfying
his own creative curiosities. He finds elements of music of personal interest and then
searches for a way to apply them in his own voice. He states, I like to expose myself to a
lot of things that are maybe outside of the typical canon of what appeals to the drum
set.75 This musical endeavor fuels his desire to grow as a performer in order to become
a better musician overall.76
Conclusion
Still evolving, drum set performance practice lends itself to many facets of
musical expression. Through the development and evolution of the individual
components, it offers a multitude of melodic and textural possibilities. Superseding the
initial timekeeping responsibilities, performers have expanded the vocabulary and
identified the drum set as a complete instrument, suitable for solo performances.
74 Modern Drummer Festival 2006. Hudson Music LLC. Briarcliff, NY, 2006 dvd.
76 Ibid, pg. 59.
37
CHAPTER THREE ANNOTATED LIST OF COMPOSITIONS FOR

SOLO DRUM SET
Annotation components
Each annotation is intended to offer insight into the wide spectrum of
configurations, notation, and compositional approaches of the works. Brief information
regarding the background of each work will assist in understanding the origin and initial
concept. Clarification of the visual nature of each score is intended to decipher and assist
in realizing the composers musical intent. Although there has been recent development
in standardizing notation for drum set, each composition utilizes a different format to
visually express the composers intent. The author identifies the components or sound
sources and labels the assortment as the sound palette, then describes how the sounds are
executed and highlights configuration issues. The presentation of the sound sources deals
with the manipulation of these sounds through implements, techniques (conventional as
well as extended), and prepared application.
Some of the annotations identify compositional concepts. Melodic and harmonic
elements are discussed as well as how some composers apply embellishments and
shading to challenge the performer musically and technically. Textural applications are
identified as well. Silence and space is a common thread within this list of works. The
annotations speak of how the absence of sound becomes vital in expressing music on an
instrument that is traditionally boisterous.
Finally, these annotations offer some benefits in preparing and presenting these
works. With the idea of personal development (and increased vocabulary), what will a
performer (drum set artist) gain? In developing an artistic statement through a
performance, how can a particular work function in a series of pieces?
38
Compositions
Cage, John. One4 for Solo Drummer (1990). Edition Peters/Henmar Press, Inc. New
York, NY
One4 for Solo Drummer consists of a loosely structured series of sounds and
silence that uncovers the drum sets textural capabilities without dependence on the
traditional drum set role of rhythm. It is virtuosic, yet there is little expectation regarding
technical vitality. There is an absence of rhythmic drive, yet it is written for an instrument
that historically propels the music. The slow-paced, amoeba-like textural evolution
simulates a harmonic progression. Through this, Cage reveals a tonal center (or rather a
sound source center) simply by returning to a specified sound. The work is composed for
drum set, but the feet are not clearly represented in the notation. One4 is unaccompanied,
but the acoustics of the performing venue have a very important and active role in the
musical presentation.
One4 for Solo Drummer was commissioned by Swiss drummer Fritz Hauser and
premiered on January 18, 1991. In 1989, Hauser was interested in commissioning
compositions for his specific drum set configuration. The Cage and Hauser collaboration
makes sense primarily based on their individual interest in sounds. Hausers aesthetic
includes the importance of presenting a sound in the best possible manner. Cages
perspective is that sounds are not to be compared or judged, but rather left alone and
appreciated. Sounds are to be realized in their natural state and if another sound were to
be revealed, it should have no sonic connection to the initial sound. 1
1 Hauser, Fritz. E-mail interview. 4 April 2009.

39
Notational conventions
The notation is original and arguably specific to Cages writing. The score is a
single-page document that displays two columns of vertically stacked time brackets.
Shown in figure 4, these time brackets are musical staff cells that have approximate start
and finish times for each event.
Figure 4. One4 for Solo Drummer (1990) by John Cage
There are six time brackets for the left hand and eight for the right. Bracket times
are in lightface when they overlap adjacent brackets. At such points the performer must
find a solution that accommodates one bracket with the other. Either hand may help the
other. Within each time bracket there is a number assigned to either a line or space. The
numbers start with the bottom line and ascend with the lines and spaces. The performer is
then responsible to assign an instrument or sound source to a numeric value with only
one sound per bracket. As stated in the score, Numerals on staves are cymbals and/or
drums chosen by the drummer. According to Fritz Hauser, Cage was not happy with
the numbers being printed on different lines in the stave since the numbers do only refer
to the choice of instrument and not the pitch or relative pitch of the instruments. This
means that once you decide that 1 is the crash cymbal you have in your setup, the crash
40
cymbal will have to be played whenever 1 shows up.2 It is the authors opinion that
Cages dislike for the format is that he was trying to achieve sonic chaos. He did not want
to have any melodic influence within the presentation. With a portion of Cages aesthetic
being anarchy, the visual presentation may influence the performer in order to create a
graduated set of sounds.3
It is necessary to use some form of mechanical assistance to determine the
duration of these events. Suggesting using a stopwatch, Hauser states, The starting of the
timer is part of the game. Cage used a mechanical watch when he performed and
apparently liked the handling and the sound. Nothing speaks against a digital timer and I
use one myself. However I personally do not like to hear the beep sound when pressing
the start button so I muffled that sound.4
Instrumentation
Although requested by Fritz Hauser and documented as a composition for solo
drum set, the specific instrumentation for One4 is not defined by notation. According to
Hauser, Cage did not use the possibility to have the feet involved although he had the
whole drum set available. You can choose whatever instruments you like I guess.5 At
Cages request, ten sound sources are to be determined by the performer. The
fundamental four-piece drum set is effective with the addition of a high hat and three
suspended cymbals (such as ride, crash, and Chinese cymbal). To fulfill the requirement
of using ten sounds, a performer can extract additional sounds from different playing
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
41
areas or different techniques. In case of the high hat, four initial sounds can be achieved:
open and closed sound with stick, and sound generated through the foot itself (open and
closed.
Since the work does not specify that ten sounds have to be generated through ten
separate instruments, it is the authors opinion that the sound sources could even include
various playing areas on one or more instruments. On a cymbal, different sounds are
produced from the bell, edge, and bow. One cymbal could then be responsible for a
minimum of three sounds. On a drum, a performer has access to three areas on the
drumhead surface (center, off center, and edge), as well as the rim and shell: a minimum
of five sound sources.
Although random assignments can be made, accessibility needs to be addressed
by the performer. There are six sound sources that are executed from the right side of the
body and three from the left side. One sound, number 8, needs to be accessible from both
sides of the body. Therefore, this sound source needs to be in the center of the
performers body. Sounds do occasionally overlap between the time brackets, so it is in
the performers best interest to assign sounds accordingly. Finally, instrument choice
cannot just be made through accessibility in generating a sound. The performer will need
to choose sound sources with musical effect in mind.
Sound presentation
Once sounds are assigned, the performer needs to determine length and dynamic
of sound. Cage preferred that the sounds presented were either short, with no sonic
residue, or sustained with no audible attack of each stroke. 6 The performer needs to ask
how a particular sound source is presented: Does it have natural sustained abilities? If so,
6 Ibid.
42
for how long? Is sound dampened? By saying natural abilities, the author is referring to
how that sound can be presented in a basic (almost general) manner. According to the
score, dynamics are free. Fritz did comment that Cages preference was the long sounds
to be a softer dynamic and the short sounds to be louder.7 As stated above, an important
point for Cage in the performance of One4 was the clear difference between the two
possible sounds short and completely dampened or sustained with no single beats
audible. 8 Producing these two different sound types requires incorporating technical
necessity/facility into planning the performance.
To execute Cages sound recommendations mallets could be used, although
brushes might be the best choice. It is possible to generate enough motion on a cymbal
with a mallet to fulfill the sustain requirement, but it would take two hands on a drum. A
brush could sustain through the swirling technique. As far as a dampened sound, both
brushes and mallets could articulate that possibility through a dead stroke as well as
assistance from the other hand. If played on cymbals, hand dampening would have to be
used with any implement. Dead strokes with a stick would produce a buzz at a loud
dynamic, which may have its own appeal.
One possibility in presenting a sound in a dampened manner is to restrict the sonic
residue (ring/sustain) through a dead stroke. After striking the surface, rebound is
restricted. The result is a short sound, but the natural timbre (quality) of the sound is
changed due to the added mass on the striking surface. This is possibly the second most
consistent manner to control the length of the sound.
Another method of stopping the sound (restricting the sonic residue) is through
hand or implement dampening. After striking the surface, a performer can stop the
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
43
resonance. It is the authors opinion that the performer should consider when the
dampening occurs, length of the note, and consistency of these short notes. The
dampening itself should be inaudible so as to not interfere with the sound actually
executed.
Another way to restrict the sonic residue can be utilizing a prepared application
to the sound source, a piece of material draped over the striking surface of the sound
source. This would prevent the source from vibrating and restrict any audible sonic
residue. One positive result of such preparation would be that the consistency of the
sound length would be greater than with other techniques. Another positive would be that
the performer would not be responsible for the dampening, and could focus on the next
event. The only variable would be the force behind the executed strike.
Benefits
According to Hauser, The piece helped me tremendously to develop a sense for
timing, time-sound-silence relation, patience and awareness. The piece provides very
little action and mixes with all the noises and sounds you hear around you as you perform
it. Therefore it creates a very intense counter-point to most other drums set pieces I know
which mostly keep the performer quite busy.9
Historically, drummers are expected to keep a good beat and propel the rhythm
forward. One4 should almost be considered the anti drum set composition in that
rhythm is not used to move the piece forward. The works presents a harmonic
progression expressed through shifting textures. Without the use of rhythmic propulsion,
a percussionist can really develop a better sense of allowing a piece of music to evolve
organically, essentially presenting a sound in a minimal manner and letting it be actively
9 Ibid.
44
heard by the performer and listener. The success of the piece is in the performers active
and intense listening.
An ever-evolving presentation, One4 encourages multiple performances. An
example of Cages compositional use of indeterminacy, the work is made successful by
all the intangible components in a performance, and changes with each attempt. With a
new venue, it becomes a new composition. As described by author James Pritchett,
Indeterminacy refers to the ability of a piece to be performed in substantially different
waysthat is, the work exists in such a form that the performer is given a number of
unique ways to perform it.10 After learning the printed page, understanding and
implementing Cages goals, a performer has infinite possibilities.
One4 is as no other composition researched in this document. In a sense it is a
spontaneously composed work: todays performer is as much the composer as Cage. The
work is also a chameleon in that it can change for each presentation. The performer can
adjust the work, the instrument or implement, or the environment to achieve a
presentation different from the previous.
Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting(1977). Lang Percussion, Inc. New York, NY
While students at the Conservatory of Music at Brooklyn College (CUNY),

percussionist Ray Marchica approached Robert Cucinotta to compose a new work for
extended drum set. Cucinotta states, My goal when writing this composition was to
create a serious concert work that explored non-pitched sounds in an expressive way,
using the drum set more as a one-man percussion ensemble than as using it to keep the
beat.11 Drawing from influences ranging from Charles Ives and Luciano Berio to the
10 Pritchett, James. The Music of John Cage, pg. 108.
11 Cucinotta, Robert. E-mail interview. 24 January 2010.

45
Grateful Dead and Frank Zappa, Cucinotta set out to produce a work that would use the
drum set in a new flexible way, as one singing voice with constant use of rubato, dynamic
and tempo changes12
At first glance, the initial response to the multi-lined score or the extended
instrument setup could be intimidation. A performer new to the work will notice a very
expanded instrumentation and complex notation. It would appear that a performer should
approach this work with a brash, aggressive attitude. That reaction is soon altered after
focusing on the very delicate application of these instruments and how the work is a
musical poem.
Cucinotta extracts the title from the first line of the poem Oblation by Edgard
Varse. Cucinotta states, Varse was the obvious largest influence here and in other of
my works. In addition to studying his music, I researched his life, and the importance of
the International Composers Guild while in graduate school.13 As stated in the score,
this poem, composed after an evening spent drinking with Francis Picabia on the
Brooklyn Bridge, was published in the magazine 391 in June 1917.14
Oblation by Edgard Varse

The sky is waiting
A womans laugh has caused me so much pain
My heart is heavy
The stars are lighting up and the river is carrying past the worlds unhappiness.
Speculative ideas
The sun has refused the moon a wedding ring
I shall never be a congressman or an ambassador
Metacarpal palms
The orange of Malta
I shall order the Saturnalia of Brooklyn Bridge to start
Opposite the skyscrapers bristling with amazement
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
46
My love is dead.
An oblation is an offering of a gift or sacrifice to a deity. Arguably, The Sky is Waiting

could be described as a musical offering to alter ones drum set perception.
Besides the inspiration from Oblation, there are two other reflections of Varse in
this work. The first is Cucinottas integration of the famous tambour militaire theme from
Varses Ionisation. In figure 5, Cucinotta has borrowed the rhythm from Varse, but
scored it for various instruments.
Figure 5. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 1
According to Cucinotta, timbral variations were used strongly in the work.15 Cucinotta
was trying to give forward propulsion to the music in the same manner of a harmonic
progression, but within an indefinite pitched realm. This technique demonstrates the
second reflection of Varse, the sound mass. Through the utilization of fundamental
percussion sound sources (metal, skin, and wood) in various combinations, Varse was
able to indicate harmony.
15 Ibid.
47
Employing a notation reminiscent of Luciano Berio and Darius Milhaud,
Cucinottas fluctuating grand staff is constructed of single staff lines. He states, Of the
four works that I have used drum set, this is the only one that I used line notation instead
of standard drum set notation. This was my first drum set work, and I probably decided
this because of my past experience with line notation and because of the inclusion of the
extensions such as the triangle, bass drum, and wood blocks.16
The number of lines on the grand staff fluctuates. During some moments, up to
ten lines are notated to cover all of the instruments. Although some sound sources are
given their own line, the application of graphic notation is implemented, to assist with
displaying sound sources that are related, without visual recognition becoming too
cumbersome. In figure 6, the nine line grand staff is embellished with implement choices
below and duration of time above.
Figure 6. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting... (1977), pg. 5.
Cucinotta remarks, I discovered that using graphic notation gave a talented player a
chance to improvise within some specified parameters (such as which drums to use over
16 Ibid.
48
time.)17 With the exception of those for cymbals, cowbell, triangle, and wood blocks,
most of the lines are for one sound source.
Instrumentation
Although the compilation of these sound sources could easily be mistaken as a
multiple percussion piece, Cucinotta has always thought of it as a drum set piece.
Expanding from the fundamental configuration, the sound palette is enhanced through the
addition of another bass drum, mounted tom, floor tom, and two more suspended
cymbals. Cucinotta is somewhat conservative with the choice of cymbals, implementing
only a high hat and three additional suspended cymbals: As for the cymbals, I was
thinking more as high, medium, low cymbals rather than as ride, crash, and splash.18
Cucinotta extended the sound palette with orchestral influences: concert toms (or
bongos) and a concert bass drum. The composer states, The orchestral bass drum was
added to the double bass drums to extend the range of the kit. Finally, he seems to be
paying homage to the early stages of the drum set (possibly in the spirit of a trap set) by
completing the setup with two woodblocks, cowbell, and piccolo triangle.
Sound presentation
Cucinotta is meticulous when it comes to how the sounds are presented, including
in the score specific instructions on where to strike some of the instruments. The drums
might be struck on the shell, rim, drumhead, or with a rim shot.19 The cymbal sounds are
expanded with the use of dampening, scraping, and, in the case of the high hat, allowing
two components to touch for another dimension of sound.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 A rim shot is executed by striking the rim and drumhead simultaneously.

49
Cucinotta also manipulates many of the sound sources. Many of these instructions
are notated at the bottom of the pages (see figure 7).
Figure 7. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 5
Identified with the 2) notation, Cucinotta instructs the performer to press left
stick against skin and move from rim to center. (see figure 8)
Figure 8. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting, pg. 5.
Occurring while the right hand is playing septuplets, the application adds tension to the
surface, raising the pitch of the drum. Later on the same page, the performer is to hit
near tips and move to middle. During this moment, there is a tremolo on the rim of the
50
snare drum. Executed with the application of a single stroke roll, the performer is to start
with the thinnest part of the sticks playing against the rim. As the tremolo proceeds, the
performer is to gradually move up to a thicker part of the stick. The result is a pitch
alteration with a textural shift from a lighter, delicate wood sound to a much denser
representation.
Cucinotta also incorporates a prepared application within the work. In the score,
the lower floor tom is to be treated with an air drum application. Cucinotta remarks,
Before I started composing Sky, Ray Marchica was very helpful in his suggestions and
demonstrated some of the results of his recent experiments. Many of these made their
way into the work including the use of the air drum ... 20 The performer inserts a tube
into the air hole of one of the floor toms and, while striking the drum, blows air into the
tube. The air pushes the drumheads outward and adds tension to the drumhead, raising
pitch of the drum.
Although not as much of a dramatic preparation as the air drum, there is an
example of a prepared sound with one of the cymbals. Cucinotta requests that the
smallest cymbal have rivets installed. Small holes are drilled through a cymbal and then
some type of metal rod-shaped piece, such as rivets or screws, are inserted into the hole.
Techniques
In addition to the aforementioned sound presentations, the performer is also
required to have technical facility in stopping sound. Although the physical nature of
hand dampening a sound is not a big challenge, the performer must interpret how long or
short a sound should resonate within the context of the work. Additionally, the contact
20 Cucinotta, Robert. E-mail interview. 24 January 2010.

51
noise sometimes produced by the technique is also up to the performer. In the case of
suspended cymbals, there should be none.
Other dampening occurs when downward pressure is applied to the pedal by the
foot. If the high hat is struck with an implement while open and then the foot pressure is
applied, the result is similar to hand dampening with an added articulated contact noise. If
the pressure is applied while striking the high hat, the result is a staccato metallic sound.
A unique aspect of this composition is that the foot used to facilitate these high
hat techniques needs to facilitate the second bass drum as well. It is the authors opinion
that having the facility to execute it takes some preparation. High hat foot technique
applies downward pressure most of the time. Bass drum technique allows rebound to
happen and uses more of a full stroke motion, similar to hands. The final element of
facility in bass drum technique has to do with matching the other foot. In order to execute
the composed passages, both feet need to respond and rebound in the same manner.
Placement
In the score, Cucinotta does specify an organization of the sound sources listing
membranophones from smallest (concert toms) to largest (bass drum). Although it
clarifies the visual aspects of the notation, it is the authors opinion that the performer
would need to determine the order of instruments sonically, and arrange them in the
manner best suited to execute the performance. Traditionally, a graduated set of drums
such as this one would be configured in a single-row arc setup from high to low for
accessibility. This approach is beneficial if the drums are the only concern. With the
addition of the cymbals, triangle, and woodblock, the physical space between the
components has a large impact on musical accessibility.
The performer must realize what the composition requires of each component. If
there is a need for multiple playing areas or specific techniques on one sound source, then
the placement must be in a comfortable position for the performer. Within the work, there
52
are numerous occasions where the performer is striking the rims of the drums; therefore,
the angle of the components needs to be adjusted to efficiently generate the sound. Next,
the performer should evaluate the musical relationship between sound sources and
necessity of a close proximity. There are sound sources that are melodically related and
adjacent on paper, but possibly do not need to be embedded within the configuration. For
example, the triangle can be placed almost anywhere, but there is a need to be able to
strike it in a controlled manner for dynamics while facilitating dampening techniques
with the other hand.
Also, it is important to identify sound sources that are to be active simultaneously.
The concert bass drum is certainly not a typical component for drum set and
incorporating it into the drum sets configuration takes some creativity and flexibility to
solve the logistical issues. Cucinotta says, The only unusual placement that I can
remember was laying the bass drum flat on the right side almost behind the player. Using
a two-headed bass drum stick, the player can roll the bass drum with the right hand, while
hitting the triangle or other drums with the left hand. 21
Implements
In the score, there is an extensive list of implements: soft timpani stick, snare
drum stick, triangle beater, brushes, light thin sticks (rattan handles or chop sticks), a
two-headed bass drum mallet, and fingernails. Cucinotta actively employs every
implement throughout the composition. Therefore, extracting a wide and evolving
spectrum of sounds from each instrumental component. Some changes are physically
challenging, and the composer offers solutions for the more difficult passages, such as the
following: p.6 can be played by using both sides of the brush instead of using one stick
21 Ibid.
53
and one brush in each hand. The implement change embellishes Cucinottas
manipulations of the timbre capabilities for each sound source. In the score there are
examples of rubbing the brush on the drumhead (skin) to produce a soft sandpaper-like
friction sound.
Benefits
This work reflects Cucinottas primary compositional goal expression in a non-
idiomatic drum set manner. By imposing a voice-like, lyrical quality to the instrument,
The Sky is Waiting truly places the drum set in a non-typical paradigm. Cucinotta
emphasizes a linear approach that allows the performer to integrate and synchronize all
four limbs in order to execute and highlight ornamentation. Through this linear
application, the composer adds depth and shading to various notes without disrupting the
clarity of the musical gestures.
The Sky is Waiting contains some dramatic elements. The first is the visual
grandeur of the configuration. It is the authors opinion that the visual impression of this
collection of instruments can have a strong impact on the audience.
Another element is the moments of silence the composer uses to contrast with
sound. The work starts with five seconds of silence. According to Cucinotta, A lot of the
piece emphasizes the piano side of the dynamic range, especially at the beginning. I
started with a measure of silence because I wanted the player to think about initializing
the work from silence.22 The score describes the silence as an active part of the
composition. To amplify the importance, the performer is to hold both hands in the air
during the required time. Cucinotta states, During a rehearsal, Arnie Lang suggested that
Ray hold his hands in the air ready to start as a way to play the silence and to signal the
22 Ibid.
54
audience. As a composer with an appreciation of John Cage and his comments on

silence, I appreciated this meditative suggestion and added it to the performance
notes.23
Cucinotta adds a control challenge to these elements by implementing dynamic
and speed variables. There are many gestures of extreme dynamic changes. With the
majority of the work implementing softer dynamics, the performer needs to successfully
build tension through crescendos and be ready to immediately return back to a soft
dynamic.
Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979). Hinricshen Edition/Peters Edition, LTD.

London
Demonstrating James Dillons New Complexity compositional style, every
component of Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha is excessive. There is an elaborate utilization of spatial
notation and an abundance of information inserted into the score. Dillon aggressively
exploits the sound palette through an extended instrumentation, implements, and
techniques. As a result, the work challenges the performer through multiple layers of
melodic, rhythmic, dynamic, and textural gestures. Percussionist Morris Palter states,
Technically demanding and sonically expansive, this work explores and pushes the
limitations of both performer and instrument. 24
Surprisingly, the inspiration for this complex composition came from a simple
experience. In 1979, Dillon was inspired to compose a work to celebrate the spirit of the
International Year of the Child. While watching a friends young son improvising on a
23 Ibid.
24 Liner notes from Remedy by Morris Palter. Centaur, 2006.

55
drum, the composer decided a short drum solo would be his vehicle. The work was
written in autumn of 1979, premiered by British percussionist Simon Limbrick, and
dedicated to the young man who was the catalyst, Kino.25
Visually, the score to Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha presents the composition clearly and offers
all of the information the performer needs to understand the composers intent. However,
there is a lot of information to process. It is the authors opinion that some of the
nomenclature is open to personal interpretation.
At the beginning of the score, there is a suggested layout on a single page and a
complete list of instruments plus implements. Although a useful resource, it is slightly
difficult to decipher. The instruments are not clearly labeled and the graphic diagram
does not reveal the differences between the drums (toms vs. timbales). Also, the
suggested layout seems to make the physical nature of the work even more challenging.
Apart from the complex writing, the score is fairly easy to read. Spatial notation is
utilized with each instrument having its own separate line. The grand staff varies from
one to seventeen instruments, with an average of ten staves. Each page has one or two
grand staffs per page. There is a challenge keeping track of the high hat. From measure
65 through 68, the high hat is noted on the third line from the top (see figure 9).
25 Ibid.
56
Figure 9. Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979), pg. 9.
Then in measure 69, the high hat is placed the bottom of the grad staff. It is the authors
opinion that due to the drastic textural change to highlight the metallic instruments and
more implementation of foot technique in this particular passage, the high hat has been
re-assigned (see figure 10) to the bottom of the staff.

57
The visual representation of Dillons textures causes some challenges.

Instruments are intermingled to execute a gesture, but they may not be vertically adjacent
on the page. One key is to rely on the connected note stems. The challenge comes when a
sound source is assigned to one or more layers and/or gestures. Again, these layers are
identified through connecting stems, but if a sound source is doubling, there are stems
facing both up and down.
The use of stem direction also helps with the dynamic scheme of the work. There
are layers of dynamics throughout the composition with only a few pinpointed sections of
the same dynamic for instruments. The work begins with the bass drum and cymbals
playing a supportive role at a pianissimo dynamic while the snare drum and timbale are
the leading voice at mezzo forte. In contrast, some of the dynamic balance may not seem
initially conventional. One example is measure 81 through 87 (figure 11).
The bass drum is substantially louder than the other elements, but not as melodically and
rhythmically active. As the bass drum continues with a gradual dynamic build, the
crescendo in the other parts is paced quicker and eventually overcomes the sound of the
bass drum.
58
Musically, Dillons use of extreme dynamic contrast and change permeates the
work. There are numerous examples of subito dynamic markings. Along with other
compositional elements, the composer utilizes the dynamics to develop a tension and
instability to the work. The subito piano element then releases this tension creating
forward motion. Dillon states, When a period of maximum instability is reached, a split
or branching (catastrophe!) occurs which brings about a new period of stability. 26
Another item that blurs the visual aspect is the abundance of notation for
articulations and performance practices. The first notations that catch the performers
attention are the pedaling symbols. Borrowed from piano literature, Dillon utilizes the
* ^
Ped. to identify the use of feet for both the high hat and bass drum. Additionally, the
is used to stop the sound of the high hats, and the for cymbals, membranophones
and log drums. Other typical notation includes application of sustaining sounds,
dampening and accents.
Instrumentation
As inscribed in the score, Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha is composed for an expanded jazz kit.
The instrumentation consists of:
1. Bass drum, snare drum, (3) mounted toms, and (2) floor toms
2. (2) Suspended cymbals [cymbal 2 screw tightly onto stand and
strike only at the dome]
3. High hat [prepared: attach a small bunch of sleigh bells under top
nut]
4. (2) Cow bells
5. (2) Log drums
6. Tam tam
7. Bellstick (a cluster of small bells attached to a length of hard
wood-suspended and played by striking wood)
Sound presentation
26 Ibid.
59
Technically, Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha is a marathon of physical endurance and over-the-

top independence. Morris Palter writes in his liner notes, The most difficult issue one
must deal with when performing this work is forcing your body to move in ways that feel
discomforting.27 Due to the nature of this expanded setup, the body is in constant
motion. As expressed with the notation, there are very few moments of just playing on
one or two components. Additionally, there are few moments of pattern-oriented
performance practice. The layers of sound, dynamics, and rhythms also challenge the
performer to have strong independence of movement. That moment is then short-lived
and Dillon changes the roles of the limbs once again. Palter also notes that the
performer is contending with passages of music that do not necessarily feel
comfortable to execute on the drum set; music that throws off ones natural balance while
sitting at the drum set and that forces very quick back and forth simultaneous motions for
the hands. 28
It is the authors opinion that a performer would need to be constantly aware of
the articulations applied to the membranophones. There are two types of rim-shot
applications required within the work. The first application is the process in which a
performer will strike the drumhead and rim at the same time; Dillon identifies this as a
hoopcrack. Leaving the tip of one drumstick on the drumhead and then striking that
stick with the other implement is the other application.

The second articulation is sustaining the sound of a membranophone through
rolling. There are moments that the rolls are so brief that the performer only has time for
one hand to strike and allow the stick tip to bounce multiple times at a short distance
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
60
from the surface. The other, longer, gestures of sustained sound can be achieved through
a hand-to-hand buzz roll.
Dampening techniques are applied to both the cymbals and membranophones.
Dampening through the foot is applied to the high hat. Additionally, there is a passage in
which the performer is to control the cymbals aperture between the thumb and
forefinger.29 This application allows the sound to evolve from a tight, metallic sound to
a more open, legato sound and back again. Dillons notation calls for the use of
dampening techniques on the suspended cymbals extensively. For the membranophones,
dampening is executed by using the butt end of one drumstick touching the surface and
the other stick striking the surface. This technique also is used to manipulate the pitch of
the drum by sliding the butt end from the edge of the playing surface to the center.
The composer also requests two preparations to alter an instruments sound prior
to striking. The first example is applied to cymbal two. The performer is to screw [the
cymbal] tightly onto stand. This added pressure to hold the cymbal down restricts the
movement of the instrument and limits resonance. Along with the instructions to strike
only at the dome, this additional pressure creates a dry, staccato sound. The second
requested preparation is to attach a small bunch of sleigh bells under the top nut of the
high hat. This preparation adds metallic brightness and extra sizzle from the metal to
metal contact combined with the sustain of the cymbals, and thickens the sound overall.
Dillon continues this marathon with an abundant application and manipulation of
rhythm. He states, By using a constellation of sonorities that are both familiar and
timbrally defined I could concentrate on the central issue of rhythm. 30 Ti.re-Ti.ke-
Dha is saturated with challenging syncopations and odd note groupings dispersed through
29 Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979), pg. 8.
30 Liner notes from Remedy by Morris Palter. Centaur, 2006.

61
the limbs and instruments. Although there are moments in which the bass drum or high
hat will establish a pulse, the moment is short-lived and quickly masked by polyrhythmic
gestures that texturally thicken the rhythmic chaos.
Instrument placement
Although a jazz drum set is identified as the core of the instrumentation, it is
important to analyze the sound sources activity within the work in order to facilitate
performance. The first challenge is to effectively position some of the newer (or
additional) components. Typically, the smallest of the mounted toms would be positioned
in front of the snare drum. The remaining toms would then be in a graduated formation
leading to one side (direction is dependent on performer being right or left handed).
Although a performer may initially view the timbales to be an accessory and not see the
need for logistic integration, Dillon identifies and integrates the timbales so that they are
an important element of the compositions overall sound palette. Thus, they need to be
extremely accessible. Although the diagram shows the tam tam to be behind the
performer, due to the manner in which the tam tam is musically integrated, this would
make it difficult for a performer to execute the proper sound. Finally, it is important to
keep the components in close proximity to facilitate various dampening techniques.
Benefits
Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha is intended for an advanced musician. It is the authors opinion
that it is not about the final performance, but actually the process: a journey through a
musical marathon. Learning this work will challenge the performer physically and
mentally, and thoroughly reveal his or her abilities. This composition makes every limb
responsible to facilitate melodic and supportive gestures at any given moment.
It is the authors opinion that the composer uses his notations to the performer to
further convey the challenges of this work through a physical and dramatic expression.
62
Within the work, the performer is asked to accentuate fermata with stick gesture. It is
also the authors opinion that this direction allows the fermata to take place on two levels
the actual break in the action, and the physical gesture that emphasizes the pause before
it resumes. Another example is the slightly exaggerate notation for the poco a poco
rallentando starting in measure 81. The performer is physically accentuating the slowing
down of the gesture.31 The author believes this visual element reinforces the uphill
battle of the sound with a visualization of the performers struggle.
Mercer, Janis. Air (1988; revised 1993-4). Media Press. Champaign, IL

Air is not so much a drum set composition as it an expression of a dramatic
struggle that uses the drum set as a voice. Mercer takes the drum set further than just a
virtuosic challenge. She identifies the drum sets musical, aesthetic, and philosophical
potential, and then leverages the instrument to convey aspects of her own personal and
professional life. Mercer states in the score, Air is motivated by several ideas:
suffocating frustration, both musical and intellectual, and the inability to breathe during
asthma attacks; the challenge of writing a melodic percussion piece with only one
pitched instrument; and a response to the question of writing pretty or tonal music.32
While a student at Mills College, Mercer was asked by one of her peers, Gino
Robair, to write a melodic percussion piece using indefinite pitched percussion. For
Robair, drum set was his focus at the time. Mercer found inspiration in Robairs use of
the instrumentation in both a musical and theatrical manner. 33
31 Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979), pg. 11.
32 Mercer, Janis. E-mail interview. 6 April 2009.
33 Ibid.
63
Asthma is a common medical condition that both she and Robair dealt with. To
overly accentuate the asthma element, the performer is requested to wear a microphone
and apply heavy breathing to some of the moments throughout the work. At the time,
Mercer was extremely frustrated with many things in my life. Composing Air turned
out to be therapeutic, as she used the work to express her battles with both asthma and
frustration in a series of musical explosions. She further describes the piece, The first
section tries out different alternatives to solve a problem, but they are unsuccessful,
attempts are made to go around the issue until finally the issue must be confronted and
all patience is lost as well.34
Mercer challenged herself in exploiting the drum sets textural possibilities in a
series of little battles. These battles are composed of small explosions and a brief calm
before building again. At rehearsal C (figure 12), she allows the temple blocks to build a
phrase in a subtle, chattering manner and then rudely imposes boisterous cymbals notes.
Figure 12. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 3.
The temple blocks are soon taken over completely by membranophones and cymbals.
The textural and rhythmic build is brought to a halt by a loud gong. This scenario is
34 Ibid.
64
repeated again. The battle effect can also be identified through the random fortissimo rim
shots that sound like gunfire. After the second battle, she assigns the cymbals to play a
melodic role at a slower pace. This melody is gradually overtaken by instituting an erratic
improvisation, then segues to the explosion.
During the explosion, an ability to improvise is critical; the performer is left to
express boiling over to the best of his or her ability. Mercer describes this improvisation
as being based on effect and not the theoretical side of music. The application of such a
type of structured improvisation was an influence from her studies with composer and
saxophonist Anthony Braxton. Mercer also gives further input in identifying solo drum
set artist Milford Graves as another point of reference.35
The section is completely improvised with the intent to be somewhat frightening
to the audience.36 All components may be used in conventional and unconventional
manners. In fact, everything in the immediate area of the drum set can be utilized (floor,
body, walls, etc.).
There are some parameters for the explosion. First, it should be kept to 45 seconds
to a minute. Then, the performer has two dynamic shapes to choose from. As noted in
score:
1. Loud as possible throughout with pause: _____________ , _____________
2. Forte crescendo to loud as possible, pause, crescendo to loud as possible
Finally, the performer needs to suddenly stop the explosion and allow the sound to
dissipate. During this time, the performer should let just the breathing be heard. Again,
the effect should be intimidating and leave the audience overrun by the intensity. The
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid.
65
tension from the explosion is then released. Signaled by the saron, the calm is short
lived.37 Mercer states in the score, Rage begins to build once more in the piece and
finally concludes with a strong drum set statement that signals another impending
outburst, which never quite arrives.
Motivic application is one of Mercers goals in this work.38 Throughout the work,
Mercer embeds a triplet gesture that could be thought of as the cough motif (see figure
13).
Initially, the motif permeates the first section of the piece and is easily identifiable due to
the drastic and continuous subito tempo changes and the descending tom phrase. The
motif dissipates for a while, but then returns after rehearsal E (figure 14).
37 A saron is a metallophone used in Balinese, Javanese, and Sundanese gamelan.

66
Paced a little faster, Mercer applies the motif to the higher pitched toms. She remarks,
At the same time, I wanted to feature the groups of percussion I had in a melodic way,
so the toms get a little triplet melody, the temple blocks foreshadow the saron and the
cymbals introduce the explosion. 39
Another motivic application is the snare drum rolls (figure 15). Mercer states,
The two snare rolls in the beginning sum up the pieces intent, to create a lot of tension
that is not released. 40
Figure 15. Mercer, Janis Air (1988), pg. 1.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
67
It is the authors opinion these snare drum rolls represent the pressure of the unreleased
air building up in asthmatic lungs, unable to let go until a violent cough (explosion)
expels the air.
The first page of Mercers score is very informative, starting with a narrative
containing information regarding the instruments and specific description for some of the
lesser-known components such as the saron. Mercer then includes a narrative containing
a brief synopsis of the work, musical and theatrical input to assist in presenting Air, and a
brief description of her own aesthetic behind the composition. Also, included on this page
is a listing of the various symbols for technical manipulation and required implements.
Finally, it contains a concise listing of the instruments and the score layout.
Notation for this work is clear and concise. Mercer implements a standard five
line stave. Sometimes using a grand staff of two staves, the top stave is for
membranophones, cymbals, and gong, while the bottom stave is dedicated for temple
blocks and saron. Numerous descriptive pieces of information are clearly embedded in
the score. These pieces of information include turning the snare drum on and off, tempo
changes, physical direction such as remain motionless, and changes in articulations
such as rim shots. Finally, there is a supplemental sheet with information regarding the
Explosion.
Initially, there is no time signature notated on the score. There are plenty of tempo
markings, but a time signature does not come in until after the explosion, in a more
serene section. It is the authors opinion that Mercer is adding almost another dimension
to the struggle concept. With the lack of time signature, the phrases appear seamless and
continually forward moving. Mentally, it can cause an uneasy feeling for the performer.
Once the time signatures are implemented, it seems like a missing piece of the puzzle has
68
been found. Mercer then removes the time signature to embark on the final struggle to the
end.
The rhythmic vocabulary of Air is elaborate on numerous levels. To begin with,
Mercer strings together a variety of rhythmic groupings. Along with syncopation that is
applied to the groupings, this teetering effect expresses the feel of frustration. There are
sections where Mercer will incorporate almost mirror images of these aforementioned
rhythms in the bass drum to thicken the texture and add to the boiling over effect. The
polyrhythmic attributes between the hands and feet include 4:3 and 2:5 (figure 15).
It is important to notice that the notation identifies two lines of material through the stems
facing up and down, as well as dynamic marking on the top and bottom of the staff.
Instrumentation
As seen in the score layout (figure 17), the core instrumentation includes bass
drums, snare drum, two mounted toms, and a floor tom.
69
Figure 17. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), introductory page.
The configuration includes high hats, ride cymbals, and a crash cymbal. Mercer has
extended the cymbals palette with a splash cymbal. When asked if three graduated
suspended cymbals could replace the ride, crash and splash, the composer responded, I
wrote for Gino's set, which uses ride, crash and splash. I would have to hear the
difference to tell you whether suspended cymbals would work.41 Graduated cymbals
would assist in bringing out the melodic aspect, but would not be effective with the more
intense applications.
Mercer further embellishes the sound palette with three other non-standard
percussion instruments for the drum set. The first instrument is the set of five temple
blocks. Seeming to acknowledge the chattering wood effect from the early years of the
drum set, the temple blocks function to mirror tom toms in a melodic capacity. The next
embellishment is the gong; utilized in interrupting the struggle, the one note of the gong
forcefully eliminates the momentum.
41 Ibid.
70
Finally, Mercer adds five resonant metal pipes. In the score, she elaborates with
the preference of a Javanese saron. The saron is typically played by striking the metal
bars with a hammer in one hand and then dampening with the other hand. For this
composition, Mercer requests that the saron be tuned to the pelog scale. During the time
Mercer and Robair were at Mills College, they both participated in the schools gamelan
ensemble. Mercer felt that the addition of such a sound source would be a meditative
aspect to balance such an intense composition.42
Sound presentation
Technically, there are five essential elements that a performer would need to
present this work. First, technical development and independence with the feet is
important. There are gestures that call for the hands and feet to be utilized in the same
manner that just two hands might be used. These sounds are integrated in a linear
manner; therefore, there is a necessity for timing and dynamic control to effectively
present the gestures. The independence is required to implement Mercers application of
texture. Sometimes it is intended just for a horizontal thickening of the sound. Other
times the independence is utilized in a polyrhythmic manner.
Mercer manipulates the sound sources through a variety of dampening techniques.
Periodically, the sound residue of the cymbals is stopped by the performers hand. A
performer will need to make the decision on how long that cymbal should ring.
Dampening after striking also happens with the saron. Additionally, there are instances
that the cymbal is dampened before it is struck, resulting in a staccato presentation.
Again, a performer will need to use the other hand to prepare this sound. The high hat is
42 Ibid.
71
dampened before and after striking the surface as well. The difference is that the
dampening is executed through the use of a foot on the high hat pedal.
Each sound source is extensively manipulated through striking in various areas on
the playing surface. Mercer employs two playing areas on the cymbals: bell and edge.
Drum sounds are generated from the drumhead and the rim for contrast of sound (skin vs.
wood), and rim shots are used for abrasive, staccato interjections.
One element specific to this work is the implementation of a microphone. Mercer
states, A battery-operated contact is placed on, or near, the performers chest/throat area
to magnify breathing, but not to hinder movement.43 The magnified breathing does
occur while the other limbs are active. Usually, a percussionist tries not to display heavy
breathing or other vocalized methods of showing a struggle. Mercer wants that added
texture to exploit the struggle that happens in the Explosion.
The final element is having a grasp on the configuration. There are many
components within the sound palette. A performer would not only need to acknowledge
the visual representation on the printed page, but also where the instruments are placed
physically. Performers would need to be able to fluidly and effectively move from one
instrument to the next based on the direction from the printed page.
Instrument placement
Due to the integration of the temple blocks and the sophistication of the gestures
written for the toms, a performer may choose to slightly alter the drum set configuration.
As seen in figure 18, the temple blocks and drums (top line) are written so that there is
little time to physically shift and execute the music.
43 Ibid.
72
If the temple blocks were to be placed on either side of the drum set to retain the basic
setup, moving back and forth might cause a delay in execution. Therefore, it is the
authors opinion that the temple blocks need to be placed in the middle of the drum set in
front of the snare drum. Considering that mounted toms are typically set up in front of the
snare drum, a performer needs to address the importance of logistical relationship
between the toms and snare drum.
By applying modern hardware technology, the drum set can be adjusted to
facilitate the extended instrumentation and assist in accessibility of the other instruments
as well. If a performer is trying to get the tom closer to the snare drum, the high hat
cymbals will cause an obstacle. Traditional high hat stands place the cymbals directly
above the foot. Drum set artist Bill Bruford discovered that by using a remote cable high
hat he was able to move the cymbals while still retaining his foot placement.44 With the
freedom of the high hat cymbal placement, temple blocks can be located in front of the
snare drum (see figure 19).
44 http://www.billbruford.com/drums.php (accessed December 29, 2011).

73
Figure 19. Drum set performer Bill Bruford and his drum set configuration with
remote cable high hat and placement of toms.
This also allowed him to configure his drum set in a way that placed the drums on the
same level and horizontal plane. A typical drum set configuration has multiple horizontal
planes set at various heights and angles. The variety can challenge a performer in
achieving control of dynamic and timbre properties throughout the setup. A suggested
setup for Air is identified in figure 20.
74
Figure 20. Recommended configuration for Air. 1. bass drum, 2. snare

drum, 3. small mounted tom, 4. medium mounted tom, 5. floor
tom. Also included: high hat, splash cymbal, crash cymbal, ride
cymbal, saron, and gong.
Benefits
Benefits of performing this work include better sense of timing, exploring the
melodic capability of cymbals, and implementing a dramatic element. The work tells a
story. There is an introduction, a developing subject matter, both chaos and serenity, and
finally a hopeful resolution. A performer needs to acknowledge these sections and pace
them accordingly.
Typically, cymbals are timekeeping components. In this composition, a
performer needs to pay attention to the melodic component and allow for space between
the cymbal attacks. The audience must hear the melodic content prior to the
improvisation. If there is not much space between the notes, it makes it difficult for both
the performer and the listener.
75
Air is a dramatic presentation and its success is achieved through intensity. Air is
not a tame piece. Mercer states, be reckless during the Explosion and don't be afraid to
yell. 45 For this work to be successful, there is a need for the performer to clearly
understand the embedded information that Mercer is conveying, and accept a challenge
much like an actor would in preparing a dramatic role.
Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001). Smith Publications. Baltimore, MD

Stuart Saunders Smith stated, The drum set is the most ubiquitous instrument in
American culture today. It is usually played utilizing the aural tradition.46 Along with
two other solos composed for drum set, Brush highlights Smiths desire to establish a
precedent for the written tradition.47 The other two, Blue Too and Two Lights, can be
performed individually or together with Brush for a three-movement suite.48
Although all three works should be considered strong contributions to the body of
literature, there are similar gestures and applications of the drum sets textural
capabilities. However, due to the deeper exploitation of brush technique, it is the authors
opinion that Brush carries a higher level of benefit for a drum set artist. Smith challenges
a performer to execute specific techniques to shape and color notes. Made possible
through various manipulations of the friction sound that is produced when a brush is
dragged across a drumhead, these techniques greatly expand the sound palette. The
46 Smith, Stuart Saunders. E-mail interview. 23 February 2011.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
76
manner that the brush moves, the shape, the amount of pressure, and the speed of the
motion all have direct effects on the sound produced.
The work contains challenging rhythms. Smith explains, My rhythmic palette is
made up of asymmetrical rhythms. I create talking music not music of sounds for the sake
of sounds. We talk with an infinite durational variety. Duple rhythms make good marches
but little else. We talk in 5s, 7s, 11s, etc 49 Smith combines these rhythmic groupings
with sudden dynamic and instrumental fluctuation to express aggressive, jagged gestures.
These gestures are separated by moments of silence.
In Brush, the silence functions in various facets of the creative process. Initially,
the silence allows time for the phrases to be digested. Due to the delicate sound and very
hyperactive rhythms, this gives the performer and listener an opportunity to process the
music. The silence also can be interpreted as suspense. With the conversational concept
imbedded, these silences are moments of catching ones breath before the next sentence.
For Smith, silence attaches a meditative element to the work. He states, The silences and
melodic phrases sound eventually decays like the life cycles of all living things. Also,
as a Quaker, silence represents the divine. Quakers sit in silence waiting for divine
guidance.50
Visually, the score is very clear and concise. Smith utilizes a standard five line
staff with the neutral percussion clef. Primarily using the lines, the key clarifies the
notation of instrumentation well. As seen in figure 21, there is a challenge of deciphering
when the high hat is struck with brush versus when sound is generated by the foot.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid.
77
Figure 21. Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001), pg. 1.
As notated below the staff, the first two notes of the high hat have circles below them.
The performer should execute them by leaving the cymbals apart and strike with the
brush. The next two notes should be executed with the foot. Although not a big challenge,
the performer will need to be conscious of the alteration.
Notation on the first page also states some of the techniques associated with
Smiths sound palette. The information consists of:
Play with brushes with metal handles throughout
Scrape brush across surface of drum once
Rapidly scrape brush from side to side on drum surface
Scrape metal handle of brush along the surface of the cymbal
Open high hat, play top cymbal with brush or metal handle, as indicated
High hat mostly closed, played with brushes, sounds trashy51
Instrumentation
Smith scores for a typical four-piece drum set consisting of a snare drum, bass
drum, mounted tom, and floor tom. Cymbals consist of a high hat and a single suspended
51 Trashy describes the sound when two cymbals that are touching are struck with an
implement similar to that of a metal trash can lid when struck. Typically, the high hat would be a
staccato sound if struck in the completely closed position. With it mostly closed, the sound
produced is more of legato.
78
cymbal. Due to the use of brushes and active rhythmic gestures, the performer should
consider instruments that speak quickly and clearly when using such an implement.
Due to the required friction sound from the brushes, drumheads will need
consistent texture. Also, the amount of grit (density or frequency of texture) with some
drumheads may be too coarse or have inconsistencies within the texture in order to reflect
an animal skin. With the implementation of brush techniques, this type of drumhead may
cause unwanted inflections.
The performer will need to take into consideration the balance of the instruments.
Both in the score and e-mail interview, Smith comments, the bass drum should be
carefully balanced with the other instruments of the drum set, so it does not stick out and
overpower the sound of the drum set as a whole.52 Although it is important that the bass
drum is the lowest voice, a larger instrument could be overbearing in comparison to the
brush sound produced. Also, the performer should take into consideration the amount of
attack and sustain produced by the bass drum.
The performer may choose to disengage the snare wires. This eliminates any
additional sonic residue caused by sympathetic vibrations. Also, the timbre of the snare
drum relates better to the mounted and floor tom.
Sound presentation
For most of the work, the texture is very focused. Smith will initially use a small
portion of the sound palette with only two or three sound sources occurring at a time. As
mentioned in his interview, he is keeping the focus on coloring and shaping notes versus
quantity.53 The snare drum is the most explored sound source. It is the authors opinion
53 Ibid.
79
that Smith is appearing to return to his roots of brush performance techniques.54 Smith
states, I studied many great brush players at an early age via recordings and with my
teacher, Charles Newcomb. Also, I played in piano trios. Playing brushes was a very
important skill in my generation.55 Smith sparingly presents the sounds simultaneously.
Most occurrences are in a linear fashion and are distributed through all four limbs.
When asked what criteria would result in a successful performance, Smith
remarks, The drummer must be able to have a very wide dynamic range to fully express
the music. We must be able to whisper very softly, talk, and shout to fully understand.56
As shown in figure 22, Smiths application of dynamic is aggressive and has the added
challenge of a variety of articulations imbedded in the gestures.
Figure 22. Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001), pg. 2.
With these articulations, the manner in which the instrument is struck varies between
horizontal and vertical motions.
54 Typical of performance practices utilizing brushes, the snare drum is used the most
due to accessibility and desired sound.
56 Ibid.
80
Although the implement may have less overall presence than a drumstick, Brush
does exploit the aggressive side of drum set as much as subtle, delicate, gestures that a
pair of brushes can achieve. There is an intense element to the work at all dynamic levels.
The dragging effect is modified by rapidly scraping from side to side in small, spasmodic
motions. Smith seems to use this to present an agitated mood.
It is important that a performer keep track of the texture the bushes present and
not let the dynamics dictate implement application. The opposite ends of the brushes
(preferably metal) are used on the cymbals for both striking and dragging effects. With
the more aggressive excerpts, it is important that the actual brush side is still utilized.
Smith mentions, In some of the very loud sections some players have over used handle
sounds.57 In doing so, the performer has altered the intended articulation that the
composer is requesting.
Benefits
Brush is an opportunity to develop expressive brush technique. With the luxury of
being able to generate and manipulate sounds through horizontal motions, brushes extend
the sound palette without expanding the number of instrumental components. Compared
to some of the extensive use of drumsticks through the body of works, the friction (white
noise) of the brushes added a subtle textural dimension to the sound source. Combined
with Smiths advanced rhythmic palette, lyrical nature of the melodic gestures, and wide
range of dynamics, a performers facility with the implement greatly improves.
57 Ibid.
81
Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002). Kris Tiner Music, ASCAP. San
Diego, CA
Echoes, and Echoes of Echoes (hereafter Echoes) is a work written for Harris
Eisenstadt as part of a three-movement suite, specifically with Harris playing in mind. 58
Through Tiners application of an alternative improvisational notation, the title itself
amplifies his idea of an inexact repetition of the phrases and freedom of musical
interpretation of the overall work. The single page score may appear simple, but the
opportunity to create a meaningful, dramatic arc of dynamic and textural intensity, and to
merge separate sections into a complete, organic performance is extremely challenging.
While a student in the African-American Improvisational Music MFA program at
CalArts College, Tiner developed his compositional language. Although rooted in studies
with trumpeter/composer Wadada Leo Smith, Tiner researched and fused methods used
by Anthony Braxton, Morton Feldman, and Charles Ives. Tiner writes that this work
employs unintentional echoes of improvisational artists such as Milford Graves and Elvin
Jones.59
Echoes implements free improvisation, which the composer stresses should be
within the structure and character of the piece. With written gestures that are divided
between high and low sounds, motivic cells of various lengths form the work. What
creates the echo effect is that the path that the cells follow is left to the performer.
Thus, the cells are reinstated and repeated at the performers discretion.
58 Tiner, Kris. E-mail interview. 29 April 2008.
59 Ibid.
82
The single-page score allows for much interpretation within the austere visual
representation. The score consists of seven systems of a single lined staff. The sounds are
to be divided between high and low sonic relationships; standard note heads indicate
drums and X note heads are for metallic instruments such as cymbals or cowbells.
Although tempo is left for the performer to decide, the written rhythms are for the most
part straightforward duple-based gestures. Tiner also incorporates moments of sustained
sounds for both drums and metallic instruments.
As seen in figure 23, Tiner uses a special notation of bracket with an arrow
connected to a circle. Tiner refers to this as a symbol for free improvisation.
Figure 23. Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002).
The duration is left up to the performer, but Tiner requests that the material to be loosely
based on gesture just prior to the notation.
Tiners notation is an adaptation of the system used by his teacher Wadada Leo
Smith. Labeled as Ankhrasmation by Smith, he describes this system as being a
musical language for the creative musician or artist, it is symbolic in nature, it uses colors
and shapes.60 The system is intended for performers to extract the visual elements such
60 Detrick, Douglas. Wadada Leo Speaks. Font Music online.

http:/fontmusic.org/2011/05/wadada-leo-smith-speaks/ (accessed December 20, 2011)
83
as size, contour, or color and reinterpret in a musical manner.61 Smith required that all of
his students initially learn to read and write music using this system.62 Once the system
had been internalized, students were then expected to adapt elements of it for their own
purposes. Echoes was composed toward the end of Tiners first year at CalArts College
and was a first step away from that system.63
Variations in bar lines are a significant aspect of the work. Tiner wanted the piece
to be non-metric and to be able to fluctuate in terms of tempo. The reason for the three
types of bar lines is to indicate various lengths of pauses in which the performer is not
counting, only listening and sensing. In the composers words, they help the piece to
breathe in a natural way.64 In the authors opinion, it is easy for a performer to overlook
these distinctions, but when the specific length of pause is properly acknowledged the
piece has a better chance of achieving the echo effect. In figure 24, the first staff of the
excerpt contains the double line (medium pause) and the single line (short pause)
notation. The thick line in the middle of the second staff represent a long pause.
An
61 Ibid.
62 Tiner, Kris. E-mail interview. 29 April 2008.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
84
other asset in achieving the echo is the application of repeat zones. Tiner states,
Echoes was the first composition where I used those repeat zones in such a way that
the performer could navigate through the piece at will65 The performer is given the
option to play through a repeat or acknowledge and then go back to any previous right-
facing repeat marking. As seen in figure 25, there are four right-facing and two left-
facing repeat signs in the excerpt.
As an example, once a performer completes the second from last measure in the third
line, they have the option to go back to the beginning of this particular excerpt or
possibly choose the repeat at the end of line two. Also, the number of repeats is left up to
the performer as well. Tiner wanted to give the performer an opportunity to take more
liberty with the gestures and still be able to maintain specific elements as thematic
statements.
65 Ibid.
85
Instrumentation
Due to extensive work with improvisers, Tiners sound palette criteria for his
compositions focused on the idea of separating certain aspects of the instrument into
diametrical opposites.66 The score only identifies two criteria for the sound sources:
high and low sounds, and drums or cymbals. It is up the performer to decide which
instruments and how many. This allowed his works to specify sound palette content to
some extent, but still leave much of the final result to the performer.
Sound presentation
According to the notation, Tiner gives the performer complete freedom in
presenting this work. It is the authors opinion that decisions should be based on a literal
interpretation of the works title. Regarding the illusion of an echo, the initial
presentation of each repeat zone should be clear and articulate. When a zone is reinstated
it should be slightly softer and not as enunciated. This can be achieved through
implement placement on the striking surface or having an implement that can offer
multiple timbres.
Benefits
A successful performance of this work critically depends on the performers

balance in the absorption of the information, decision making in sound production, and
musical interpretation. The application of a new and original manner to notate free
improvisation while still retaining some elements of traditional notation to base the
improvisation assists in the performers development in the creative and expressive
66 Ibid.
86
branch of performing. The performer is as much a part of the compositional process as

Tiner, and each performance is different.
Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No.1 (1976). Munchkin Music

Inspired by the artist who premiered the work (Terry Bozzio), Frank Zappa took
his own experience as a drummer and constructed a through-composed piece of music.67
With a strong understanding of the drum sets capabilities, Zappas treatment is similar to
orchestral percussion scoring in that everything is meticulously written, and is visually
dense, creating a page of music that was black with notes. 68
Describing the first time The Black Page was given to him, Bozzio states, One
day I walked into rehearsal. I was fairly comfortable with him (Zappa) at the time, and I
had done his orchestral music which was pretty difficult and I considered myself a
vet... you know at that point. He walked in and handed me this piece of music. And he
said what do you think about this, Bozzio? and I said Gee, Frank! Im impressed. 69
Bozzios response was as much a compliment as it was an expression of anguish. The
work includes melodic gestures that encompass intricate rhythms, articulations and
phrasing open to a musicians interpretation. Described by Zappa to have a statistical
density, The Black Page can be intimidating, even beyond the impact of the title. 70
67 Rule, Greg. Survivors of the Black Page. Drums & Drumming Magazine, April
1991, pg. 58.
68 Ibid, pg. 56.
69 Ibid, pg. 56.
70 Zappa, Frank. Baby Snakes: A movie about people who do stuff that is not normal.
Eagle Rock Entertainment Inc., 1979 dvd.
87
The name of the composition refers to a vernacular phrase used by studio

musicians. During an orchestra rehearsal at Royce Hall, Zappa overheard some of the
musicians expressing one of their musical trepidations as studio musicians.71 In an
interview, Bozzio exclaims, They seemed to be in fear of getting hired for work that
involved reading some of the most musically difficult literature. The music would have
so many notes that the page would appear almost all black. The musicians deemed this
music the black page. 72 Reacting to the musicians discussion, Zappa was inspired to
compose his version. In an interview, Bozzio states, his (Zappa) canvas ended being the
drum set with Bozzio as the paintbrush. 73
Due to legal reasons, Munchkin Music has not made a printed copy of The Black
Page readily available. However, a manuscript version is included on the Terry
Bozzio/Chad Wackerman: Solos & Duets DVD. The piece is briefly shown in its entirety
during interviews. It then is displayed one line at a time while Bozzio and Wackerman
are performing it as a duet.
The notation is a standard five-line staff. The bass drum is assigned to the space
below the staff. All of the drums are assigned to spaces, starting from the bottom space
working up. The order is floor tom, snare drum, medium mounted tom, high mounted
tom, and low bongo. The high bongo is above the first ledger line. Although there is no
notation specifying cymbal or high hat, there are x heads that indicate a cymbal sound
71 Bozzio, Terry and Chad Wakerman. Solos & Duets Featuring the Black Page.
Drum Workshop Inc., 2001 dvd.
72 Cobb, Jared. The making of a complex man. Traps: The Art of Drumming. I
Autumn, 2008, pg. 34.
73 Bozzio, Terry and Chad Wakerman. Solos & Duets Featuring the Black Page.
Drum Workshop Inc., 2001 dvd.
88
source. Occasionally, Zappa reassigns those notes to some of the extended

instrumentation.
The rhythmic pallet of The Black Page is a wide spectrum. When heard, the
lyrical approach does come through. One feels the push and pull of the phrase similar to
listening to a speech and having the speaker slow down to emphasize specific points.
Zappa has integrated space so that there are places to allow the phrases to breathe a little
and the performer is able to regroup prior to the next flourish. Bozzio states, Zappa has
frequently addressed his rhythms as speech influenced, meaning that the rhythms arent
calculated, but following a free movement comparable to spoken language. The rhythms
as well as the melody are influenced by the accents of the words. On paper Zappas
rhythms can sometimes look strange, but when you listen to them, they sound more
natural. 74
The piece is grounded by common a time signature and a slow metronome
marking of 60 beats per minute. A common performance practice is to articulate the
quarter note pulse with the high hat. Zappa starts the irregular rhythmic grouping in the
second measure. Figure 26 displays the five note grouping over two counts in measure
two and then continues to show the multiple odd groupings in measure five.
Figure 26. Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No. 1 (1976).
74 Mover, Jonathan. Terry Bozzio: by Design. Drumhead. March-April 2010, pgs. 25-
26.
89
Other groupings include an eleven note subdivisions. In figure 27, Zappa leads into the
eleven-note grouping with complex superimpose polyrhythmic gesture. Displayed below
are three and five note grouping imbedded into a 3:2 polyrhythm.
Instrumentation
Composed at the time for Terry Bozzios drum set, the configuration is just
slightly extended from the basic configuration.. The core includes snare drum, bass drum,
two mounted toms, floor tom, high hat, and cymbal. Although there is only one cymbal
notated on the score, the audio and visual documentation researched by the author did
reveal that the use of numerous cymbals is common practice. Also notated in the score
are bongos, sizzle cymbal, cowbell, and castanets.75
Sound presentation
The drums carry the bulk of the activity. Using a linear approach, the drums are
treated as notes of a scale. Even the bass drum needs to blend with the other drums as an
equal contributor. There are moments in which the bass drum executes three thirty-
second notes in a row. In addition to being technically challenging, these three notes need
to retain the musical context of the entire passage. Zappa does incorporate the bass drum
75 Documented in numerous recordings, many performers execute the castanets passages

on the rim of a drum.
90
for impact at the end of phrases. As displayed in figure 28, the bass drum is combined
with a metallic component such as the high hat, cymbals or cowbell (as it is notated) to
thicken the texture and emphasize the syncopation.
Benefits
Identified by author Greg Rule as being 30 bars of sight-reading hell, The Black
Page challenges any performer in a highly complex rhythmic and lyrical manner.76 It is
the authors opinion, that preparation should include a strict rhythmic development with a
metronome. Once these rhythms and the skill set of executing these linear passages are
established, a performer will gain a better musical understanding of how odd note
rhythmic groupings can function to express melody. The work represents the
compositional genius of Frank Zappa and , arguably, the first through-composed solo for
drum set to be published.
76 Rule, Greg. Survivors of the Black Page. Drums & Drumming Magazine, April
1991, pg. 58.
91
CHAPTER FOUR - CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH
Conclusion
The present study may serve as a beginning of the discussion of how music has
influenced drum set performance practices, how the drum set has evolved, and how it
continues to expand and become a viable instrumental voice for composition. As new
sounds became necessary to accompany and propel ensemble performances, artists began
looking to become more involved in the creative process and to explore melodic and
harmonic elements of the music. As the drum set transcends the timekeeping role, the
instrument can successfully facilitate solo expression. Performers have explored non-
western music cultures, programmatic and theatrical possibilities, and an expanding
rhythmic palette and musical inflections.
In this study the author has examined a body of literature composed for
unaccompanied drum set, and identified specific compositions for their significance in
promoting personal growth as a drum set artist and musician. Although there are few,
these works challenge a performers technical facility and exploit the sound palette
through various forms of melodic and textural applications. This literature adds a
philosophical dimension to drum set performance practices that have already been
implemented in other areas of percussion study such as snare drum, keyboard percussion,
and timpani. It can serve as a starting point for younger drum set performers to become
acquainted with the expectations of the compositions, and encourage the experience of
multi-percussion with the accessibility of their own instrument.
92
Suggestions for Future Research

As with any study, new questions and avenues for research and composition have
opened up. Commissioning new works for drum set and expanding the body of literature
is the authors primary goal going forward. It is the authors hope to further explore the
fundamental sound palette and assist composers in finding innovative sound presentations
for the instrument.
After identifying a few of the compositional techniques already implemented,
investigating non-idiomatic compositional techniques applied to the drum set could
expand the body of literature. The first would be to expand on a Percussive Notes article
by Michael Petiford, titled Fugue for Drum Set, in which Petiford applies elements of a
fugue (such as exposition, augmentation and diminution) in developing a drum set solo.
Due to the accessibility to present multiple sounds simultaneously on the drum set and
technical facility in independence, the approach is viable. Another non-idiomatic
approach would be an application similar to a 12-tone series. By expanding Cages
process of assigning random sound sources to numbers or parts of the staff, an order of
sound sources could be assigned, developed, and then put through the typical
compositional variations (retrograde, inversion, and retrograde-inversion).
Another future endeavor is to seek out and document world music influence on
drum set compositions and performance. Brujo, composed by Richard Schwarz, is scored
for drum set and fuses West African rhythms with minimalism. Although a transcription
of an improvised solo, the work I Remember (David Schmalenberger) exploits West
African drumming. Drum set performer Dan Weiss has applied the structure of traditional
Indian tabla compositional elements to the instrument. His recording, Tintal Drumset
Solo, was released in 2005 and unites two of Weiss own musical paths.
Finally, collecting and researching literature that utilizes drum set as a solo
instrument with chamber or large ensemble accompaniment presents yet another
exploration. Max Roach was active in taking the solo drum set aesthetic and collaborating
93
with others who shared the same philosophy and integrity. Shortly after his 1973 faculty
appointment at the University of Massachusetts, Roach began to collaborate with Dr.
Fred Tillis, also a faculty member at University of Massachusetts and an accomplished
poet, composer, educator, administrator, and tenor saxophonist. Tillis composed two
works for Roach, Ring Shout Concerto and Festival Journey.
The drum set is still evolving. With a vast spectrum of sounds that can be
produced even on the most abbreviated configurations, it is the authors belief that the
drum set presents an open canvas for composers. Composers are free to be meticulous
and very specific with their expression, or to offer the opportunity for performers to be
active in the creative process through interpretation. The opportunity for personal growth
through the study of these works will assist in elevating the drum set as a solo instrument
within percussion pedagogy.
94
APPENDIX A: SOLO LITERATURE
Clarifications:
a. Title
b. Composer
c. Publisher/ Availability
d. Time duration of work
e. Level of difficulty to be identified as beginning, intermediate,
intermediate +, advanced, and advanced +
f. Instrumentation basic configuration (bass drum, snare drum,
mounted tom, floor tom, high hat, and two suspended cymbals),
basic configuration + a few duplicate components, extended
instrumentation, and abbreviated instrumentation
g. Notes pedagogical (referring to works that are intended to be a
teaching resource), extended techniques, rhythmic application (odd
groupings, polyrhythms), stylistic elements, and other technical or
compositional attributes
Title: Aint It Rich

Composer: Murray Houllif
Publisher/Availability: Kendor Music, Inc.
Time: 2:00
Level of difficulty: advanced
Instrumentation: basic configuration
Notes: pedagogical; pays tribute to Buddy Rich; borrows motifs and techniques from
performer
Title: Air
Composer: Janice Mercer
Publisher/Availability: Media Press
Time: 11:00
Level of difficulty: advanced +
Instrumentation: snare drum, bass drum, (2) mounted toms, high hat, ride cymbal, crash
cymbal, splash cymbal, saron, gong, body mic
Notes: extended techniques; polyrhythms; linear applications
Title: All Set

Composer: Charley Morey
Time: 2:20
Level of difficulty: intermediate
Notes: pedagogical; swing style; some tempo changes
95
Title: All that Jazz No. 1

Composer: Jake Jerger
Publisher/Availability: RBC
Time: 2:30
Notes: pedagogical; swing style

Time: 2:30

Time: 2:30
Title: Angelique
Composer: R. Geelen
Publisher/Availability: Beurskens
Time: 2:30
Instrumentation: basic configuration + mounted tom
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Beat the Beat

Composer: Siegfried Fink
Publisher/Availability: Schott Music
Time: 4:50
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic
Title: Black Page, The

Composer: Frank Zappa
Publisher/Availability: Munchkin Music
Time: 2:30
Level of difficulty: advanced due to technical facility
Instrumentation: basic configuration + mounted tom and optional accessories
96
Notes: linear techniques; odd rhythmic groupings with polyrhythms
Title: Blue Too for Drum Set

Composer: Stuart Saunders Smith
Publisher/Availability: Smith Publications
Time: 8:30
Level of difficulty: advanced due to technical facility, notation, and rhythmic palette
Notes: odd rhythmic groupings; one-handed roll; linear applications
Title: Blues and Syncopation in 3/4 and 4/4

Composer: Alan Dawson
Publisher/Availability: Benj-Simr
Time: 5:00
Level of difficulty: intermediate +
Notes: pedagogical; meter changes
Title: Brujo
Composer: by Richard Schwarz
Publisher/Availability: (ms) Soundings. Santa Fe, NM: 1986, pgs. 46-53
Time: determined by performer
Instrumentation: basic configuration + two African bells
Notes: polyrhythmic application; rhythmic permutations; challenging notation
Title: Brush
Time: 8:00
Level of difficulty: advanced due to technical facility, notation, and rhythmic palette
Notes: advance brush techniques; all rolls are single stroke
Title: C.K.
Composer: Alice Henry
Publisher/Availability: Kastuck
Time: 2:00
Notes: linear applications
Title: Cajon Stroll

Composer: Gerald M. Helsip
Time: 5:00
97

Notes: pedagogical; bass drum ostinato; tempo changes
Title: Chop City

Composer: Ronald Keezer
Time: 1:30
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic (big band swing)
Title: Chrysoprase IV
Composer: Norman Weinberg
Publisher/Availability: Southern Music Company
Time: 5:20
Instrumentation: basic configuration + mounted tom and floor tom
Notes: program notes and notation key included; extensive high hat techniques; linear
applications; changing meters
Title: Cymbalism
Time: 1:10
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Dance
Time: 1:20
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Downside Up
Composer: Michael Stephans
Publisher/Availability: Studio 4 Productions
Time: 4:00
Notes: commissioned for the 1991 PAS International Drum Set Competition; program
notes included; dedicated to Max Roach and Steve Gadd; groove-based, style, and
improvisational elements
98
Title: Drum Set Etude No. 1

Composer: Michael La Rosa
Publisher/Availability: Somer Music Publications
Time: 2:30
Title: Drum Set Etude No. 2

Composer: Michael La Rosa
Publisher/Availability: Somer Music Publications
Time: 4:30
Title: Drum Set Suite

Composer: Ron Fink
Publisher/Availability: Fink
Time: 6:00
Title: Drum Set Solo No. 1

Composer: Scott Johnson
Publisher/Availability: UpBeat Music Publisher
Time: 2:30
Notes: meter changes; linear applications
Title: Drum Test

Composer: Jean-Claude Tavernier
Publisher/Availability: Theodore Presser Co.
Time: 2:00
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Echange
Composer: Jean-Luc Dayan
Publisher/Availability: Editions Combre Paris; Theodore Presser Co.
Time: 2:50
99
Instrumentation: basic configuration + mounted tom and mouth siren

Notes: pedagogical
Title: Echoes and Echoes of Echoes

Composer: Kris Tiner Music
Publisher/Availability: http://kristiner.com/
Time: determined by performer
Level of difficulty: advanced level due to notation
Instrumentation: determined by performer; two sound requirements: high vs. low and
drum vs. cymbal
Notes: structured improvisation
Title: Eclipse
Composer: Alan Keown
Publisher/Availability: Matrix/Alfred Publications
Time: 3:00
Notes: linear techniques; lyrical writing; Free tempo section
Title: Fahrenheit 451

Composer: Ben Whalund
Publisher/Availability: Honey Rock
Time: 4:30
Notes: CD accompaniment; performance notes included; style changes; some
improvisation
Title: Fantasy for Drums

Composer: Rod Lincoln
Time: 5:00
Level of difficulty: advanced due to technical facility,
Notes: commissioned for the 1991 PAS International Drum Set Competition; program
notes included; extended techniques; groove-based; stylistic; improvisational
elements
Title: Fireworks
Composer: John OReilly
Publisher/Availability: G. Schirmer
Time: 1:35
Notes: pedagogical
100
Title: Flitation
Composer: Dennis Rogers
Publisher/Availability: Southern
Time: 3:30
Notes: pedagogical; soloing over foot ostinato
Title: Foote Steps

Time: 1:30
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Fours in a Ride

Time: 2:00
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Frame Work

Time: 3:30
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Funk No. 2

Composer: Todd Ukena
Publisher/Availability: Southern Music Company
Time: 4:00
Notes: pedagogical; can be performed with tympani solo No. II Funk; performance notes
included
Title: Geneology
Time: 2:00
101

Notes: pedagogical, pays tribute to Gene Krupa; borrows motifs and techniques from
performer
Title: Get-Hip
Composer: Joachim Sponsel
Publisher/Availability: Musikverlag Zimmerman/Leduc
Time: 4:20
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Groovin in Trinidad

Composer: David Mancini
Time: 2:00
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic; groove-based
Title: Homage to a Bebop Drummer

Publisher/Availability: Per-Mus Publications
Time: 2:30
Title: Homage to Max

Composer: Rande Sanderbeck
Time: 8:00
Notes: pays tribute to Max Roach; pedagogical; five movement work; linear and ostinato
applications; stylistic
Title: I Remember
Composer: David Schmalenberger,
Publisher/Availability: Honey Rock
Time: 6:00
Instrumentation: basic configuration + two cowbells and two shakers
Notes: based on traditional West African Rhythms; meter change; feel change
102
Title: Iguana Dance

Composer: Gerald Heslip
Time: 3:25
Notes: pedagogical; groove-based
Title: Jazzmania et Rapmania

Composer: Jean Francois
Publisher/Availability: Editions Aug. Zurfluh
Time: 4:00
Title: Journey Through Time

Composer: Alan Keown
Publisher/Availability: Matrix Publishing/Alfred Publications
Time: 2:00
Level of difficulty: beginning
Notes: pedagogical; groove-based
Title: Jumping for Joyce

Composer: Alice Henry
Publisher/Availability: Kastuk
Time: 5:00
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic; meter changes
Title: Just for the Funk of It

Time: 2:15
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic; groove-based; tempo changes
Title: La Petite Batterie dOlivier

Composer: Grard Berlioz
Publisher/Availability: Editions Combre Paris; Theodore Presser Co.
Time: 3:00
103
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Machine-Drums
Publisher/Availability: SchottB
Time: 5:30
Instrumentation: basic configuration + sizzle cymbal
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Moods for Interaction

Composer: Rod Lincoln
Publisher/Availability: Studio 4 Publications
Time: 10:00
Instrumentation: basic configuration + two toms, splash cymbal, and cowbell
Notes: to be performed with tape accompaniment; linear applications; meter changes;
some groove; some improvised sections
Title: One4
Composer: John Cage
Publisher/Availability: Peter CF
Time: 6:55
Level of difficulty: advanced due to notation
Instrumentation: determined by performer
Notes: necessary to research compositional technique; notes included
Title: Philly
Time: 2:00
Notes: pedagogical; pays tribute to Philly Joe Jones; borrows motifs and techniques
from performer; linear applications
Title: R.K. for Drumset

Composer: Antero Hytinkoski
Publisher/Availability: Seesaw Music Corporation
Time: 4:00
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Reggae Rock

104

Time: 2:00
Notes: pedagogical; groove-based (Reggae)
Title: Rhapsody for Solo Drum Set

Composer: Michael LaRosa
Publisher/Availability: Somers Music Publications
Time: 6:00
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic (swing and funk); brush technique; option improvised solo
section
Title: Rondo for Drum Set

Composer: Larry Snider
Publisher/Availability: CL Barnhouse
Time: 5:00
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic; high hat independence
Title: Rudimental Fantasy for Drum Set

Composer: Art Cappio
Publisher/Availability: Pioneer Percussion
Time: 3:00
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Samba-ly
Time: 2:15
Notes: pedagogical; groove-based; style Jazz-Latin; some linear
Title: Shufflin Feet

Time: 2:00
Notes: pedagogical; style shuffle; groove-based
105
Title: Signature
Time: 1:30
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Sing Sing 86

Composer: Jean Francois
Publisher/Availability: Zurfluh
Time: 2:30
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Six Ideas for Snare, Bass, and Cymbal

Composer: David Hollinden
Publisher/Availability: C. Alan Publications
Time: 12:00
Level of difficulty: advanced due to rhythms and technical facility
Instrumentation: abbreviated configuration
Notes: program notes available at www.davidhollinden.com/six.html
Title: The Sky is Waiting

Composer: Robert Cucinotta
Publisher/Availability: Lang
Time: 12:00
Level of difficulty: advanced due to technical facility and notation
Instrumentation: extended configuration
Notes: concise program notes and information regarding notation; implement changes;
extended techniques
Title: Solid Groove

Composer: Charles Morey
Time: 4:30
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Solo for Pedal Bass Drum and Snare Drum

Composer: Jack Mouse
Publisher/Availability: Studio P/R
Time: 2:00
106

Instrumentation: abbreviated instrumentation
Notes: pedagogical; style (swing and rudimental combination); tempo change
Title: Statement
Time: 2:20
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Straight Sixteenths

Publisher/Availability: Columbia Pictures Publications
Time: 2:00
Level of difficulty: beginning
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Suite for Unaccompanied Drum Set

Composer: Anthony Miranda
Publisher/Availability: A.M. Percussion Publications
Time: 6:00
Notes: linear writing; multi-percussion influenced
Title: Swing Those Triplets

Composer: Charles Morey
Time: 3:00
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Syncopated Swing

Composer: Steve Kastuck
Publisher/Availability: Kastuck
Time: 2:50
Notes: pedagogical; foot ostinatos; stylistic
Title: Test
107
Publisher/Availability: Musikverlag Zimmerman

Time: 2:30
Notes: pedagogical
Title: Three Pieces for Drums

Composer: Heins Von Moisy
Publisher/Availability: Hal Leonard
Time: 6:00
Notes: concise notation information included; exercise included; implement changes
Title: Time Capsule

Composer: Frank Marino
Publisher/Availability: Drum Center Publications
Time: 4:00
Notes: pedagogical; stylistic; independence
Title: Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha
Composer: James Dillon
Publisher/Availability: Hinricshen Edition/Peters Edition
Time: 7:00
Level of difficulty: advanced due to notation and technical facility
Notes: linear and polyrhythmic writing; abundance of odd-rhythmic groupings
Title: To Rock for Admiral Shrunk

Composer: Larry Snider
Publisher/Availability: CL Barnhouse
Time: 5:00
Notes: pedagogical; high hat ostinato; stylistic
Title: Toms Dilemma

Time: 1:00
Notes: pedagogical
108
Title: Torotumbo
Composer: Vokler Blumenthaler
Publisher/Availability: Bote and Bote Berlin
Time: 6:00
Notes: extended techniques
Title: Tripling
Composer: Charles Perry
Time: 1:30
Notes: pedagogical; meter changes; some linear technique
Title: Two Lights

Time: 8:00
Instrumentation: basic configuration (composer suggestion to replace snare drum with a
tom or turn off snare mechanism)
Notes: odd rhythmic groupings; linear applications extended techniques (one-handed
roll); exclusive use of soft tympani mallets
Title: Two Sketches for Drum Set

Composer: Eric J. White
Time: 5:00
Instrumentation: basic configuration + cowbell
Notes: pedagogical; style and tempo changes; high hat techniques specified
Title: Variations
Time: 1:50
Notes: stylistic
Title: Whose Kit Is This?

Composer: Gerald M. Heslip
Time: 4:30
109

Instrumentation: basic configuration + mounted tom and crash cymbal
Notes: 3rd place winner of the 1991 PAS Composition Contest; elements of linear
technique; timekeeping; tempo change; improvisation; preparation suggestions
included
110
APPENDIX B: E-MAIL INTERVIEWS
Robert Cucinotta: 24 January 2010

Background from Cucinotta:
My involvement with writing for percussion began in the early 70s when I was
an undergraduate composition student at the Conservatory of Music at Brooklyn College
(CUNY). I was very fortunate to be studying at Brooklyn at this time when the school
was adding many talented composers and superb performers of new music to its faculty.
These included composers Jacob Druckman with whom I studied composition and
electronic music, pianist Paul Jacobs and percussionist Morris Arnie Lang.
Many of Arnies students became my comrades and after the performance of my
work, Beasts for baritone, guitar and percussion. In August 1973, he asked me to write
new works for their recitals. I wrote Triangulation for timpani and electronic tape (1974)
for Matthew Posnick and Fantasy, for vibraphone (1976) for Larry Spivacks Masters
recital at Juilliard. Both had performed in the premiere performance of Beasts. In 1975,
Arnie decided to start his own publishing company, Lang Percussion, and to include both
Beasts and Triangulation in his catalog.
Q: Why compose for drum set?
A: In 1976, I wrote, The Sky is Waiting for drummer Ray Marchica, another talent in
Arnies studio. His request was for a new work for extended drum set. Lang Percussion
published it in 1977.
Q: Why label the instrumentation drum set vs. calling it multi-percussion?

A: Though I have always thought of Sky as a drum set piece, I do understand why it is
sometimes put in the Multi-percussion category. (See compositional approach below)
The work has been on the Idaho Music Educators Associations State Solo Contest List
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for about ten years in the Multi-Percussion category. However, the Maryland Music
Educators Association lists the work as Drum Set Solo.
Q: When the work was premiered how were the components of the drum set arranged?
A: The only unusual placement that I can remember was laying the bass drum flat on the
right side almost behind the player. Using a two-headed bass drum stick, the player can
roll the bass drum with the right hand, while hitting the triangle or other drums with the
left hand.
Q: (Compositional Approach) Reason for the elaborate instrumentation. Why just three
cymbals as opposed to identifying the cymbals to be ride, crash, and splash? Why the
sizzle cymbal as the smallest? What was your compositional approach to The Sky is
Waiting?
A: My goal when writing this work was to create a serious concert work that explored
non-pitched sounds in an expressive way, using the drum set more as one-man percussion
ensemble than as using it to keep the beat. It was important to me to avoid most of the
clichs attached to the instrument. I wanted to use the drum set in a new flexible way, as
one singing voice with constant use of rubato, dynamic and tempo changes, and timbre
variations. The work avoids using the drum set as a multi-voiced instrument. The
orchestral bass drum was added to the double bass drums to extend the range of the kit.
As for the cymbals, I was thinking more as high, medium, low cymbals rather than as
ride, crash, splash.
Before I started composing Sky, Ray Marchica was very helpful in his suggestions and
demonstrated some of the results of his recent experiments. Many of these made their
way into the work including the use of the air drum and rattan sticks. For the air drum, a
rubber hose is attached to the vent holes of the floor tom-tom. The player then can raise
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the pitch by blowing into the hose while playing, thus increasing the tension of the skin.
One of my favorite sounds used here is the cowbell hit with the timpani stick. Other
techniques including symbol notations came from Reginald Smith Brindles book,
Contemporary Percussion, Oxford University Press, 1970.
Q: Why that particular notation?

A: Of the four works that I have used drum set, this is the only one that I used line
notation instead of standard drum set notation. This was my first drum set work, and I
probably decided this because of my past experience with line notation and because of
the inclusion of the extensions such as the triangle, bass drum, and wood blocks.
Druckman introduced me to proportional notation as a way to avoid the strictness of

conventional notation. As preparation for writing Beasts, Druckman suggested that I
study Luciano Berios Circles (1960) for soprano, harp and percussion as one of most
successful works employing proportional notation and extensive use of percussion.
Druckmans Animus II for mezzo-soprano, percussion and tape (1968) served as an
additional example for proportional and graphic notations. I discovered that using graphic
notation gave a talented player a chance to improvise within some specified parameters
(such as which drums to use over time.)
Q: Besides the title, is there a Varese connection?

A: The Sky is Waiting is the first line of the Edgard Varses poem Oblation. The
French art historian Michel Sanouillet says that this poem was written after an evening
spent drinking on the Brooklyn Bridge with his roommate, artist Francis Picabia. Varse,
and his friends Marcel Duchamp, and Picabia had moved from France to New York
during World War I where they participated in the founding of the New York Dada
movement. As part of Varses participation in this avant-garde movement, Oblation was
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published along with two of his famous manifestos concerning the future of music in
Picabias Dada magazine 391 in June 1917.
The Sky is Waiting (1976) is dedicated to Varse. In addition to the Oblation quote as
its title, the work includes quotations from the famous tambour militaire theme from
Varses masterpiece for percussion ensemble, Ionisation.
Q: Any significance with the silences?

A: lot of the piece emphasizes the piano side of the dynamic range, especially at the
beginning. I started with a measure of silence because I wanted the player to think about
initializing the work from silence. During a rehearsal, Arnie Lang suggested that Ray
hold his hands in the air ready to start as a way to play the silence and to signal the
audience. As a composer with an appreciation of John Cage and his comments on silence,
I appreciated this meditative suggestion and added it to the performance notes.
Q: If there were a few must have abilities for a performer to present this work
successfully, what would they be?
A: As far as a response to what are must have abilities for performers of this work, I
would suggest: 1) knowledge of proportional and graphic notations; 2) a subtle and
expressive control of timbre and a wide dynamic range; 3) ability to improvise tastefully
within the feeling of the work; and 4) ability to keep the flow going while executing
many tricky stick changes.
Q: Any other influences in composing this work for drum set? Composers? Drum set
artist? Music? Other?
A: Varse was the obvious largest influence here and in other of my works. In addition to
studying his music, I researched his life, and the importance of the International
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Composers Guild while in graduate school. Ives, Carter, Ruggles, Rudhyar, Druckman,
and Berio are other classical influences. Outside of classical music, influences include the
Grateful Dead Anthem of the Sun concert at Fillmore East in 1968 with its use of prepared
piano, percussion and electronics, the Mothers of Invention, and the 1971 release of Inner
Mounting Flame, Mahavishnu Orchestra with Billy Cobham. I was also listening to
Indian classical music at the time.
Fritz Hauser: 4 April 2009

Q: How did the collaboration with John Cage come about?
A: In 1989 I was planning to commission 10 composers to write pieces for my clearly
specified drum-set. 5 European, and 5 American composers. Pauline Oliveros was one of
the composers and as we were discussing possible other names I mentioned John Cage,
being well aware that getting him to write a piece for me should be kind of difficult.
Pauline made it easy for me, and John was a beautiful partner in creating something
special. It would fill a small book to tell you all the details of this collaboration maybe
one day we'll get a chance to get together then I'd be happy to tell you.
Q: According to the documents that I have read, the time brackets are for the right and
left hand. Is the work originally for multi-percussion setup of drum and cymbals or
intended to be right and left side of the body/drum set?
A. The time brackets are indeed for the left and right hand, with the remark that 'one hand
may help the other'. Cage did not use the possibility to have the feet involved although he
had the whole drum-set available. You can choose whatever instruments you like I guess.
The important point for Cage was the clear difference between the two possible sounds
short and completely dampened or sustained with no single beats audible.
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Q: Do you have any performance practice suggestions while preparing the work? Do you
use a stopwatch or digital timer in performance?
A: The piece must be performed with a watch. The starting of the timer is part of the
game. Cage used a mechanical watch when he performed and apparently liked the
handling and the sound. Nothing speaks against a digital timer and I use one myself.
However I personally do not like to hear the beep sound when pressing the start button so
I muffled that sound. The piece can be improvised or you can fabricate a score respecting
the performance rules.
Q: What was your process in assigning sounds to the numbered lines and spaces?
A: Cage was not happy with the numbers being printed on different lines in the stave
since the numbers do only refer to the choice of instrument and not the pitch or relative
pitch of the instruments. This means that once you decide that 1 is the crash cymbal you
have in your setup, the crash cymbal will have to be played whenever 1 shows up.
I wrote a score and used only cymbals with the exception of the bass drum played with
one hand. I use open sounding cymbals as well as dampened cymbals to produce a very
short sound.
Q: Have you recorded One4?

A: I have recorded One4 together with all the other commissioned pieces on a CD that is
called 22132434141. The CD is out of print but I could make you a copy.
Q: What would you consider the benefits in studying this work?

A: The piece helped me tremendously to develop a sense for timing, time-sound-silence
relation, patience and awareness. The piece provides very little action and mixes with all
the noises and sounds you hear around you as you perform it. Therefore it creates a very
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intense counter-point to most other drums-set pieces I know which mostly keep the
performer quite busy.
Janis Mercer: 6 April 2009

A: I wrote the piece for Gino Robair, who is a drum set player, composer and
improviser. He asked me to write a melodic percussion piece using un-pitched
percussion.
Q: Why label the instrumentation drum set vs. calling it multi- percussion?
A: Because the focus was the drum set, theatrically and musically.
Q: When the work was premiered how were the components of the drum set arranged?
A: I don't know if Gino would remember this; he was in partial profile, left side
perpendicular the audience, so that when he played the saron, he would face the audience.
Q: Have you used drum set in any of your other compositions?

A: No
Q: What is the reason for the saron, temple blocks, and gong
A: Gino and I were both learning gamelan, there is a Javanese gamelan at Mills College
where we were in school. I'll have to research the other two. I think the gong was a way
to diffuse tension and could continue a long time, serving as a fermata, and yet
continuing to fade once the player begins again.
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Q: Is it a necessity for the cymbals to be ride, crash, and splash or can the work be
performed with a spectrum of graduated suspended cymbals?
A: I wrote for Ginos set, which uses ride, crash and splash. I would have to hear the
difference to tell you whether suspended cymbals would work.
Q: What was your compositional approach to Air?

A: In addition to the asthmatic component (Gino and I are both asthmatics), I was
extremely frustrated with many things in my life at that point. I had to repress that
frustration and so the piece served as a way to deal with these strong emotions. The first
section tries out different alternatives to solve a problem, but they are unsuccessful,
attempts are made to go around the issue until finally the issue must be confronted and
all patience is lost as well. That is the point where the rather open-ended Explosion
happens. After that, the tension is released and the saron entrance signals a relative calm,
but the tension begins to build again, and it ends, just as another Explosion is about to
start.
At the same time, I wanted to feature the groups of percussion I had in a melodic way, so
the toms get a little triplet melody, the temple blocks foreshadow the saron and the
cymbals introduce the Explosion. Also the rolls serve motivically. The two snare rolls
in the beginning sum up the pieces intent, to create a lot of tension that is not released.
Q: Would you describe the more physical expectations of the piece (explosion, do not
warn the audience of the crash cymbal, and remain motionless) of a theatrical
element to the work or something else?
A: A theatrical element, yes.
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Q: If there were a few must have abilities for a performer to present this work
successfully, what would they be?
A: Attention to the timing of the cymbal section before the Explosion; the audience must
hear that it is melodic before it gets too difficult to play all the in-between notes and the
Explosion starts. Let there be adequate space between the notated notes. Be reckless
during the Explosion and don't be afraid to yell. If you get the microphone thing to work,
allow some time after the Explosion for it to pick up just your breathing. I think
everyone needs a minute anyway if they've played full out in the Explosion.
Q: Any influences in compositing this work for drum set? Composers? Drum set artist?
Music? Other?
A: Gino gave me a cassette filled with various different people playing all kinds of music,
I may have the name of one of these musicians in a paper, also, Ginos SHE LEFT ME
FOR A SHE, but not sure if you can find that anywhere. I have it as an LP. Anthony
Braxton was teaching at the time at Mills and I'm sure his influence is in there, as to
structured improvisation. But Herbert Brn has long been an influence.
Stuart Sanders Smith: 23 February 2011

A: The drum set is a uniquely American instrument (it is elsewhere). I started to play
when I was six years old. It is deeply known to me. The drum set has the potential of an
enormous expressive range. I treated it as a melody instrument not a groove or
timekeeping instrument and that is how I played the drum set in a Free Jazz setting in my
teens.
Q: Why label the instrumentation drum set vs. multi-percussion?

119
A: The drum set is a single instrument. The drum set contains a high hat, cymbals, snare
drum, high tom-tom, bass drum and floor tom. I compose for this instrument. Multi-
percussion can be any combination of percussion instruments. I am completely opposed
to the concept of multi-percussion. In multi-percussion rapid physical shifts between
instruments compromises getting a good tone for each instrument in the setup. This
situation does not happen for the drum set, or say, a vibraphone solo.
Q: Any influences in composing this work for drum set. Composers? Drum set artist?
Music? Other?
A: I studied many great brush players at an early age via recordings and with my teachers
Charles Newcomb. Also, I played in piano trios. Playing brushes was very important skill
in my generation (I am now 63).
Q: Who is Nick Hennies?

A: Nick Hennies is an experimental composer and percussionist in Austin Texas. He was
the first performer to play Brush and Two Lights.
Q: Knowing that you have composed two other works for drum set, what motivation and
inspiration did you have when composing Brush?

A: Each of my drum set solos make up a single suite consisting of Blue Two, Brush, and
Two Lights. All of my drum set music comes out of a deep connection to Jazz (Free
Jazz). Blue Two uses sticks, Brush brushes, and Two Lights timpani mallets.
I do not compose from inspiration or ideas. I do not make music. I receive music. All
sounds are intelligent and if you listen to them they will tell me how they want to
cohere. I am not interested in composing; I am interested in being composed. I want to
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see how things turn out rather turning things out. I compose every day. I feel inspired I
take a walk.
Q: Can you briefly describe your compositional approach to Brush?

A: I am a composer of melody. Brush consists of rather chaotic sounding jagged
rhythmic phrases, which, in my mind, are highly expressionistic. You could look at this
music as melody/rhythms sculpted in silence.
I was rather ill with depression when composing Brush. I would crawl from my bed to
the drum set, I then would compose for 15-20 minutes and then crawl back to bed and
rest. That was my compositional process for this work.
Q: Can you describe your expectations in the sounds produced specifically with brushes?
A: Make sure all the sounds played in Brush are brush sounds. In some of the very loud
sections some players have over used handle sounds.
Q: For the rolls, what type of roll should a performer use? Single stroke? Double?
Multiple bounce? Or scrape the brush in a circular motion?
A: The rolls (SSS wrote a quarter note with three slashes) in Brush should be single
stroke rolls.
Q: If a high hat gesture is notated without any other articulations, should it be executed
with the foot?
A: Yes
Q: How would you describe your rhythmic palette?

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A: My rhythmic palette is made up of asymmetrical rhythms. I create talking music not

music of sounds for the sake of sounds. We talk with an infinite durational variety. Duple
rhythms make good marches but little else. We talk in 5s, 7s 11s etc. My music is not
complex. It is unusual. My music is speaking to the audience the story of our lives. I
allow music to speak the universal through the particular.
Q: In regards to balancing the bass drum sound with the rest of the instrument, would an
older style lambs-wool beater be appropriate.
A: The drummer must balance the bass drum by developing a full dynamic range of very
soft to loud. The bass drum must be balanced with the rest of the set. Because so many
drummers these days come from the Rock tradition, which is pretty loud all the time, the
art of dynamic shading is absolutely necessary in playing my music.
Q: Do you have recommendations for the cymbal and high hat sounds?
A: The cymbal and hi hat should be chosen to compliment the tuning of the entire
instrument.
Q: Besides allowing the natural evolution of the sound to occur, is there any significance
to the moments of silence?
A: The silences and melodic phrases sound eventually decays like the life cycles of all
living things. Also as a Quaker, silence represents the divine. Quakers sit in silence
waiting for divine guidance.
Q: If there were a few must have components or skill sets that are necessary in
presenting this work successfully, what would they be?
A: The drummer must be able to have a very wide dynamic range to fully express the
music. We must be able to whisper very softly, talk, and shout to fully understand.
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Kris Tiner: 29 April 2008

A: It was written for a drum set/trumpet duo I had with Harris Eisenstadt for a couple of
years between 1999-2002. Typically we performed this piece in a suite of three of my
compositions, the first being a solo trumpet piece called All At Once, then the drum set
solo, finally a duo interpretation of another piece I wrote called Fishers of the Star. All
three titles were selected from the writings of poet Kenneth Patchen, who is a huge
inspiration for me. And all three pieces can stand-alone; Harris has performed this piece
at several solo concerts.
Q: Were there any other composers or performers that influenced your ideas for this
piece?
A: Not necessarily drum set specific.
My compositional language is based on my studies with trumpeter/composer Wadada

Leo Smith as well as my research into methods used by Anthony Braxton, Morton
Feldman and Charles Ives primarily. The improvisation symbols used in that piece (arrow
connected to a circle and a bracket) are adaptations of the system (called

Ankhrasmation) used by Smith. All of the students in his MFA program in African-
American Improvisational Music at CalArts learn initially to read and write using his
system, and then eventually are expected to adapt elements of it for their own purposes.
Echoes... was composed toward the end of my first year there, and was a first step away
from that system and into developing a compositional method of my own. Significantly,
It was the first composition where I used those repeat zones in such a way that the
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performer could navigate through the piece at will, hitting upon certain elements as
thematic statements and other sections as opportunities to take more freedom with the
material (the title of the piece ties in with this idea of inexact repetition).
Ill send you scores and notes to a couple of more recent compositions so you can get an
idea of where I've taken some of the notational ideas since.
Also, the idea of separating certain aspects of the instrument into diametrical opposites
(like high/low, drums/cymbals) as a way of specifying content to some extent but still
leaving much of the final result up to the performer, that is something I am very
interested in my compositions, as I work with improvisers primarily.
As far as my concept of the solo drum set, I wrote this specifically with Harris' playing in
mind, although I think there are echoes of Elvin Jones and Milford Graves in there.
Q: I thoroughly enjoy the idea of free improvisation within the structure and character of
the piece, are there other musical goals were you trying to encourage the performer to
attain?
A: Mainly to create a meaningful, dramatic arc of dynamic and textural intensity, and to
merge these separate sections into a complete, organic performance somehow. That is the
challenge for the performer, which calls him/her into the creative act of performing,
beyond just reading the notes.
Q: I am still figuring out the notation (the recording helps a lot) and I apologize if this
seems like a naive question, but how did you come up with this visual approach in
notating this work? Any hints in reading the page are greatly appreciated.
A: See my answer to #2 above. Also, I wanted the piece to be non-metric, to be able to
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fluctuate in terms of tempo. That is the reason for the three types of bar lines that indicate
ambiguous pauses in which the performer is NOT counting, only listening and sensing.
They help the piece to breathe in a natural way.
I don't like the way it looks with the bar lines though - it became too easy for performers
to not notice them. I've since experimented with different ways of notating this concept of
unmeasured rests.
Q: Anything else you would like to include regarding this composition or drum set in the
solo realm?
A: Check out Milford Graves.
Q: Any thoughts or projects for new drum set works? (Solo or within an ensemble)
A: Harris performed on a recent piece I wrote called Recourse to Unison (score attached)
- which uses some of these elements in a much more developed way. You can find the
recording on iTunes.
I write music primarily for my own projects, so most of my composing now is ensemble-
based. I'm working on a piece for my quartet now, which adapts certain aspects of
Central African polyphonic horn music, making the whole band essentially a rhythm
ensemble. It's taking me in some interesting directions.
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University of Iowa

Iowa Research Online

Important works for drum set as a multiple

Copyright 2012 Kevin Arthur Nichols

This dissertation is available at Iowa Research Online: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2952

Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd

Part of the Music Commons

An essay submitted in partial fulfillment

Essay Supervisor: Professor Daniel Preston Moore

This is to certify that the D.M.A. essay of

Kevin Arthur Nichols

Essay Committee: ______________________________

CHAPTER ONE JUSTIFICATION 1

CHAPTER TWO DEFINITION AND EXPANSION OF THE DRUM SET 9

Brief History of the Early Formation of the Drum Set 9

CHAPTER THREE ANNOTATED LIST OF COMPOSITIONS FOR SOLO 37

CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR

APPENDIX A: SOLO LITERATURE 94

APPENDIX B: E-MAIL INTERVIEWS 110

Figure 3. Glenn Kotches prepared snare drum. 34

Figure 4. One4 for Solo Drummer (1990) by John Cage 39

Figure 5. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 1. 46

Figure 6. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 5. 47

Figure 7. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting (1977), pg. 5 49

Figure 8. Cucinotta, Robert. The Sky is Waiting, pg. 5. 49

Figure 9. Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979), pg. 9. 56

Figure 10. Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1989), pg. 9. 56

Figure 11. Dillon, James. Ti.re-Ti.ke-Dha (1979), pg. 11. 57

Figure 12. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 3. 63

Figure 13. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 1. 65

Figure 14. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 4. 66

Figure 15. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 1. 66

Figure 16. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 7. 68

Figure 17. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), introductory page. 69

Figure 18. Mercer, Janis. Air (1988), pg. 1. 72

Figure 21. Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001), pg. 1. 77

Figure 22. Smith, Stuart Saunders. Brush (2001), pg. 2. 79

Figure 23. Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002). 82

Figure 24. Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2001). 83

Figure 25. Tiner, Kris. Echoes and Echoes of Echoes (2002). 84

Figure 26. Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No. 1 (1976). 88

Figure 27. Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No. 1 (1976). 89

Figure 28. Zappa, Frank. The Black Page No. 1 (1976). 90

CHAPTER ONE JUSTIFICATION

in the same manner as an academically trained orchestral percussionist, and adds a

4 http://www.pas.org/experience/contest/solowinners.aspx (accessed October 18, 2011).

At this time, no comprehensive study or method book investigates solo literature

Survey and Review of Existing Research

Daniel Owen Dunavans document, A Comprehensive Performance Project in

7 Dunavan, Daniel Owen. A Comprehensive Performance Project in Percussion

10 Houllif, Murray. Benefits of Written-Out Drum Set Solos. Percussive Notes.

4. Compile a list of these works with concise information to assist teachers

5. An annotated bibliography of the following works:

One4 for Solo Drummer (1990) by John Cage

Originally composed for unaccompanied drum set

Intended to expose or express virtuosic capability of instrument

CHAPTER TWO DEFINITION AND EXPANSION OF THE

Brief History of the Early Formation of the Drum Set

3 Ibid, pg. 19.

4 Ibid, pg. 76.

Bass Drum Pedal

moved from Constantinople, Turkey, to Quincy, Massachusetts.11 With the company

From Low Boy to High Hat