Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sedimentary Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / s e d g e o

Facies and architectural element analysis of a meandering uvial succession: The

Permian Warchha Sandstone, Salt Range, Pakistan
Shahid Ghazi a,b, Nigel P. Mountney a,
a
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
b
Institute of Geology Punjab University, Lahore-54590, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The 30 to 155 m thick Early Permian (Artinskian) Warchha Sandstone of the Salt Range, Pakistan is a
Received 20 March 2009 conglomerate, sandstone and claystone succession within which seven lithofacies types (Gt, St, Sp, Sr, Sh, Fl
Received in revised form 4 August 2009 and Fm) occur in a predictable order as repeated ning-upward cycles. Common sedimentary structures in
Accepted 24 August 2009
the conglomerates and sandstones include planar and trough cross-bedding, planar lamination, soft
sediment-deformed bedding, compound cosets of strata with low-angle inclined bounding surfaces and lags
Keywords:
of imbricated pebbles. Structures in the ner-grained facies include desiccation cracks, raindrop imprints,
Fluvial
Meandering
caliche nodules and bioturbation. Groups of associated facies are arranged into nine distinct architectural
Salt Range elements (channels, gravel bars, sandy bedforms, downstream and laterally accreting barforms, sand sheets,
Pakistan crevasse splays, levees, oodplain units and shallow lakes), which is consistent with a uvial origin for the
Lateral accretion succession. The types of architectural elements present and their relationship to each other demonstrate that
Point bar the Warchha Sandstone preserves a record of a meandering river system that drained the northern margin of
Gondwanaland. The dominance of ne-grained (oodplain) facies over gravel-grade (channel-base) facies
and the widespread occurrence of large-scale lateral accretion elements supports the interpretation of a
high-sinuosity, meandering uvial system in which channel bodies accumulated via the lateral accretion of
point bars but in which the active channels covered only a small part of a broad oodplain at any time
instant. Although the regional and temporal distribution of these deposits is complex, in broad terms the
lower part is dominated by stacked, multistorey channel bodies, whereas single-storey channel elements
isolated in abundant ne-grained oodplain deposits dominate the middle and upper parts of the formation.
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction vertical arrangement of architectural elements is used to suggest a

The Early Permian Warchha Sandstone is exposed in the Salt Range
of Pakistan (Fig. 1) and represents a uvial succession that is considered
to have accumulated along part of the northern Gondwanan continental
margin and which represents the sedimentary record of a palaeo-
drainage system that carried clastic detritus from the continental
interior in the south to the coastline of the marine Tethyan realm to the
north (Valdiya, 1997). Although the regional geology of the greater Salt
Range area is relatively well documented (e.g. Fatmi, 1973; Shah, 1977;
Gee, 1989), the sedimentology of the Warchha Sandstone and its
palaeoenvironmental and palaeogeographic signicance has hitherto
received scant attention. The aims of this paper are, for the rst time, to
describe the principal lithofacies present within the Warchha Sandstone
and to demonstrate that these facies occur in a series of distinct
associations that dene architectural elements, each of which can be
related to specic parts of a meandering uvial system. The lateral and
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: n.p.mountney@leeds.ac.uk (N.P. Mountney).
palaeoenvironmental setting for the succession and to reconstruct the
behaviour and morphology of the uvial system. These aims are
achieved through analysis of data collected from measured sections
located across the Salt Range.
The name Warchha Sandstone was originally proposed by Hussain
(1967) and has since been adopted as a formal stratigraphic unit by the
Stratigraphic Committee of Pakistan (Fatmi, 1973). This formal name
replaces the previous informal titles of Speckled Sandstone (Waagan,
1878) and Warchha Group (Noelting, 1901). The type locality of the
succession is the Warchha Gorge in the Central Salt Range, though the
unit is well exposed throughout both the Greater Salt Range region and
the Trans-Indus ranges. Outcrop thickness varies from 30 m in the east
to 155 m in the west of the outcrop belt. Balme (1970) and Wardlaw and
Pogue (1995) assigned an Early Permian (Artinskian) age for the
Warchha Sandstone on the basis of pollen spores. The unit overlies the
marginal marine Dandot Formation of Early Permian (Sakmarian) age
and is overlain by the shallow marine Sardahi Formation, of Early
Permian (Kungurian) age (Fig. 2).
The Warchha Sandstone has been studied previously by several
authors as part of more regional studies including Noetling (1901),

0037-0738/$ see front matter 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.08.002
 100
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 1. Out crop belt of the Warchha Sandstone in the Salt Range of Pakistan showing the location of eight measured sections, which form the principal study localities discussed in this paper.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Hussain (1967), Balme (1970), Wensink (1975), Gee (1980), Qureshi
(1980), Law and Hussain (1989), Wardlaw and Pogue (1995), Iqbal
et al. (2001), Sultan (2004), Azizullah et al. (2004) and Ghazi et al.
(2006). However, no detailed sedimentological analysis has hitherto
been carried out. Although present in the subsurface of the Potwar
Basin and the Punjab Plain, the Warchha Sandstone succession is only
exposed in the Salt Range, and within this tectonically active thrust-
bound region only a modest number of the many outcrops are
sufciently undeformed to allow the measurement of lateral and
vertical logs and architectural panels. Despite high tectonic dips and
widespread disturbance due to upward salt movement, good quality
continuous outcrops are present in several of the major gorges that
cut through the frontal thrust of the Salt Range, and these form the
principal sites of data collection for this study (Figs 1, 3).
2. Regional geological setting
The Salt Range of Pakistan is located to the south of the Potwar
Basin and east of the Jhelum River where it forms a southwardly-
convex outcrop belt with a general eastwest trend (Fig. 1). The
average elevation is 780 m, though the highest peak, Mount Sakesar,
attains a height of 1560 m. The Salt Range forms a complex
anticlinorium with a series of pronounced salt anticlines at its core.
It is widest in its central part, between the Khewra and the Warchha
areas, where a sequence of Precambrian to Neogene strata is exposed
(Gee, 1989). To the north, the Salt Range overrides its own fan
material along the active Salt Range Thrust (Yeats et al., 1984). Along
its northern slope, the range comprises a series of simple, broad and
shallow folds and a gentle northerly-dipping monocline. To the south,
the folding becomes tighter, and eastwest-trending faults and over-
folds are developed along the southern scarp. Within this region, the
strata have been folded into a series of complicated anticlines and
synclines as a result of non-compressional diapirism superimposed on
earlier compressional structures. The plastic ow of mobile evaporite
deposits has caused the uneven development of fold structures,
whereby anticlines tend to exhibit rather sharp crests and synclines
have rather at bases. Drainage patterns have tended to exploit the
axes of the anticlines, and several steep-sided gorges have developed,
including the Khewra, Nilawahan, Warchha and Nammal gorges
(Fig. 1), which yield continuous exposures through the succession.
Surface exposures of the Warchha Sandstone are mostly conned
to narrow gorges, recently active quarries and new road cuts. The
abundance of outcrop-scale normal faults cutting through the
Warchha Sandstone makes it likely that larger-scale unexposed faults
exist between exposures but remain unrecognised. Lateral correlation
over distances in excess of a few hundred metres is therefore
problematic. Outcrops exposing the base of the formation are
numerous and tend to be present across the entire Salt Range region.
By contrast, the top of the formation is only exposed in central and
western parts of the Salt Range. Aside from trace fossils, no fossils
have been recorded, and although pollen grains could conceivably be
present in the Warchha Sandstone succession (Wardlaw and Pogue,
1995), their recognition is beyond the scope of this study.
3. Lithofacies
For the purposes of lithostratigraphic subdivision, the Warchha
Sandstone can be informally divided into several conglomerate,
sandstone and claystone units, with roughly equal proportions of
sand and clay and rather less conglomerate (Fig. 3). Seven lithofacies
are recognised in the Warchha Sandstone (Figs. 4, 5) and these are
arranged into distinctive ning-upward cycles. Facies are herein
discussed according to the classication scheme of Miall (1985,
1996).
101
3.1. Stratied gravely sandstone (Gt)
3.1.1. Description
This facies represents 10% of the total succession and is always
present as the lowermost deposits at the base of each complete ning-
upward cycle. It consists of trough cross-bedded, stratied gravels
that commonly inll channelised erosive basal surfaces (Fig. 5ab).
Clasts are mostly of granite, gneiss or quartzite, though rare claystone
and sandstone intraclasts are also present. Geometrically, this facies
consists of lens- or ribbon-shaped bodies, commonly interbedded
with sandy deposits. The clast population is poorly sorted and the size
of the clasts varies by composition: granite (5 to 40 mm), gneiss (10 to
20 mm), quartzite (10 to 30 mm) and other rock fragments (>5 mm).
The shape of the pebbles varies from spheroidal, to elliptical, to
tabular, but most are well rounded. The conglomerate is generally
clast supported, with pebbles sitting in a medium- to coarse-grained,
sub-angular to sub-rounded, poorly sorted sandstone matrix. The
majority of the clasts lie parallel to bedding, though imbrication of
pebble clasts is also common. The beds are massive and, in places,
normal grading exhibits an abrupt upward transition into pebbly
sandstone. The lower contact of this facies is always erosional and
sharp, whereas the upper contact is usually gradational. In most
instances, this facies is overlain by pebbly, coarse-grained sandstone
facies St and is underlain by interbedded siltstone and claystone facies
Fm or Fl, which represent the uppermost part of the underlying
depositional cycle. Beyond the grain size differences, the main
features distinguishing facies Gt from facies St are the former's
abundant extraformational clasts, overall disorganized style of
bedding, and its occurrence in packages of limited lateral extent.
3.1.2. Interpretation
The general massive form of the beds, the poor sorting of clasts and
the predominance of steeply-inclined imbricated clasts all suggest
relatively rapid sedimentation from a high energy ow. The
characteristics of this facies are consistent with deposition in uvial
channels from high velocity ows in the deepest part of the stream
(Allen, 1970; Miall, 1988; Collinson, 1996). This facies is interpreted to
have been deposited as a channel lag under conditions of lower ow
regime, with sediment transport occurring via tractional currents.
Palaeocurrent orientations discordant to both the channel axis and to
foreset orientations in overlying facies St, together with the rare
occurrence of intraformational clasts, also support the interpretation
of facies Gt as channel-base deposits (Fig. 6; cf. Nadon and Middleton,
1985). The common occurrence of crudely developed sets of cross-
bedding with erosional bases, normal grading, and a dominance of
extrabasinal clasts over rare local mud intraclasts indicate that this
facies was deposited either by downstream migrating 3-D dunes or by
obliquely migrating longitudinal bars within channels (cf. Paredes
et al., 2007).
3.2. Coarse-grained trough cross-bedded sandstone (St)
3.2.1. Description
This facies represents 15% of the total succession and most
commonly overlies examples of facies Gt. It consists of medium- to
very coarse-grained, moderately to poorly sorted sandstone arranged
into trough cross-bedded sets and cosets (Fig. 5c). Weathered surfaces
are grey or greenish-grey, whereas fresh surfaces are white or light-
pink. The coarse-grained sandstone is arkosic and has ne-grained
siltstone as its matrix. Grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded and in
places the sandstone contains claystone and siltstone intraclasts
formed from reworked concretions. The cross-bedded units mostly
form large-scale (0.5 m thick, 1 m wide) troughs, though some small-
scale types are also evident (0.3 m thick, 0.5 m wide). This facies
occurs in either solitary or grouped sets, both of which have a
unimodal palaeocurrent pattern (Fig. 6). The inclination of larger
102 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
foresets varies from 8 to 16 and is generally towards the northeast,
north or northwest. Sharp boundaries between individual sets and
cosets are typically marked by thin siltstone partings. Rare sub-
rounded to rounded extraformational lithic pebbles of pink granite,
schist, gneiss and sandstone up to 10 mm (rarely 20 mm) diameter
form thin lag deposits at set bases and very rarely occur as isolated
clasts within the bodies of sets. Geometrically, this facies occurs as
lenticular or wedge-shaped bodies that are pebbly in places and that
are commonly arranged into stacked trough cross-bedded cosets that
extend laterally for several tens of metres. The lower boundary is
either gradational with facies Gt or is erosional with facies Fm of the
underlying cycle. The upper contact is sharp and at with overlying
facies Sp.
3.2.2. Interpretation
The moderate to poor sediment sorting, the lenticular geometry
and the predominance of a unimodal orientation of trough cross-
strata favours a uvial bedform interpretation (Collinson, 1996; Miall,
1996; Eriksson et al., 1998). The gently inclined dip of the larger
foresets and the coarse grain size suggests that larger sets of this facies
probably formed low-angle-inclined fronts of bars (Smith, 1970),
whereas the smaller troughs were probably generated by dunes or
megaripples that migrated over or across the lee faces of these bars
(Collinson, 1996), as indicated by the presence of compound cosets of
cross strata, whereby inclined dune-scale cross-sets are arranged
within cosets whose inclination represents the bar face. Facies St is
interpreted to form by the migration of sinuous-crested dunes in the
lower ow regime (Casshyap, 1970; Cant and Walker, 1976; Miall,
1996; Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004). The scarcity and small size of
extraformational clasts and the relative frequency of claystone and
siltstone intraclasts above scour surfaces suggests that deposition
occurred at a considerable distance from the original sediment source.
The absence of plant fossils and woody debris probably reects the
prevalence of semi-arid climatic conditions that were not favourable
for development of complex and robust plant communities or their
preservation. The considerable lateral extent of units of facies St, its
relationship to other facies and spread of cross-bed orientations
(Fig. 6) suggests that this facies was deposited across a broad, gently
sloping, sandy river plain.
3.3. Medium- to coarse-grained planar cross-bedded sandstone (Sp)
3.3.1. Description
This facies, which represents 13% of the total succession, consists of
medium- to coarse-grained, poorly sorted, arkosic sandstone ar-
ranged into lenticular or tabular sets up to 2 m thick, which are
characterised internally by planar cross-bedding (Fig. 5d). Weathered
surfaces are light- or dark-brown, whereas fresh surfaces are off-
white or pink. Both high angle (15 to 34) and low-angle (10 to 15)
planar cross-bedding occurs in facies Sp. Foreset dip inclinations tend
to decrease in a downcurrent direction. Sets of this facies generally
form convex-up bodies up to 3 m wide that, in places, ll 0.5 m-wide
and 0.1 m-deep scours on top of larger sets. The scours are generally
lled by concave-up laminae of sandstone facies Sp, though in some
instances they are lled by homogenous (structureless) silty-shale.
Cross-strata foreset orientation is consistent within individual out-
crops or sections, but differs between sections. The dip azimuths for
foresets of facies Sp differ by 30 to 60 from the orientation of the axes
of the troughs recorded in facies St (Fig. 6). The thickness of planar
cross-bedded sets typically decreases with decreasing grain size. The
lower contact of this facies is sharp and at, whereas the upper
contact is typically erosional with facies Sr or Fl.
Fig. 2. Summary of the principal stratigraphic units exposed in the Nilawahan Gorge area (Fig. 1) of the Central Salt Range, Pakistan. The Warchha Sandstone forms part of the Lower
Permian Nilawahan Group.
103
3.3.2. Interpretation
Facies Sp is interpreted to form by the migration of straight-
crested dunes or bars (Collinson, 1996; Miall, 1996; Hjellbakk, 1997;
Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004) deposited under conditions of lower ow
regime. The characteristic planar foreset geometry and the associated
grain size indicates formation by processes operating in the lower to
middle part of the lower ow regime, whereby deposition took place
during periods of low water level or waning ow in channels
(Hjellbakk, 1997). The deposition of low-angle cross-bedding within
large-scale examples of sets of facies Sp indicates that these larger sets
are a product of bar migration (Cant and Walker, 1976; Sharma et al.,
2002). By contrast, the more steeply-inclined planar cross-bedding
that is characteristic of smaller scale sets is considered to be the
product of straight-crested two-dimensional dune migration (Ashley,
1990), possibly associated with a bank-attached uvial bar (Collinson,
1996). The upper contact of facies Sp with overlying ripple cross-
laminated facies Sr and its style of lateral thinning indicates that the
bar height may have progressively reduced, possibly towards the
riverbank (cf. Mazumder and Sarkar, 2004). In some instances,
scouring appears to have taken place on the bar top (cf. Walker,
1978) and, although most of the scours were probably lled soon after
they formed, some may have remained open and subsequently lled
with silty mudstone during periods of lower energy conditions. A
downcurrent decrease in foreset slope, noted in certain instances,
could reect a rise in the water level and gradual abandonment of the
bars (Kirk, 1983). The divergent palaeocurrent orientation of multiple
examples of sets of this facies compared to examples of facies St
(Fig. 6) probably reects deposition primarily in front of or on the
lower anks of oblique bars in major channels and transverse bars of
subsidiary channels where avalanche faces of bedforms were oblique
to the predominant orientation of the channel tract (cf. Cant and
Walker, 1978).
3.4. Ripple cross-laminated sandstone (Sr)
3.4.1. Description
This facies, which represents 12% of the total succession, usually
overlies facies Sp and consists of ne- to coarse-grained sandstone
that is generally well sorted and that is interlaminated with thin
siltstone and claystone horizons. The sandstone is medium- to thick-
bedded and is grey, light-pink, light-green, yellow or white. It occurs
as thin wedge-shaped bodies that pinch out laterally within a few
metres and that contain abundant asymmetrical ripple marks, at
bedding, small-scale sets of trough and planar cross-stratication and
load casts. Alternations of at-lying, parallel lamination with ripple-
drift cross-laminated sets and asymmetrical ripple marks are common
(Fig. 5e). The siltstone and claystone interbeds, which drape the
sandstone units, are 10 to 40 mm thick and are brown or red. Clay
balls and intraclasts of reworked concretions are common in the
upper parts of the deposits, as are sand balls with diameters of 0.5 to
0.8 m, which are a particularly diagnostic feature. The cross strata in
both facies Sp and Sr dip consistently in the same direction (Fig. 6).
This facies typically grades laterally and vertically into the nely
laminated sediments of facies Sh and Fl.
3.4.2. Interpretation
The presence of asymmetrical current ripples and cross lamination
draped by clay lamination indicates deposition via alternating
subaqueous traction and suspension processes (Miall, 1996). This
facies likely represents the temporary abandonment of bar migration
as ood waters receded and/or the product of deposition in areas of
slack or sluggish water between bars or in overbank areas (cf. Kirk,
 104
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 3. Eight measured stratigraphic sections of the Warchha Sandstone from across the Salt Range region (Fig. 1), showing the vertical relationship of facies. Note that formation thickness increases towards the west. The approximate positions
of the architectural panels shown in Fig. 6, 8, and 17 are indicated.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 4. Summary of the characteristic features of the lithofacies types encountered in the Warchha Sandstone.

105
106 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126

Fig. 5. Characteristic examples of lithofacies encountered in the Warchha Sandstone of the Salt Range region. a) and b) Trough cross-bedded pebbly conglomerate and pebbly
sandstone facies Gt. c) Trough cross-bedded sandstone facies St. d) Planar cross-bedded sandstone facies St. e) Ripple cross-laminated sandstone facies Sr. f) Horizontally bedded and
laminated sandstone facies Sh. g) Interlaminated siltstone and claystone facies Fl. h) Massive claystone facies Fm with abundant caliche nodules.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 6. Palaeocurrent interpretation of a channel-ll sand-body in the Nilawahan area of the central Salt Range. The ning-upward element records a gradual decrease in ow energy.
The trough and planar cross-bedded sandstones and the large-scale trough cross-bedded pebbly channel lag deposits record signicant temporal and spatial variation in
palaeocurrent directions. See Figs 1 and 3 for location.
1983; Bose and Chakraborty, 1994; Collinson, 1996). Facies Sr may be
attributed to the downcurrent migration of sinuous trains of
asymmetrical ripples under controlled conditions of sediment supply
in a lower ow regime of low intensity (Allen, 1963). This facies
therefore records slow sedimentation within largely inactive channels
as ll deposits (Miall, 1996).
3.5. Very ne- to medium-grained sandstone with at bedding (Sh)
3.5.1. Description
This facies represents 10% of the total succession and consists of
very ne- to medium-grained, horizontally laminated sandstone
(Fig. 5f), with micaceous siltstone laminae arranged into thin beds
that possess a parting lineation within units with a sheet-like or
tabular geometry (Fig. 5f). Weathered surfaces are light- or dark-
brown, whereas fresh surfaces are white to pink. This facies is
discontinuous, and typically pinches out laterally within a few tens of
metres via onlap onto low-angle erosion surfaces. Well-rounded,
pebble-size intraformational claystone clasts and ferruginous concre-
tions are also present. Grain size proles generally ne-upward or are
rarely irregular due to apparently random interlamination and
stacking of alternating lithologies. The dark-coloured beds, which
appear massive on exposed surfaces, tend to be ne-grained
sandstone to siltstone, whereas the lighter-coloured beds are
composed of ne- to medium-grained sandstone. In the dark-
coloured beds, constituent grains generally have ferruginous cement.
The sandstone is mostly feldspathic, sub-angular to sub-rounded,
poorly sorted, and has intercalations of mica. Lower and upper
contacts of this facies are gradational with facies Sr and Fl,
respectively.
3.5.2. Interpretation
This facies accumulated as plane beds under conditions of either
upper or lower ow regime (Miall, 1985). The thin, discontinuous,
sheet-like geometry and ne-grained nature of the lithology suggests
deposition as bar-top sand sheets or as in-channel deposits during the
waning stage of (possibly seasonal) ood events (Miall, 1996). Thus,
107
this facies is interpreted to record deposition on large, at bar-top
areas via vigorous currents (Hjellbakk, 1997). Horizontally laminated
sandstone beds intercalated with ner-grained lithologies records a
rapid change in ood regime: a high energy situation followed by
waning of the ow and fallout of ner particles (Olsen, 1988).
Alternatively this facies could be deposited via high-energy sheet
oods that spilled into a lower energy environment from channels
during ooding of the main uvial channel system. Such at bedding
is typical of ne- to medium-grained sandstone and is associated with
parting lineation resulting from micro-vortices acting under high
stream power to sort and deposit sand grains (Fielding, 2006). On the
basis of experimental data, Best and Bridge (1992) have proposed that
such plane bedding is formed by the migration of low amplitude bed
waves across a at surface. The presence of mica and its subsequent
alteration, possibly in relation to the post-depositional transport of
mineral-rich uids along bedding surfaces, is the likely origin of the
ferruginous concretions.
3.6. Parallel laminated siltstone and claystone (Fl)
3.6.1. Description
This facies represents 15% of the succession and consists of
laminated siltstone and/or massive claystone units interbedded with
millimetre-thick siltstone laminations (Fig. 5g). Its lower contact is
gradational with facies Sh or Sr, whereas in almost all cases its upper
contact is gradational with facies Fm. Common structures include
claystone balls and iron concretions. Interlaminated siltstone horizons
exhibit small (1020 mm high) asymmetrical ripple marks and
lenticular bedding, and are pink, red or brown on weathered surfaces
or white to off-white on fresh surfaces. Geometrically, this facies is
arranged into 2 to 3 m thick, laterally extensive sheet-like bodies.
3.6.2. Interpretation
Facies Fl is interpreted to represent the deposits of waning stage
ood deposition, chiey in overbank areas (Hjellbakk, 1997), with the
majority of deposition occurring from suspension settling and with
only limited bedload transport via weak currents. The thin, parallel
108 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
lamination of alternating siltstone and claystone laminae, together
with their sheet-like geometry, indicates widespread deposition from
suspension over the upper parts of sandy barforms and/or across low
relief, abandoned ood plains (Allen, 1964; Jackson, 1981).
3.7. Massive claystone/mudstone (Fm)
3.7.1. Description
This is the most abundant facies type in nearly all the cycles,
representing 25% of the total succession. It consists of red, dark-
brown, purple, green, light-grey and yellow claystone and shale, with
rare grey to greenish-grey and white siltstone with white to off-white
ne-grained sandstone interbeds (Fig. 5h). This facies is generally
massive, though at a few horizons it contains abundant bioturbation,
clay balls, iron concretions, desiccation cracks, rain-drop imprints,
rootlets and caliche nodules up to 0.1 m in diameter. The lower
contact of this facies is typically gradational, whereas the upper
contact is usually sharply truncated by the erosive base of the
overlying cycle. Individual claystone beds are mostly 0.05 to 0.8 m
thick, massive and parallel laminated. The siltstone is thinly bedded
(20 to 40 mm thick). Units of this facies appear to possess either
lenticular or sheet-like geometries. At the top of the Warchha
Sandstone, this facies is gradational with the overlying Sardahi
Formation.
3.7.2. Interpretation
Facies Fm is interpreted to represent deposition from suspension
in overbank settings where the ne-grained sediments drape
underlying deposits. Thin sandstone beds with intraformational clasts
are likely to represent the preserved remnants of small proximal
crevasse deposits adjacent to major sandy sinuous river channels.
Interbedded and nely laminated sandstone and siltstone units of
variable geometry are interpreted to represent levee and ood-basin
deposits that anked the major channel. The presence of mudcracks,
shrinkage cracks, rain prints and caliche nodules all indicate subaerial
exposure during sedimentation (Thomas et al., 2002; Mazumder and
Sarkar, 2004; Bridge, 2006). Thus, the sediments were episodically
exposed and subject to desiccation. The scarcity of plant matter
suggests that the environment was not conducive for plant develop-
ment (or preservation), either due to rapid channel migration and
sediment instability or because of unsuitable climatic and/or oxidising
conditions. Red claystone and siltstone units, which are associated
with mudcracks, are a prominent feature of many oodplain deposits
developed in semi-arid to arid settings (Van Houten, 1973; Turner,
1980; Bridge, 2006; Cain and Mountney, 2009). The presence of
nodular or stratiform calcretes in facies Fm supports the interpreta-
tion of semi-arid to arid environmental conditions (Nadon and
Middleton, 1985).
4. Architectural elements
Nine architectural elements are identied in the Warchha Sandstone
based on their sediment textures, sedimentary structures, geometry,
palaeocurrent indicators and lateral and vertical arrangement of
lithofacies (Fig. 7; Miall, 1985). The various architectural elements
recognised have a hierarchical arrangement whereby some smaller
elements occur nested and stacked within larger elements. For example,
one common type of nested element that is discussed below is the
Downstream and Lateral Accretion element (DLA) that occurs within
Channel element CHb.
4.1. Channel ll elements (CH)
Channel ll elements in the Warchha Sandstone are characterised
by erosively-based units that cut down into ne-grained oodplain
sediments (facies Fl and Fm) of the underlying cycle. Channel bases
form irregular, erosional surfaces with up to 2 m of incised relief. The
ll of the channel elements comprises massive and indistinctly cross
stratied conglomerate and coarse-grained sandstone (facies Gt and
St). The erosive contacts between underlying claystone facies and
overlying conglomerate and coarse-grained sandstone facies are fth-
order bounding surfaces (Miall, 1985, 1990; Halfar et al., 1998,
Mrinjek et al., 2006). These surfaces mark the beginning of each
ning-upward uvial cycle within the succession. Two discrete types
of channel-ll element are recognised based on variability in
thickness, style of stacking and overall character of sedimentary inll.
4.2. Channel ll element CHa
4.2.1. Description
Channel ll element CHa is characterised by stacked, multistorey
channel-ll bodies (cf. Friend et al., 1979), deposits of which are
superimposed on each other (Fig. 8). They mainly occur in the lower
and middle parts of the succession and are separated by thin units of
greenish-grey claystone, grey siltstone and ner-grained sandstone.
Internally, individual sandstone bodies are 1 to 3 m thick, char-
acterised mainly by trough cross-bedded facies Gt and St, with
subordinate sets of facies Sp and Sr, all of which are arranged into
ning-upward packages. Some channel elements can be traced
laterally for distances in excess of 1000 m. Margins of channel bodies,
where exposed, display a wedge-like geometry usually indicating
about 1 m of incision and, in a few cases, over 2 m of incision (Fig. 8).
At such margins, facies Gt and St either pinch out entirely or pass into
thin overbank wings which may extend for several tens of metres.
Internally, storeys are composites of sheets and lenses, mainly
composed of sandstone with interbedded siltstone. Their boundaries
and internal bedding surfaces are generally undulatory, showing low-
angle-inclined accretion surfaces, each a few tens of metres in extent.
4.2.2. Interpretation
Multistorey channel element CHa is interpreted to represent the
vertically stacked lls of major channel belts. This interpretation is
based on the consistent erosional relationship with underlying
oodplain deposits. Channel bodies are incised into underlying
sediments and from this it may be inferred that avulsion of the river
to new sites involved variable levels of excavation of previously
deposited alluvium (Fielding and Webb, 1996; Bridge, 2006; Gibling,
2006). However, incision also occurred during the life of an individual
uvial course via lateral channel migration.
4.3. Channel ll element (CHb)
4.3.1. Description
Channel ll element CHb is characterised by single-storey,
massive-bedded channel-ll bodies. Such elements represent the
most common channel type in the middle and upper parts of the
Warchha Sandstone succession and are characterised by a lenticular
or tabular geometry, up to 9 m thick and 500 to 800 m wide, which
can be traced laterally in a few instances for distances in excess of
1000 m (Fig. 9). The central parts of such bodies are represented by
the main topographic low though usually with an asymmetric pattern
in cross-section with a zone of maximum thickness near one margin
(cf. Trnqvist et al., 1993; Hampson et al., 1999a). These channel lls
dominantly consist of large-scale trough cross-bedded pebbly
sandstone facies Gt and St, with sub-ordinate sets of facies Sp, all
overlain by ne-grained overbank facies Fm and Fl. The basal
boundary is sharp, commonly irregular and erosional. Reddish-
brown claystone clasts (0.05 0.2 m) occur as lenses in the middle
parts of these channels. The channel-ll element shows large-scale
lateral accretion, apparently by epsilon cross-stratication (Allen,
1970). The most abundant sedimentary structure in CHb elements is
trough cross-beds, which have set thicknesses up to 1 m thick. The
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126 109

Fig. 7. Summary of the characteristic features of the main architectural elements encountered in the Warchha Sandstone.
 110
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 8. a) Multistorey channel-ll element CHa as exposed in the middle and upper part of the Warchha Sandstone in the Nilawahan area. Heavy lines delineate individual storeys; lighter lines delineate boundaries between sets and cosets of
different facies. b) Sedimentary log of the Warchha Sandstone, Nilawahan area, Salt Range. See Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 9. Field sketch showing a single-storey channel element (CHb), asymmetrically-lled with facies Gt, St and Sp in the Amb area. Heavy lines delineate facies boundaries; lighter
lines delineate lateral accretion surfaces. Arrows indicate palaeocurrent directions; their location indicates the site at which the palaeocurrent reading was taken. Dashed box
indicates the area portrayed in the photo. See Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
coarsest grained and thickest sets occur at the basal part of CHb
elements. The central parts of CHb elements show planar and low-
angle cross-bedding in medium- to coarse-grained sandstone and
pass upward to ne-grained sandstone and siltstone, very similar to
the classical ning-upward succession of Allen (1965).
4.3.2. Interpretation
This element is interpreted as the asymmetric ll of a single-storey
active channel that likely arose via lateral migration of the channel
through point bar development, whereby the barform accreted laterally
more rapidly than the outer channel bank retreated (cf. Hopkins, 1985;
Kirschbaum and McCabe, 1992; Gibling 2006). This element forms
discrete channel-ll sand bodies isolated within oodplain successions
of variable thickness (Fig. 9). Although channel elements CHa and CHb
are here described as two discrete types, elements of type CHa could
conceivably represent poorly preserved remnants of multiple stacked
occurrences of element CHb. This would imply that the bases of CHa
elements are delineated by major fth- or sixth-order bounding surfaces
in the terminology of Miall (1988, 1996).
4.4. Gravel bar elements (GB)
4.4.1. Description
These elements form 1 to 1.5 m thick, vertically stacked layers of
gravel (facies Gt) with diffuse boundaries and are characterised by
imbricated pebble clasts. Such elements are lenticular or wedge-
shaped and can be traced laterally for tens of metres. Individual bed
thicknesses vary from 0.2 to 0.4 m. Flat or undulating scour surfaces
are developed both within and at the top of these elements and these
are usually overlain by angular to sub-rounded claystone clasts.
Internally, these elements typically exhibit a ning-upward trend and
111
form channel lag deposits that are usually characterised by a low-
relief upper surface and an erosional lower boundary, which denes
the base of a ning-upward cycle and which represents a fth order
bounding surface (Miall, 1996; Halfar et al., 1998, Mrinjek et al.,
2006). The conglomerates that comprise these elements are usually
impersistent and pass vertically and laterally into sandstone beds
(some with a few mud clasts) in which stratication is absent or only
weakly developed. Although these elements commonly occur as
isolated forms, they also occur as the lags at the base of channel
elements CHa and CHb, within which they are nested.
4.4.2. Interpretation
These elements are interpreted to represent channel lls via the
migration of transverse bars with curved crest lines (cf. Capuzzo and
Wetzel, 2004). These low-amplitude bars formed sheet-like bodies
dominated by bedload transport with clasts that probably only moved
during larger ood events (Miall, 1985). The lenticular- to wedge-
shaped geometry and the thinly developed conglomerates associated
with the scoured surfaces of this architectural element indicate
deposition as a channel lag (Allen, 1964; Leeder, 1973).
4.5. Sandy bedform elements (SB)
4.5.1. Description
These are the most common elements recognised and are recorded
within all stratigraphic sections of the Warchha Sandstone (Figs 10
and 11). They form lens-, tabular- or wedge-shaped sandstone bodies, 3 to
8 m thick and laterally extensive for over 250 m. They are composed of
stacked sets, arranged into ning-upward packages, characterised by
sandy gravels (Gt) which gradually pass upward into very coarse-grained
trough cross-bedded (St) or medium- to coarse-grained planar cross-
112 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 10. Outcrop sketch showing the geometry of a sandy SB element in the Matan area. Flat or undulating scoured surfaces are overlain by angular to sub-rounded mudclasts. See
Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
bedded (Sp) sandstones, which are themselves overlain by ner-grained
cross- to horizontally-stratied sands (Sr, Sh) and ne-grained oodplain
sediments (Fl, Fm). The elements are delineated by the presence of fourth-
or fth-order surfaces (Miall, 1996). Tabular sandstone bodies are
characterised by a width:thickness ratio exceeding 15, whereas lenticular
sandstone bodies have a ratio <15 (cf. Friend et al., 1979; Gibling, 2006).
Major tabular sandstones predominate in the middle part of well-
developed ning-upward cycles, with the upper part composed of
mottled or speckled silty-sandstone, some examples of which show
polygonal mud cracks on exposed bedding surfaces. The base of this
element is composed of sandstone rich in mudstone clasts that are the
product of the reworking of components of underlying element FF. The
thickness of sets of facies St and Sp typically decreases upwards within SB
elements. Minor bounding surfaces separate sets and cosets of facies St, Sp
and Sr (cf. Roberts, 2007). Large-scale inclined cross-bedded sets that are
each 0.1 to 0.4 m thick and up to 25 m in length are recorded in these
elements. The orientation of these macroforms is generally normal to the
mean palaeoow direction, as measured from foreset azimuths in facies St
and Sp. Palaeocurrent data show moderate to high dispersion and a
unimodal trend to north northwest (Fig. 11). SB elements are similar to
CHb elements described above, except that the former are not delineated
by a basal channelised erosion surface.
4.5.2. Interpretation
These elements represent the deposits of migratory dune-scale
bedforms in either mid-channel bars or, more likely, on the anks of
point bars (Fig. 11; cf. Allen, 1963, 1983; Jackson, 1976a,b; Cant and
Walker, 1976, 1978; Nijman and Puigdefabregas, 1978; Miall, 1985;
Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004). Downstream reduction in the scale of the
cross-bedded sets likely indicates downstream changes from dune- to
ripple-scale bedforms, probably reecting a local decrease in
transport energy and channel depth (Halfar et al., 1998). The large-
scale inclined macroforms in SB elements are interpreted to represent
point bar lateral accretion beds (cf. Roberts, 2007). This interpretation
is based upon their size (Fig. 11) and their orientation, which is sub-
normal to the mean palaeoow within the main channel body
(Fig. 11). The lens-, tabular- or wedge-shaped geometry of SB
elements might reect the presence of straight-crested dunes
deposited during high discharge events (cf. Bordy and Catuneanu,
2002). The intraformational mud clasts are related to erosion of the
overbank area during lateral channel migration, and their subsequent
redeposition to form a channel lag. Together, the unidirectional,
highly dispersive palaeocurrent trend (Fig. 11), the presence of lateral
accretion macroforms and the ning-upward trend indicate that SB
elements were deposited by meandering stream channels (Sharma
et al., 2002; Roberts, 2007).
4.6. Downstream and lateral accretion elements (DLA)
4.6.1. Description
These lens-shaped elements are well developed in the succession
(Fig. 12) and exhibit variable migration (growth) directions that can
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 11. Outcrop sketch of geometrically tabular to wedge-shaped sandbody of element SB in the Karuli area, showing the detailed lateral and vertical facies variations. See Fig. 1 and 3 for location.

113
 114
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 12. Photomosaic and sketch section of a DLA element in a ning-upward succession from the Matan area. The lower part consists of a thickly-bedded, laterally-discontinuous sandstone body (DA). The middle and upper parts expose
medium to thin beds with large-scale inclined strata, with lateral accretion surfaces (LA), which are oriented oblique or perpendicular to the main palaeoow direction. See Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
be parallel, oblique or perpendicular to orientation of the palaeo-
channel, as indicated by their relationship to the margins of larger
channel elements, within which they occur (Fig. 12). These elements
are identied as downstream accretion (DA) and lateral accretion
(LA) elements. DA elements are often overlain by or internger with
LA elements in the succession and the two types are sometimes
difcult to distinguish (cf. Luttrell, 1993).
Elements indicative of downstream accretion are present mostly in
the lower parts of the cycles (Fig. 12), where they tend to be conned
to the central parts of larger channel bodies. These elements are
composed of medium- to coarse-grained sandstones arranged into
large-scale planar cross-bedded sets (facies Sp), foresets of which dip
at 20 to 30 in a direction close to parallel to the channel axes (Fig. 12).
These elements are lenticular in shape, up to 1.5 m thick and are
typically continuous for about 25 m. Downstream accretion elements
form the lower portions of the ning-upward cycles and generally
exhibit a convex-up shape, either for the entire element or for
individual units within a single element (Miall, 1985). The dip
directions of these surfaces are all similar (towards north-northwest)
to the dip directions of the cross-bedded foresets that they contain.
Elements indicative of lateral accretion (LA) are larger and more
common than their downstream-oriented counterparts (Fig. 12).
They are characterised by 2 to 5 m thick and 30 m-wide units that are
dominated by ning-upward packages composed of ne- to medium-
grained sandstones, with siltstone interbeds in their upper parts. Low-
angle-inclined compound cosets of planar cross-bedding are more
abundant than trough cross-bedded sets and, within the inclined
strata of these larger cosets, smaller scale structures including ripple
cross-lamination and small-scale trough cross-stratication are
developed. Low-angle inclined bounding surfaces within these cosets
are oriented oblique or normal to both the trend of the channel
margin and to the palaeo-ow direction inferred from the smaller-
scale structures contained within them. Large-scale inclined beds are
commonly observed in middle and upper parts of the ning-upward
cycles (cf. Arche, 1983). Individual dipping beds are 0.1 to 0.4 m thick.
Large-scale inclined stratal surfaces indicative of lateral accretion are
also recognised on the basis of a change in grain size. Each stratum has
relatively coarse-grained material at its base with a thinner, ner-
grained unit at its top, with the uppermost surface recording the form
of an increment of lateral accretion. The inclination of the large-scale
strata varies from 5 to 25. The orientation of these macroforms is
commonly normal to the mean direction of palaeoow, as measured
from cross-bed foresets in facies St and Sp.
4.6.2. Interpretation
The downstream accretion units are interpreted to have been
deposited under a constant ow regime during normal river discharge
and likely represent a succession of mid-channel transverse bars within
the central parts of a sinuous channel (Smith, 1970, 1972; Halfar et al.,
1998). The convex-up macroform bounding surfaces and lack of features
otherwise indicative of lateral accretion suggest the frequent lateral
shifting of the downcurrent-migrating sand dunes or channel bars
(Bordy and Catuneanu, 2002). The uniformity of the foreset dip
directions suggests that the thick solitary sets were probably formed
as downstream-migrating linguoid or transverse bars (Collinson, 1996).
The ning-upward grain size trend, the unidirectional dip direction of
foresets and internal bounding surfaces and the downstream-dipping
foresets within these elements (Fig. 12) are together indicative of the
downstream end of a channel bar (cf. Sharma et al., 2002).
Lateral accretion (LA) elements with large-scale inclined macro-
forms are interpreted to represent components of point bars. This
interpretation is based on their size, which is up to 5 m in thickness,
and their orientation, which is normal or oblique to the mean
palaeoow within the main channel body (cf. Roberts, 2007). The well
developed occurrence of laterally extensive, parallel laminated
sandstones also supports a point bar origin, rather than a mid-
115
channel bar origin (Olsen, 1988). The cosets with low-angle-inclined
bounding surfaces represent epsilon cross-bedding (Allen, 1970,
1983) which arises through a strong lateral component of bar
migration, relative to the main channel orientation and ow direction
(Cadle and Cairncross, 1993), and which indicates channel migration
via deposition on the inside bends of sinuous meander loops (Miall,
1985; Martinius, 2000). The distinct change of facies between point
bar sandstones and ner-grained sediments that ll the channel as a
plug indicate abrupt abandonment, presumably either by avulsion or
cut-off. The relative dominance of large-scale lateral accretion
elements over small-scale downstream accretion elements suggests
a uvial system dominated by laterally-accreting, sinuous, bedload-
dominated channels, which underwent high rates of lateral migration
through the development of point bars on inner channel banks (Miall,
1985; Cadle and Cairncross, 1993). The large-scale inclined strata in
the Warchha Sandstone are similar in their geometry and facies
composition to several modern sand-bed meandering rivers (Bridge
and Tye, 2000; Bridge, 2006). The inclination of foresets within large-
scale cosets of strata varies in the Warchha Sandstone, with the 5 to
20 dip values documented here typical of coarse-grained rivers
(McGowen and Garner, 1970; Arche, 1983). Willis (1993) and Peakall
et al. (2007) suggest that the dip of the inclined large-scale strata
tends to increase as channel sinuosity increases and the inclination of
strata increases towards the bend axis.
4.7. Laminated sand sheet elements (LS)
4.7.1. Description
These elements form thin (0.5 to 1 m thick), discontinuous tabular
sheets of ne-grained sandstone that are commonly inter-laminated
with micaceous siltstones (facies Sr and Sh; Fig. 13). The lamination is
usually laterally continuous for about 20 m and, in places, exhibits
primary current lineation on exposed bedding surfaces. Structureless
or faintly parallel laminated sandstone occurs very rarely. This
element is widespread throughout the formation and its principal
occurrence is in the upper portion of the ning-upward cycles, where
it is commonly associated with elements FF, DLA and SB.
4.7.2. Interpretation
These laminated sand-sheet elements were laid down by non-
channelised ows (cf. Tunbridge, 1984; Olsen, 1988). Their thin,
discontinuous, sheet-like geometry, together with the small-scale of
sedimentary structures and the ne-grained lithology suggests
deposition as a bar-top or bar-ank sand sheet (Miall, 1985), which
accumulated in the shallower parts of channels (Smith, 1972; Jackson
1976b; Cant and Walker, 1978; Nijman and Puigdefabregas, 1978)
under upper ow regime conditions where vertical accretion of
laminae occurred during sheet ooding (Bordy and Catuneanu, 2002).
However, in places, the close association of LS elements to former
channel bounding elements suggests that the sand sheets were also
deposited by overbank sheet ows rather than true sheet oods (cf.
Olsen, 1988). The genesis of this element in the Warchha Sandstone
may be attributed to two principal processes: wave-swash and upper
ow regime plane beds. The former process likely occurred during
falling stage, when large bedforms were planed off by waves breaking
over them as they emerged (cf. Collinson, 1970; McGowen and
Garner, 1970). Alternatively, laminated sand sheets attributed to
upper ow regime plane bed conditions may develop in shallow
water on the upper parts of point bars (cf. Harms et al., 1963; Plint,
1983; Wakelin-King and Webb, 2007).
4.8. Levee elements (LV)
4.8.1. Description
These elements are up to 2 m thick, mainly sheet- and wedge-
shaped and consist predominantly of claystone and siltstone (facies
 116
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 13. Outcrop sketch of laminated sheet element (LS) and its relationship with downstream and lateral accretion (DLA) and oodplain (FF) architectural elements in the Karuli area. Dashed box indicates the area portrayed in the photo. See
Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 14. Outcrop sketch of sheet- to wedge-shaped proximal overbank architectural element (LV) in the Matan area. See Figs. 1 and 3 for location.

117
 118
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 15. Photomosaic of overbank architectural element CS. Fine-grained sandstone, siltstone and claystone represent overbank deposits interbedded with very ne-grained sandstone of proximal oodplain deposits in the Nilawahan area. See
Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fl) with subordinate amounts of very ne-grained sandstone (facies
Sr and Sh). The claystone- and siltstone-dominated units are mostly
at laminated, though may rarely be massive or wavy laminated, in
which case they occur as drapes. Individual laminae are 4 to 20 mm
thick and show a decrease in grain size downcurrent (Fig. 14). They
are mottled, speckled (white, red, brown, yellow and green) and
bioturbated, though clear trace fossil types are only rarely distin-
guished. Small-scale asymmetrical ripples are present in the upper-
most sandy parts of the elements and are associated with desiccation
cracks and bioturbation in some places. Rare iron-rich concretions are
present, but calcrete crusts and nodules are absent. Within these
claystone and siltstone intervals, thin units dominated by very ne-
grained sandstone form sheet-like elements that can be traced
laterally for more than 300 m in zones proximal and adjacent to the
margins of large channel elements (Fig. 14). The wedge-like versions
of these elements are often found in close association with the
margins of channel elements (CH), in which case they are commonly
separated from the channel element by a 0.2 to 0.5 m-wide band of
intensely deformed strata with multiple small slides characterised by
detachment surfaces that are inclined in the same direction as the scar
on the adjacent channel margin (Fig. 14).
Fig. 16. Schematic representation of overbank architectural element FF showing occurrence of three types of claystone/mudstone with interlaminated siltstone. Model based on eld
observations.
119
4.8.2. Interpretation
The LV elements in the Warchha succession are interpreted as the
preserved remnants of proximal overbank environments on a broad
alluvial plain, where sediment was supplied via overbank sheet ow and
perhaps crevassing during oods (cf. Fielding and Webb, 1996). On the
basis of their sedimentary structures and their intimate lateral
relationship with channel margin and overbank facies, these elements
are interpreted to represent levee deposits (cf. Brierley et al., 1997). The
claystone- and siltstone-dominated units are interpreted as vertical
accretion deposits, which represent channel levees developed between
channel and oodplain areas. These deposits accumulated via repeated
overbank ooding and sedimentation along the banks of the channels
(Bridge, 2006). The very ne-grained sandstone units are interpreted as
levee breach deposits that supplied crevasse splay lobes on the
unconned oodplain (Alexander et al., 1994; Aslan and Blum, 1999).
4.9. Crevasse splay elements (CS)
4.9.1. Description
These elements consist of wavy or at, sharp-based ne-grained
sandstone, siltstone and claystone lobes and lenticular sheets (Fig. 15)
 120
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Fig. 17. Photomosaic showing a coarsening-upward laminated calcareous mudstone and siltstone and ne-grained sandstone sequence in a shallow lake (SL) architectural element in the Matan area, central Salt Range. See Figs. 1 and 3 for location.
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126 121

that form lenticular or ribbon-shaped bodies a few tens of metres in
length and 0.3 to 7 m thick. These elements commonly extend
laterally for more than 400 m. Close to the active channel they grade
into sandier units. Internally these elements are thinly laminated to
thinly bedded and contain intervals with lenticular bedding with
small-scale cross-lamination, wavy and parallel bedding and trough
cross-lamination (facies Fm, Fl, Sh and Sr). Generally, beds are
inclined at low angles (less than 20), appear to have accreted
laterally relative to the main channel trend, and exhibit downlapping
on to master bounding surfaces. Both ning-upward and coarsening-
upward grain size trends are recorded. Small rootlet casts (up to
0.25 m long), desiccation cracks, bioturbation and rare rain imprints
on siltstone and claystone bedding surfaces are all observed within
these elements, especially in their upper parts (Fig. 15).
4.9.2. Interpretation
The claystone beds that surround these elements and which occur
interbedded with small siltstone and sandstone bodies represent
overbank sedimentation (cf. Smith et al., 1989). On the basis of abrupt
distal thinning, reduction in the grain size and lateral relationship with
FF elements, these elements are interpreted to represent the preserved
remnants of crevasse splays (Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004). The overall
lobe-like or lenticular geometry, together with the non-channelised
occurrence of ne-grained sandstone, siltstone and claystone litholo-
gies, indicates deposition via ood-generated ows as crevasse splays
(Martinius, 2000; Bridge, 2006). The presence of both ning- and
coarsening-upward trends, with associated desiccation cracks, rootlet
casts, bioturbation and rare rain imprints on siltstone and claystone
layers, indicates the periodic cession of discharge between individual
episodes of splay activity (cf. Bridge, 2006). The widespread occurrence
of crevasse splay elements throughout the Warchha Sandstone suggests
that seasonal ooding and vertical aggradation of the oodplain was
common and frequent, an interpretation that implies a high rate of
overall sediment accumulation (cf. Roberts, 2007).
The ne grain size and extensive, sheet-like geometry of these
elements indicates deposition over a wide area that was distal to the
main channel (Mrinjek et al., 2006). The thick, sheet-like geometry,
the dominant red colour, and the suite of sedimentary structures
indicate deposition in a semi-arid, oxidizing environment (cf. Nadon
and Middleton, 1985; Reed, 1991). The well developed palaeosol units
are typical of oodplain settings (Kraus and Gwinn, 1997). The
presence of multiple, closely spaced palaeosol horizons suggest the
deposition of successive thin increments of oodplain sediments,
which is characteristic of episodic overbank ooding (Bridge, 2006).
Fine-grained units that show only weak palaeosol development are
indicative of avulsion deposits that were subject to rapid sedimen-
tation (cf. Smith et al., 1989; Kraus and Gwinn, 1997).
The extensive development of desiccation cracks and palaeosols
indicates uctuating wet to dry surface conditions and the red
colouration suggests intense oxidation of the sediment surface. The
occurrence of oxidizing near-surface conditions is also supported by the
absence of carbonaceous root material. Repeated expansion and
dehydration of clays (swellshrink cycles) within the sediment resulted
in the generation of features such as slickensides. This likely explains the
scarcity of primary sedimentary structures within this architectural
element. Development of carbonate and iron nodules indicates extensive
mobilization of Fe3+, Mn2+, Ca 2+ and other ions, which suggests
frequent uctuation in groundwater (Turner, 1993). Red palaeosols
resulting from haematite staining are typical of well-drained conditions
in semi-arid to arid climatic settings, or possibly in monsoonal wetdry
settings (cf. Nadon and Middleton, 1985; Schwertmann, 1993). The
origins of purple and greenish-grey colours are variously attributed to a

4.10. Floodplain elements (FF)

4.10.1. Description
The upper parts of all the cycles in the Warchha Sandstone are
characterised by 5 to 15 m-thick successions of ne-grained red
claystone with interbeds of siltstone and ne-grained sandstone
(Fig. 16). These elements can be traced laterally for distances in excess
of 1000 m in directions both parallel and perpendicular to channels.
The massive-bedded, claystone-dominated parts of these units exhibit
abundant desiccation cracks and 0.05 to 0.1 m diameter calcareous
nodules, whereas the siltstone and ne-grained sandstone interbeds
are characterised by ferruginous concretions up to 40 mm in diameter.
Bedding surfaces with rain imprints are a diagnostic feature,
especially towards the top of the units. The overall geometry of
these elements is sheet-like. Despite their overall similarity within
this architectural element, two types of ne-grained deposits are
identied; one with well developed palaeosols and the other with
only rare palaeosol development and characterised by ribbons and
thin sheets of ne sandstone. Where present, palaeosols occur within
claystone and massive mudstone facies Fm. The form of pedogenic
alteration includes the development of clay and haematite coatings on
grains, blocky, lenticular and granular ped structures, root traces,
burrowing, bioturbation and associated mottling, slickensides and the
widespread presence of carbonate nodules (cf. Retallack, 1988, Kraus
and Aslan, 1999). On the basis of colour, texture and style of
occurrence in the eld, three types of claystone and mudstone units
have been identied from bottom to top in the succession (Fig. 16).

4.10.2. Interpretation
These elements represent oodplain swamp deposits with thin Fig. 18. Summary of the bounding surface hierarchy recorded within the Warchha
silty oodplain overbank deposits and palaeosols (facies Fl and Fm). Sandstone, Salt Range, Pakistan.
122 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126

Fig. 19. Generalized section depicting the architecture of two ning-upward successions, showing 1st- to 6th-order bounding surfaces. See text for explanation.

lower ferric:ferrous ratio (cf. Lehman, 1989) and to a signicant
percentage of organic carbon. Besly and Fielding (1989) suggested a
perennially water-logged, vegetated mudat setting for the develop-
ment of greenish-grey mudstones, indicative of an oxygen-poor
environment and a ferrous state of the iron in the palaeosol proles.
The presence or absence of large calcareous nodules may have been
controlled by the rate of avulsion or rate of sedimentation during
avulsion (cf. Kraus and Gwinn, 1997).
4.11. Shallow lake elements (SL)
4.11.1. Description
Examples of this element are only observed in the Matan and
Sanwans areas (Fig. 1), where they were identied by the occurrence
of reddish-brown, dark-brown to dark-grey and black calcareous
mudstone, interlaminated siltstone and ne-grained sandstone, all of
which occur in a coarsening-upward trend. These elements are
typically 2 m thick and 25 m wide, lenticular or sheet-like in their
geometry, with beds that wedge-out into surrounding laminated
mudstones (Fig. 17). Carbonaceous shales vary in thickness from 10 to
20 mm and in places are interlayered in thicker siltstone and
sandstone beds. Laminated mudstones are 0.04 to 0.1 m thick, are
associated with desiccation cracks, and possess symmetrical wave
ripples on their top surfaces. Siltstones are typically carbonaceous but
do not contain concretions. Fine-grained sandstone beds are 5 to
22 mm thick and apparently sheet-like. Lithofacies Fm and Fl are
dominant in these elements with rare occurrences of Sh and Sr
(Fig. 17). Rootlets and calcareous nodules are commonly recorded
perpendicular to bedding. In a few places faint, black horizontal lam-
inations are visible in the mudstone, though overall the mudstone is
massive, having apparently been churned by bioturbation.
4.11.2. Interpretation
Element SL is interpreted to record deposition within shallow lakes
and ponds. The coarsening-upward sequence capped by organic-rich
mudstones is indicative of shallow lake deposits (Fielding and Webb,
1996). The sheet-like geometry, vertical sequence character and thinly
interbedded sand and silt lithologies suggest deposition by suspension in
standing water in extensive shallow lakes (cf. Fielding and Webb, 1996;
Zaleha, 1997). The abundance of carbonaceous mudstone and the lack of
reddening suggest reducing conditions (Sellwood, 1971). Sand-grade
sediments were likely carried into the lakes via low-energy traction
currents. The laminated mudstones with desiccation cracks and wave
ripples probably represent the marginal deposits of shallow but perennial
lakes, which were episodically exposed as lake levels uctuated (Zaleha,
1997).
5. Bounding surface hierarchy
The detailed lithological and sedimentary features in the Warchha
Sandstone have enabled six different orders of bounding surface to be
recognised and their environmental signicance to be interpreted
(Fig. 18). The basic hierarchial framework proposed by Miall (1988,
1996) is applicable within this study (Fig. 19).
First- and second-order bounding surfaces (Allen, 1983; Miall
1988, 1996) represent simple laminae surfaces, cross-set boundaries
and coset boundaries. Boundaries of laminated siltstone and ne-
grained sandstone facies Fl, horizontal to at bedded facies Sh and the

Fig. 20. Summary depositional model for the Warchha Sandstone. a) Regional-scale facies model. b) Cross section through a laterally-accreting point bar. c) Cross section through an
abandoned meander loop. d) Architectural and facies complexity of a point bar succession. e) Architectural and facies complexity of a oodplain succession. f) and g) Representative
summary log sections through the succession.
S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126 123
124 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
boundaries of the cross-bedded sets in facies St and Sp are all
examples of these rst- and second-order contacts (Fig. 19). Third-
order surfaces are recognized inside larger accretion units. These units
exhibit sequences consisting of trough and planar cross-bedded
sandstones (facies St and Sp) and are terminated with ripple cross-
laminated sandstone (Sr) in SB elements (Fig. 19). Large accretion
units show internal lateral accretion surfaces (third-order surfaces)
with dips up to 20 in directions approximately perpendicular to the
main palaeoow direction. Miall (1996) related each depositional unit
bounded by such third-order contacts to a period of active bar growth
during peak discharge. The bar mesoform and segments of macro-
forms that are bounded by these third-order contacts are all
interpreted as the product of individual ood cycles (events) as
dened by Miall (1996).
Bounding surfaces of macroforms such as LS, DLA and CS elements
are identied as fourth-order boundaries (Fig. 19). In the present
study, boundaries between sandy facies (St, Sp, Sr and Sh) and muddy
facies (Fm and Fl) are interpreted as fourth-order surfaces, as they
each indicate the margin of a macroform (Miall, 1994). Also, minor
erosional surfaces between individual storeys of the multistorey sand
bodies are likewise identied as fourth order surfaces (cf. Halfar et al.,
1998). In such cases, the internal structures of storeys consist of sandy
facies (St, Sp, Sr and Sh) and are separated by thin greenish-grey
mudstone and shale facies (Fm and Fl). These sheet-like to tabular-
shaped sandstone bodies are interpreted to be the result of channel
scour episodes alternating with episodes of sand transport and
deposition, similar to those described by Friend et al. (1979).
Lower bounding surfaces of channel-ll elements (CH and GB) and
their erosional contacts with underlying overbank elements (FF) of the
previous cycle are identied as fth-order surfaces (Halfar et al., 1998).
These fth-order surfaces, which are represented by erosional and
irregular or concave-up bases of major channel elements, mark the
beginning of renewed uvial ning-upward cycles in the Warchha
Sandstone (Fig. 19). Fifth-order surfaces are always immediately
overlain by a distinct zone of intraformational clasts indicative of
downcutting and scour into underlying units of ne-grained sedi-
ments (cf. Hjellbakk, 1997). The lower contact of the Warchha
Sandstone, which rests on tidal at and marginal marine deposits of
the Dandot Formation, and the upper contact, where the formation is
overlain by shallow marine shales of the Sardhai Formation, are both
examples of sixth-order surfaces (Fig. 19). The lower boundary surface
denes a marine regression surface of regional extent, whereas the
upper surface denes a region-wide marine transgression.
6. Depositional setting
The range of facies, their arrangement into repeating ning-
upward cycles characterised by a distinct set of architectural
elements, the unimodal distribution of palaeocurrent readings with
a high dispersion and a systematic change in mean azimuth between
successive cycles all supports the hypothesis that the Warchha
Sandstone accumulated in a high-sinuosity, meandering uvial
environment (Jackson, 1978). Furthermore, the relatively high
proportion of oodplain and overbank deposits compared to in-
channel deposits (cf. Leopold and Wolman, 1960), indicates either a
broad oodplain across which the channel meandered, or a rapid
oodplain aggradation rate relative to the frequency of channel
avulsion (Heller and Paola, 1996). The high proportion of overbank
sediments in the preserved succession testies to the growth of
appreciable alluvial oodplain relief, which likely arose through the
restriction of movement of channel belts by clay-plugged former
channels, a common feature in systems characterised by channels of
high-sinuosity (Allen and Friend, 1968).
As is common in many high-sinuosity uvial successions,
the sedimentary characteristics of individual ning-upward cycles in
the Warchha Sandstone are remarkably uniform, each recording the
initiation, inll and nal abandonment of a channel element. Each
cycle within the succession records the cutting and migration of an
erosively-based uvial channel that was subsequently inlled by
lateral migration of point bar deposits on inner channel bends (facies
Gt,St and Sp) and its eventual abandonment and plugging with slack
water deposits (facies Sh and Sr), before becoming overlain by
unconned oodplain overbank deposits (facies Fl and Fm). In-
channel deposition at the base of each cycle would have commenced
when, after an initial period of erosion or bypassing, either the current
deposited sufcient sediment downstream to decrease the local
gradient on the channel oor, or the ow velocity decreased
sufciently to enable the onset of deposition. Internal facies transi-
tions within each depositional cycle record evolutionary shifts in
depositional environment as the channel gradually evolved and
migrated laterally or became choked and in-lled with sediment
following an avulsion event. Average channel depth is interpreted to
have been 3 to 5 m (Figs. 8, 9), though based on the thickness of
ning-upward facies successions, the thickness of lateral accretion
elements, and the depth of incision related to observable scours,
channels as deep as 9 m may have been present. The associated
claystone and shale units were deposited from suspension in slack
water channels and in stationary pools on the oodplain. These
eventually inlled and became desiccated, allowing the formation of
subaerial oodplain soils, the development of which was dictated by
the inuence of a semi-arid to arid climate, as recorded by the red
colour, widespread occurrence of caliche nodules and associated
presence of desiccation cracks and rain imprints.
A generalised sedimentological model for the Warchha Sandstone
in the Salt Range (Fig. 20) shows the vertical stacking pattern of sand
bodies, the upward reduction in grain-size and sedimentary struc-
tures within preserved depositional cycles, and the extensive
development of oodplain elements all indicate a high-sinuosity
meandering system. The basal part of the formation indicates a
relatively higher energy uvial system based on the greater
proportion of conglomerate and pebbly sandstone facies present
and the relatively lower proportion of ne-grained facies. The middle
and upper parts of each cycle show an increase in the proportion of
ne-grained facies and a decrease in conglomerate and pebbly
sandstone facies, indicating gradual decrease in energy regime over
time. The relative paucity of gravel-grade extraformational clasts in
the Warchha Sandstone suggests that deposition in the Salt Range
area was at a considerable distance from the principal source of
sediment. The relatively low proportion of ne-grained facies in the
lower part of each cycle, especially in the western Salt Range, may be
due to i) low subsidence rate, which enhanced lateral migration of the
channel and erosion and reworking of the adjacent oodplain, or ii)
scarcity of vegetation due to the presence of a semi-arid to arid
climate, which encouraged relatively fast rates of lateral channel
migration and oodplain reworking. It appears that oodplains in the
Warchha Sandstone aggraded during overbank ood events, which
were accompanied by episodic avulsion of major channels (c.f. Smith
et al., 1989; Behrensmeyer et al., 1995; Shukla et al., 2006).
7. Conclusions
The Warchha Sandstone is uvial in origin and was deposited by a
high-sinuosity, laterally accreting, meandering uvial system, depos-
its of which are arranged into a series of 3 to 10 ning-upward cycles.
The succession is characterised by 7 distinctive lithofacies types (Gt,
St, Sp, Sr, Sh, Fl and Fm), each of which occur in a predictable order
within the individual ning-upward cycles. A range of sedimentary
structures indicate deposition in a subaqueous setting, predominantly
under lower ow regime conditions. Additional structures, including
desiccation cracks, raindrop imprints and caliche nodules indicate
episodes of subaerial exposure. Palaeocurrent analysis reveals a
unimodal ow, though with high dispersion. Palaeoow indicators,
 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
which repeatedly switch from northeasterly to northwesterly,
probably arose as a result of the lateral migration of successive
meander loops in different directions. The overall regional ow
direction for the uvial succession was from south to north down a
low gradient palaeo-slope.
Nine distinct architectural elements, each with distinctive geom-
etries and associations of facies, are recognised and these record the
presence of both single- and multistorey channel bodies, gravel bars,
sandy bedforms, downstream and laterally accreting barforms,
laminated sand sheets, oodplain units, levees, crevasse splays and
shallow lakes. These sedimentary units are interpreted within a
framework of six orders of bounding surface. The multistorey
sandstone units are characteristic of a meandering river and are
ascribed to a high-sinuosity system that was sand dominated (similar
to model 6 of Miall, 1996). The lateral persistence of channelised
sandstone elements suggests high rates of lateral channel migration,
and associated lateral accretion surfaces document the growth of
point bars. A range of sedimentary structures indicate deposition in a
subaqueous setting, predominantly under lower ow regime condi-
tions. Additional structures, including desiccation cracks, raindrop
imprints and caliche nodules, indicate episodes of subaerial exposure.
Acknowledgements
Ghazi is supported by a scholarship from the University of Punjab.
We are grateful to Gilbert Kelling (Keele University) for providing
valuable discussions regarding the interpretation of parts of this
sedimentary succession. We thank Russell Dubiel and Gary Hampson
for their helpful and constructive reviews.
References
Alexander, J., Bridge, J.S., Leeder, M.R., Collier, R.E.L., Gawthorpe, R.L., 1994. Holocene
meander-belt evolution in an active extensive basin, southwestern Montana. J.
Sediment. Res. 64, 542559.
Allen, J.R.L., 1963. The classication of cross-stratied units with notes on their origin.
Sedimentology 2, 93114.
Allen, J.R.L., 1964. Studies in uviatile sedimentation: six cyclothems from the Lower
Old Red Sandstone, Anglo-Welsh Basin. Sedimentology 3, 163198.
Allen, J.R.L., 1965. A review of the origin and characteristics of recent alluvial sediments.
Sedimentology 5, 89191.
Allen, J.R.L., 1970. Studies in uviatile sedimentation: a comparison of ning upwards
cyclothems, with particular reference to coarse member composition and
interpretation. J. Sediment. Petrol. 40, 298323.
Allen, J.R.L., 1983. Studies in uviatile sedimentation: bars, bar complexes and sandstone
sheet (low-sinuosity braided streams) in the Brownstones (L. Devonian), Welsh
Borders. Sediment. Geol. 33, 237293.
Allen, J.R.L., Friend, P.F., 1968. Deposition of Catskill facies, Appalachian Region: with
some notes on some other Old Red sandstone Basins. In: Klein, G., de V. (Eds.), Late
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Continental Sedimentation, Northeastern North America:
Spec. Publ. Geol. Soc. Am., 106, pp. 2174.
Arche, A., 1983. Coarse-grained meander lobe deposits in the Jarama River, Madrid,
Spain. In: Collinson, J.D., Lewin, J. (Eds.), Modern and Ancient Fluvial System: Int.
Assoc. Sediment. Spec. Publ., 6, pp. 313321.
Ashley, G.M., 1990. Classication of large-scale sub-aqueous bedforms: a new look at an
old problem. J. Sediment. Petrol. 60, 160172.
Aslan, A., Blum, M.D., 1999. Contrasting style of Holocene avulsion, Texas Gulf Coastal
Plain, USA. In: Smith, N.D., Rogers, J. (Eds.), Fluvial Sedimentology VI: Int. Assoc.
Sediment. Spec. Publ., 28, pp. 193209.
Azizullah, Butt, M.J., Rehman, A, Naveed, A., 2004. Possibility of uranium deposits within
the Warchha Sandstone, Nilawahan Group (Lower Permian) of the Salt Range.
Univ. Peshawar Geol. Bull. 37, 101126.
Balme, B.E., 1970. Palynology of Permian and Triassic strata in the Salt Range and
Surghar Range, West Pakistan. In: Kummel, B., Teichert, C. (Eds.), Stratigraphic
Boundary Problems: Permian and Triassic of West Pakistan. Univ. Press Kans.,
Lawrence, pp. 305453.
Behrensmeyer, A.K., Willis, B.J., Quade, J., 1995. Floodplains and palaeosols of Pakistan
Neogene and Wyoming Palaeogene deposits: a comparative study. Palaeogeog.,
Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 115, 3760.
Besly, B.M., Fielding, C.R., 1989. Palaeosols in Westphalian coal-bearing and red-bed
sequences, central and northern England. Palaeogeog., Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol.
70, 303330.
Best, J.L., Bridge, J.S., 1992. The morphology and dynamics of low amplitude bedwaves
upon stage plane beds and the preservation of planar laminae. Sedimentology 39,
737752.
125
Bordy, E.M., Catuneanu, O., 2002. Sedimentology of the lower Karoo Supergroup uvial
strata in the Tuli Basin, South Africa. J. African Earth Sci. 35, 503521.
Bose, P.K., Chakraborty, P.P., 1994. Marine to uvial transition: Proterozoic Upper Rewa
Sandstone, Maihar, India. Sediment. Geol. 89, 285302.
Bridge, J.S., 2006. Fluvial facies models: recent developments. In: Posamentier, H., Walker,
R.G. (Eds.), Facies Models Revisited: Soc. Eco. Pal. Min. Spec. Pub., 84, pp. 85170.
Bridge, J.S., Tye, R.S., 2000. Interpreting the dimension of ancient uvial channel bars,
channels, and channel belts from wireline-logs and cores. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
Bull. 84, 12051228.
Brierley, G.J., Ferguson, R.J., 1997. What is a uvial levee? Sediment. Geol. 114, 19.
Cadle, A.B., Cairncross, B., 1993. A sandy, bedload dominated uvial system deposited by
lateral accretion, Permian Karoo sequence, South Africa. Sediment. Geol. 85, 435455.
Cain, S.A., Mountney, N.P., 2009. Spatial and temporal evolution of a terminal uvial fan
system: the Permian Organ Rock Formation, South East Utah, USA. Sedimentology.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2009.01057.x, published online early.
Cant, D.J., Walker, R.G., 1976. Development of a braided uvial facies model for the
Devonian Battery Point Sandstone, Quebec. Can. J. Earth-Sci. 13, 102119.
Cant, D.J., Walker, R.G., 1978. Fluvial processes and facies sequences in the sandy
braided South Saskatchewan River. Canada. Sedimentology 25, 625648.
Capuzzo, N., Wetzel, A., 2004. Facies and basin architectural of the Late Carboniferous
Salvan-Dornaz continental basin (Western Alps, Switzerland/France). Sedimen-
tology 51, 675697.
Casshyap, S.M., 1970. Sedimentary cycles and environment of deposition of the Barakar
coal measures of Lower Gondwana. India. J. Sed. Petrol. 40, 13021317.
Collinson, J.D., 1970. Bedforms of the Tana River. Norway. Geograska Annaler 52A, 3156.
Collinson, J.D., 1996. Alluvial Sediments, In: Reading, H.G. (Ed.), Sedimentary
Environments and Facies, 3rd ed. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, pp. 3782.
Eriksson, P.G., Condie, K.C., Trisgaard, H., Muller, W., Altermann, W., Catuneanu, O.,
Chiarenzali, J., 1998. Precambrian clastic sedimentation systems. Sediment. Geol.
120, 553.
Fatmi, A.N., 1973. Lithostratigraphic units of the Kohat-Potwar Province, Indus Basin,
Pakistan. Geol. Surv. Pak. Mem. 10 80 pp.
Fielding, C.R., 2006. Upper ow regime sheets, lenses and scour lls: extending the
range of architectural elements for uvial sediment bodies. Sediment. Geol. 190,
227240.
Fielding, C.R., Webb, J.A., 1996. Facies and cyclicity of the Late Permian Bainmedart coal
measures in the northern Prince Charles Mountains, MacRobertson Land, Antarctica.
Sedimentology 43, 295322.
Friend, P.F., Slater, M.J., Williams, R.C., 1979. Vertical and lateral building of river
sandstone bodies, Ebro Basin, Spain. J. Geol. Soc. London 146, 3946.
Gee, E.R., 1980. Pakistan Salt Range series geological maps, 1: 50000, 6 sheets. Geol.
Surv. Pak.
Gee, E.R., 1989. Overview of the geology and structure of the Salt Range with observations
on related areas of northern Pakistan. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ. 232, 95112.
Ghazi, S., Butt, M.J., Shahzad, A., Hussany, U., 2006. Paleocurrent analysis of the Lower
Permian Warchha Sandstone, Karuli Village, Central Salt Range, Pakistan. J. Env.
Earth Sci. Punjab Univ., Lahore 12 6485.
Gibling, M.R., 2006. Width and thickness of uvial channel bodies and valley lls in the
geological record: A literature compilation and classication. J. Sediment. Res. 76,
731770.
Halfar, J., Riegel, W., Walther, H., 1998. Facies architecture and sedimentology of a
meandering uvial system: a Palaeogene example from the Weisselster Basin,
Germany. Sedimentology 45, 117.
Hampson, G.J., Stollhofen, H., Flint, S., 1999a. A sequence stratigraphic model for the
Lower Coal Measures (Upper Carboniferous) of the Ruhr district, north-west
Germany. Sedimentology 46, 11991231.
Harms, J.C., Mackenzie, D.B., McCubbin, D.G., 1963. Stratication in modern sands of the
Red River, Louisiana. J. Geol 71, 566580.
Heller, P.L., Paola, C., 1996. Downstream changes in alluvial architecture; an exploration
of controls on channel-stacking patterns. J. Sed. Res. 66, 297306.
Hjellbakk, A., 1997. Facies and uvial architecture of a high-energy braided river: the
Upper Proterozoic Seglodden Member, Varanger Peninsula, northern Norway.
Sediment. Geol. 114, 131161.
Hopkins, J.C., 1985. Channel-ll deposits formed by aggradation in deeply scoured
superimposed distributaries of the Lower Koottenai Formation (Cretaceous). J.
Sediment. Petrol. 55, 4252.
Hussain, B.R., 1967. Saiduwali Member, a new name for the lower part for the Permian
Amb Formation, West Pakistan. Univ. Stud. (Karachi) Sci. Technol. 4, 8895.
Iqbal, N., Baqri, S.R.H., Izart, A., 2001. The clay mineralogy and paleoenvironment of the
Warchha Formation exposed at Burikhel, Western Salt Range, Pakistan. Act. Min. Pakca.
12, 1926.
Jackson II, R.G., 1976a. Depositional model of point bars in the lower Wabash River. J.
Sediment. Petrol. 46, 579594.
Jackson II, R.G., 1976b. Large scale ripples of the lower Wabash River. Sedimentology 23,
593632.
Jackson II, R.G., 1978. Preliminary evaluation of lithofacies models for meandering
alluvial streams. In: Miall, A.D. (Ed.), Fluvial Sedimentology: Can. Soc. Petrol. Geol.
Mem., vol. 5, pp. 543576.
Jackson II, R.G., 1981. Sedimentology of muddy ne-grained channel deposits in
meandering streams of the American Middle West. J. Sediment. Petrol. 51, 11691192.
Kirk, M., 1983. Bar development in a uvial sandstone (Westphalian A). Scotland.
Sedimentology 30, 727742.
Kraus, M.J., Aslan, A., 1999. Paleosol sequence in oodplain environments: a
hierarchical approach. In: Thiry, M., SimonCoincon, R. (Eds.), Palaeo-Weather-
ing, Palaeo-Surfaces and Related Continental Deposits: Int. Assoc. Sediment. Spec
Publ., vol. 27, pp. 303321.
126 S. Ghazi, N.P. Mountney / Sedimentary Geology 221 (2009) 99126
Kraus, M.J., Gwinn, B., 1997. Facies and facies architecture of Palaeogene oodplain
deposits, Willwood Formation, Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, USA. Sediment. Geol. 114,
3354.
Kirschbaum, M.A., McCabe, P.J., 1992. Controls on accumulation of coal and on the
development of anastomosed uvial systems in the Cretaceous Dakota Formation
of southern Utah. Sedimentology 39, 581598.
Law, B.E., Hussain, T., 1989. Measured stratigraphic sections of the Lower Permian
Nilawahan Group, Salt Range, Punjab Province, Pakistan. U.S. Geol. Surv. Open-File
Rep. 89 464p.
Leeder, M.R., 1973. Fluviatile ning-upward cycles and the magnitude of palaeo-channels.
Geol. Mag. 110, 265276.
Lehman, T.H., 1989. Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) palaeosols in Trans-Pecos. Geol.
Soc. Am. Bull. 101, 188203.
Leopold, L.B., Wolman, N.G., 1960. River meanders. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 71, 769794.
Luttrell, P.R., 1993. Basinwide sedimentation and the continuum of palaeoow in an
ancient river system: Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic), central portion Colorado
Plateau. Sediment. Geol. 85, 411434.
Martinius, A.W., 2000. Labyrinthine facies architecture of the Trtola uvial system and
controls on deposition (Late OligoceneEarly Miocene, Loranca Basin, Spain). J.
Sediment. Res. 70, 850867.
Mazumder, R., Sarkar, S., 2004. Sedimentary history of the Palaeoproterozoic Dhanjori
Formation, Singhbhum, eastern India. Precambrian Res. 267287 2004.
McGowen, J.H., Garner, L.E., 1970. Physiographic features and stratication types of coarse-
grained point bars: modern and ancient examples. Sedimentology 14, 77111.
Miall, A.D., 1985. Architectural-element analysis: a new method of facies analysis
applied to uvial deposits. Earth Sci. Rev. 22, 261308.
Miall, A.D., 1988. Architectural-element and bounding surface in uvial deposits: anatomy
of the Kayenta Formation (Lower Jurassic), southwest Colorado. Sediment. Geol. 55,
233262.
Miall, A.D., 1994. Reconstructing uvial macroform architecture from two-dimensional
outcrops: examples from the Castlegate Sandstone, Book Cliffs, Utah. J. Sediment.
Res. 64, 146158.
Miall, A.D., 1996. The Geology of Fluvial Deposits: Sedimentary Facies, Basin Analysis,
and Petroleum Geology. Springer-Verlag, New York. 582p.
Mrinjek, E., Sremac, J., Velic, J., 2006. Pliocene alluvial sediments in the Drava Depression of
the ViroviticSlantina area, Northern Croatia. J. Geol. Cro. 59, 6584.
Nadon, G.C., Middleton, G.V., 1985. The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Fundy Group
(Triassic) of the St. Martins area, New Brunswick. Can. J. Earth Sci. 22, 11831203.
Nijman, W., Puigdefabregas, C., 1978. Coarse grained point bar structure in a molasses-type
uvial system, Eocene Castisent Sandstone Formation, South Pyrenean Basin. In: Miall,
A.D. (Ed.), Fluvial Sedimentology: Can. Soc. Petrol. Geol. Mem., vol. 5, pp. 487510.
Noetling, P., 1901. Beitrage zur Geologie der Salt Range, insbesondere der permichen
und triasuchen Ablagerungen: Ueues Jahrb. Mineral Beilage Band 14, 369471.
Olsen, H., 1988. The architecture of a sandy braided-meandering river system: an
example from the Lower Triassic Solling Formation (M. Buntsandstein) in W-
Germany. Geol. Rundschau 77, 797814.
Paredes, J.M., Foix, N., Pinol, F.C., Nillni, A., Allard, J., Marquillas, R.A., 2007. Volcanic and
climatic controls on uvial style in a high-energy system: the Lower Cretaceous
Matasiete Formation, Golfo San Jorge basin, Argentina. Sediment. Geol. 202, 96123.
Peakall, J., Ashworth, P.J., Best, J.L., 2007. Meander-bend evolution, alluvial architecture,
and the role of cohesion in sinuous river channel: a ume study. J. Sediment. Res.
77, 197212.
Plint, A.G., 1983. Sandy uvial point bar sediments from the Middle Eocene of Dorset,
England. In: Collinson, J.D., Lewin, J. (Eds.), Modern and Ancient Fluvial System: Int.
Assoc. Sediment. Spec. Pub., vol. 6, pp. 355368.
Qureshi, M.K.A., 1980. Copper Showing in Warchha Sandstone and Sardahi Formation.
Salt Range. Contributions to the Geology of Pakistan, Quetta.
Retallack, G.J., 1988. Field recognition of palaeosols. In: Reinhardt, J., Sigelo, W.R. (Eds.),
Palaeosols and Weathering Through Geological Time: Principles and Applications:
Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Publ., vol. 216, pp. 120.
Roberts, E.M., 2007. Facies architecture and depositional environments of the Upper
Cretaceous Kaiparowits Formation, southern Utah. Sediment. Geol. 197, 207233.
Reed, W.E., 1991. Genesis of calcretes in the Devonian Wood Bay Group, Dicksonland,
Spitsbergen. Sediment. Geol. 75, 149161.
Schwertmann, U., 1993. Relationship between iron oxides, soil colour, and soil formation.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Spec. Pub. 31, 5169.
Sellwood, B.W., 1971. The genesis of some sideritic beds in the Yorkshire Lias (England).
J. Sediment, Petrol. 41, 854858.
Shah, S.M.I., 1977. Stratigraphy of Pakistan. Geol. Surv. Pak. Mem. 12 138p.
Sharma, M., Sharma, S., Shukla, K.U., Singh, B.I., 2002. Sandstone body architecture and
stratigraphic trend in the Middle Siwalik Succession of the Jammu area. India. J.
Asian Earth. Sci. 20, 817828.
Shukla, U.K., Bachmann, G.H., Beutler, G., 2006. Extremely distal uvial sandstone
within the playa system of Arnstadt Formation (Norian, Late Triassic), central
Germany. Facies 52, 541554.
Smith, N.D., 1970. The braided stream depositional environment: comparison of the
Platte River with some Silurian clastic rocks: north-central Appalachians. Geol. Soc.
Am. Bull. 81, 29933041.
Smith, N.D., 1972. Some sedimentological aspects of planar cross-stratication in a
sandy braided river. J. Sediment. Pet. 42, 624634.
Smith, N.D., Cross, T.A., Dufcy, J.P., Clough, S.R., 1989. Anatomy of an avulsion.
Sedimentology 36, 123.
Sultan, A.S., 2004. Mineralogical investigations of the phosphatic nodules from
Warchha Sandstone, Salt Range, with emphasis on replacement process. Univ.
Peshawar Geol. Bull. 37, 6575.
Thomas, J.V., Parkash, B., Mohindra, R., 2002. Lithofacies and palaeosol analysis of the
Middle and Upper Siwalik Group (Plio-Pleistocene), Haripur-Kolar section,
Himachal Pradesh, India. Sediment. Geol. 150, 343366.
Trnqvist, T.E., Van Ree, M.H.M., Faessen, E.L.H.J., 1993. Longitudinal facies architectural
changes of a middle Holocene anatomising distributary system (RhineMeuse
delta, central Netherlands). Sediment. Geol. 85, 203219.
Tunbridge, I.P., 1984. Facies model for a sandy ephemeral stream and clay playa complex:
the Middle Devonian Trentishoe Formation of North Devon. UK. Sedimentology 31,
697716.
Turner, B.R., 1993. Palaeosols in Permo-Triassic continental sediments from Prydz Bay,
East Antarctica. J. Sediment. Petrol. 63, 694706.
Turner, P., 1980. Continental red beds. Developments in sedimentology, 29. Elsevier,
Amsterdam. 562 pp.
Valdiya, K.S., 1997. Himalaya, the northern frontier of East Gondwanaland. Gond. Res. 1,
29.
Van Houten, F.B., 1973. Origin of red beds: a review 19611972. Annual Rev. Earth Plant.
Sci. 1, 3961.
Waagan, W., 1878. Salt Range fossils, Productus Limestone Group. Geol. Surv. India
Paleontol. Indica Ser. 13 (17), 998.
Wakelin-King, G.A., Webb, J.A., 2007. Upper ow regime mud oodplains, lower ow
regime sand channels: sediment transport and deposition in a dry land mud
aggregate river. J. Sediment. Res. 77, 702712.
Walker, R.G., 1978. Facies models. Geo. Sci. Canada Rep. Ser. 1, 171188.
Wardlaw, B.R., Pogue, K.R., 1995. The Permian of Pakistan. In: Scholle, P.A., Peryt, T.M.,
Ulmer-Scholle, D.S. (Eds.), The Permian of Northern Pangea. Sedimentary Basins
and Economical Resources, vol. 2. Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 215224.
Wensink, H., 1975. The paleomagnetism of the Speckled Sandstone of Early Permian
age from the Salt Range, Pakistan. Tectonophysics 26, 281292.
Willis, B.J., 1993. Interpretation of bedding geometry within ancient point bar deposits. In:
Marzo, M., Puigdefbregas, C. (Eds.), Alluvial Sedimentation: Int. Assoc. Sediment.
Spec. Pub., vol. 17, pp. 101114.
Yeats, R.S., Khan, S.H., Akhtar, M., 1984. Late Quaternary deformation of the Salt Range
of Pakistan. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 99, 958966.
Zaleha, M.J., 1997. Fluvial and lacustrine palaeoenvironment of the Miocene Siwalik
Group, Khaur area, northern Pakistan. Sedimentology 44, 349368.