Midterm Review Outline

Lesson 1 - Biological Concepts

1. List the features that distinguish living organisms from nonliving matter.
-living organisms fundamental characteristics: 1) organized into increasingly complex
structures) 2) obtain and use energy to sustain themselves metabolism
3) sense/respond to environment 4)reproduce

2. Describe the general pattern of energy flow through the Earth's life forms, and
explain how their interactions help cycle the Earth's resources.
-second law of thermodynamics energy be expended to maintain order. Energy from
sun powers life, goes to producers/plants .. consumers get energy from producers or
other consumers. Decomposers, like fungi get energy from dead tissue and plants,
energy dissipating as heats flows through life

3. Summarize how DNA can affect the traits of offspring from generation to generation.
similarities in form and function of DNA vary, small variations from each generation
change giving rise to differences among individuals and ultimately different organisms
(evolution)

4. List and generally describe the five kingdoms into which living organisms are
classified.
monera, protists, plants, fungi, animals

5. Explain what is meant by the term diversity, and identify possible causes for the great
diversity of life forms on Earth.
diversity: scope of variation among living organisms
mutation, random mating, random fertilization, recombination, natural selection

6. Explain what is meant by the term unity, and identify possible causes of similarities
among earth's organisms.
unity would point to a unity of life through common ancestry, replication, universal
genetic code, similar metabolic pathways, similar cell structure,

7. Discuss briefly how scientists came to believe that the populations of organisms that
inhabit Earth have evolved through time.
-species that are similar share a common ancestor
-all life is connected and can be traced back to prokaryotes

8. Generally describe how biologists proceed through a scientific explanation.

1) selecting a problem to work on it
2) testable deductions from a hypothesis

9. Distinguish between a scientific hypothesis and a theory.

Guess based on some knowledge is a hypothesis
Theory: can never be falsified, can be modified based on all knowledge known about
that

10. Identify some limitations imposed on science and scientists.

-we are limited to only what technology can bring us to and extend our abilities. But with
new technologies and inventions comes new problems. (endangered species, acid rain,
deforestation)
Lesson 2 - Chemical Foundations
1. Define the term matter, and distinguish between an atom, a molecule, an element
and a compound.
Atom: smallest amount of an element
Molecule: two or more atoms that are chemically joined together ( h2 o2 h20 etc)
Element: a basic substance that cant be simplified (hydrogen, oxygen)
Compound: a molecule that contains more than one element( 420 c6412o6)
Matter: everything around you, has mass and takes up space,

2. Describe how protons, electrons, and neutrons are arranged into atoms.
Protons and neutrons are in the atoms core/nucleus. Electrons move around the
nucleus, atoms have same number of electrons and protons.

3. Define the terms atomic symbol, atomic number, and mass number (or "atomic
weight"), and use these concepts to describe the structure of selected elements
that are significant to living things.
Atomic symbol: H, C, N,
Atomic number: number of protons in the nucleus
Mass number: total number of protons/neutrons in the nucleus

4. Define isotope, and identify possible uses for isotopes in scientific study
Isotopes: forms of an element that differ in the number of in the nucleus. Can be used
as tracers, which are any substance with a detectable component that is used to study
biological processes.

5. Explain how electrons are distributed in atoms, and how this affects the number
and types of chemical bonds that can be formed.
First shell: can only have 2 electrons, second shell, 8, third shell 8. Farther away, greater
its energy.

6. Describe the various types of chemical bonds, the circumstances under which
each of them forms, and their relative strength.
Chemical bonds: ionic/covalent.. ionic: when 2 atoms differ considerably in their
electronegativity one atom loses its electron to the other atom meaning one is
positively charged and the other negatively charged ion covalent: pairs of electrons
shared by two atoms
Covalent: low polarity, bond between two non metals
Ionic: high polarity, bond between metal and non metal

7. Identify the properties of water and make it vital for life.

Found in gas liquid, solid.
Cohesion/adhesion, high surface tension excellent solvent, stabilizes temperature.
Overall, molecule has no charge but O has slight negative charge, H has slight pos
charge.

8. Define the terms organic compound and inorganic compound, and give examples
of each.
Organic: molecules primarily hydrogen and carbon but mostly carbon. C12H22O11
sugar.
Inorganic: lack of carbon/hydrogen. Calcium chloride. CaCl2
 9. Understand how small organic molecules can be assembled into large
macromolecules by condensation, and how large macromolecules can be broken
apart into their basic subunits by hydrolysis.
Condensation: cells build a large molecule from smaller one. Enzyme removes a
hydroxyl group (OH) from one molecule and an H atom from another. A covalent bond
forms between the two molecules, and so does water.
Hydrolysis: cells split a large molecule into a smaller one by an enqyme attaches a
hydroxyl group and a ydrogen atom at the cleavage site.

10. List the four large "molecules of life," identify their composition and structure,
and describe some of the functions they perform in the cell.
Simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides.
Simple sugars/carbs: organic compounds that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
in a 1:2:1 ratio. Structural material, fuel, storing/transporting energy. Three types,
monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides.
Lipids/fatty acid: fatty, oily, waxy organic compands that consist of hydrocarbon tail and
carboxyl group head. Fats such as triglyceride which are important energy reservoirs in
vertebrate animals. saturated fats, unsaturated fats. Then three are phospholipids, a
main part of a cell membrane. Waxes are components of water repelling and lubricating
secretions. Steroids have no fatty acid tails, have 20 carbon atoms. They serve
important physiological roles in plants fungi and animals.
Amino acids: amine group(-NH2) carboxyl (-COOH) and side chain of a n R group
attached to a carbon. Structural proteins support cell parts as tissues, function in
movement, defense, and cellular communication. Fibrous proteins contribute to
structure.
Nucleic acids: made up of nucleotide which is a sugar with a five carbon ring bonded to
a nitrogen containing base and one ore more phosphate groups. Nucleic acids are
chains of these. Make up RNA

Lesson 3 - Cell Structure And Function

1. Understand the basic tenets of cell theory, and identify the scientific contributions
that led to its development.
All organisms are multi celled, cells are basic unit of life. Cells come from division of
preexisting cells. All cells pass hereditary material to offspring. Started with Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek in mid 1600s.

2. Use the term fluid mosaic model to describe the general structure and function of
a cell's membranes, and identify the importance of membranes as a structural
component of cells.
Cells contain plasma membrane, cytoplasm and DNA.
Plasma membra is selectively permeable meaning that only certain materials can cross
it. Membrane controls exchanges between cell and its environment.
It is like a fluid mosaic because it is like a 2d liquid of mixed composition. There are
many different types of molecules in the membrane.
3. Define the terms solute, solvent, and solution, and relate them to the
concentration of a solution.
Solute: substance to be dissolved
Solvent: one doing the dissolving
Solution: mixture of the two.
Concentration of solution is parts of solute per 100 parts of solution

4. Describe diffusion, including osmosis. Explain what causes diffusion, and identify
the factors that influence its rate.
Diffusion is the spontaneous spreading of molecules/ions, caused by cells moving in and
out. Influenced by size, temperature, concentration, charge, pressure.
osmosis is when water moves across selectively permeable membrane that separates
two fluids of differing solute concentration.

5. Define and give examples of hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions, and
note the direction of the solute and solvent movement when any two of these
solutions are separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
Hypertonic: higher solute concentration.
Hypotonic: lower solute concentration.
Isotonic: same overall solute concentration.
When theres a membrane between two non isotonic fluids, water moves from hypotonic
fluid into hypertonic till its isotonic.
If cells cytoplasm is hypertonic compared to the outside. Water diffuses into it. Otherwise
water diffuses out.

6. Distinguish those mechanisms by which substances move across membranes

passively (without the use of energy) from active mechanisms (that require
energy).
Passive transport: facilitated diffusion: solute binds to transport protein which then
changes shape so the solute is released to the other side of the membrane. Example:
glucose transporter.
Active transport: transport uses energy to pump a solute against its gradient across a
cell membrane. Driven usually by ATP.

7. Contrast the general features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles like the nucleus, lysosomes,
mictrotubules, ER, mitochondria, golgi apparatus. Animals plants
Prokaryotic: one chromosome, a plasmid. No membrane. Bacteria, archaea,

8. Describe the membranous and non-membranous organelles found in eukaryotic

cells, and tell the general function of each.
Membranous: nucleus: protect control access to DNA, ER, making, modifying new
polypeptides and lipids, golgi body: modify/sorting new polypeptides/lipids, vesicle:
transport, store, breaking down substances, mitochondria: making ATP by glucose
breakdown, chloroplast: making sugars in plants some protists, lysosome, intracellular
digestion
 Peroxisome, breaking down food or waste
Vacuole: storage, breaking down food or waste
Not membrous: ribosome: assembles polypeptides, centriole: anchor for cytoskeleton

9. Identify those features that generally distinguish plant cells from animal cells.
Plants: cell wall, chloroplast, cell wall and membrane, no cilia

Lesson 4 - The Power Of Metabolism

1. Summarize the two laws of thermodynamics that govern energy and its
conversion from one form to another.
First: energy cant be created/destroyed
Second: energy disperses spontaneously

2. Identify the major reasons why cells use energy.

Grow, regulate metabolism, reproduce, repair, cellular functions

3. Describe the reorganization of atoms that occurs in a simple reversible reaction

using equations and the principles of equilibrium.
2H2 + O2 2H20

4. Explain how enzymes speed up chemical reactions, and describe the mechanisms
that regulate enzyme activity.
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions through catalysis: speeds it up through a
molecule that is unchanged by participating in the reaction
Forcing substrates together: binding at an actie site
Orienting substrates: substrate molecules in a solution collide from random direction
Inducing fit
Shutting out water: active sites of some enzymes repel water and keep it away from
reactions

5. Describe the properties of acids, bases, and buffers. Offer an example of how
each of them functions in the human body, and relate this to the concept of
enzyme regulation.
Too acidic and it interferes with hydrogen bonds that hold the enzyme in its shape.
Too basic: polar parts of enzyme attract one another the shape changes.

6. Contrast the overall sequence of reactions in linear versus cyclic metabolic

pathways, noting the roles of enzymes and cofactors (including some vitamins
and minerals).
Linear: reactions run straight from reactant to product.
Cyclic: the last step regenerates a reactant for the first step.
 7. Describe the energy flow that occurs when energy-requiring reactions and energy-
releasing reactions are coupled.

8. Use the ATP/ADP cycle as an example to explain how a cell can use a molecule to
temporarily hold and transport energy for use in later reactions.

9. Describe some of the methods scientists use to investigate biochemical reactions.

Lesson 5 - Energy In - Energy Out

1. Outline the general flow of energy and matter in the living world, noting the
relationship between photosynthesis and aerobic cellular respiration that cycles
carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water.
Energy flow starts with plants and other photosynthesizers intercept sunlight, autotrophs
then harvest energy directly from the environment, get arbon from inorganic molecules
like carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs get carbon from other consumers.

2. Describe the key steps of the light dependent and light-independent reactions of
photosynthesis, noting the raw materials required, the end products, and the
location for each phase.
photosynthesis: C02 + water ----(light energy)-- sugars + O2
Light dependent: ADP + NADP+ + H20 + energy ATP NADPH O2
Light independent: ATP NADPH C02 H20 ADP NADP+ sugars
3. Describe basic leaf structure and the functional advantages it offers plants
Veins: carry water from stem to leave
Stomata: allows air in and out of the leaf. Usually at the bottom
Epidermis is the outer shell
4. Compare chemosynthesis and photosynthesis as energy-acquiring processes.
Chemosynthesis is synthesis of organic compounds by bacteria or other organisms
using energy from inorganic chemicals without sunlight
Photosynthesis derives energy from the sun
5. Describe the three major stages of aerobic cellular respiration, noting the raw
materials and products of each phase.
1) glycolysis: cytoplasm, breaks down one sugar molecule for 2 ATP. 2) Krebs cycle,
completes breakdown to C02, produces 2 ATP 3) electron transfer phosphorylation
energy released, produces about 36 ATP per sugar
6. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic energy-releasing pathways, and
identify the requirements and energy-producing efficiency of each process.
Fermentation: 2 ATP a sugar, occurs only in cytoplasm, no electron transfer chains, no
additional ATP, final acceptor of electrons is an organic molecule.
Aerobic: 36 ATP/sugar, more efficient.
7. Understand how proteins and fats can be used as alternative energy sources in
the aerobic respiration pathway.
Fats: all cells can oxidize free fatty acids which can enter the Krebs cycle
 Proteins: eating more protein means amino acids are broken down and can turn into
pyruvate in the Krebs cycle

8. Describe how the development of photosynthesis altered the evolution of life on

Earth.
Enabled oxygen production leading to aerobic respiration for organisms to live

9. Describe some of the methods scientists use to study life's energy-acquiring and
energy-releasing pathways.
Respiration, photosynthesis, motion, growth, reproduction

Lesson 6 - Mitosis And Meiosis

1. Describe the basic features of chromosome structure and number in different
organisms.
-one DNA molecule after replication, 2 DNA molecules/sister chromatids attached
through a centromere
-oak trees: 12, humans, 46 (two sets of 23)
2. Understand what is meant by the cell cycle, and relate where mitosis fits into the cycle.
events that occur from the time a cell forms till it divides. Mitosis is the last stage of the
cycle where the cell eventually divides.
3. Summarize the events that occur during each phase of mitosis.
Early prophase: transcription stops, DNA starts to condense, nuclear envelope begins
to break up , centrosome duplicated
Prophase: one of the centrosomes moves to the opposite side, spindle microtubules
assemble, sister chromatids become attached to opposite centrosomes
Metaphase: all chromosmes aligned midway between spindle poles
Anaphase: sister chromatids move toward opposite spindle poles
Telophase: chromosomes reach opposite side, loosen up. Ends with nuclear envelope
forms around each new chromosome.

4. Explain how cytoplasm is divided between daughter cells after mitosis, contrasting
the process in plant and animal cells.
Cell cytoplasm divides between late anaphase and end of telophase. This is called
cytokinesis and this only occurs in animals.

5. Discuss the potential of the cell cycle to control events such as cancer formation and
aging.
If a checkpoint gene mutates so that its protein product no longer works properly. Cell can then
make too little or too much. When there are enough failures, a cell loses control over its cell
cycle and interphase may be skipped. Neoplasm can form causing tumors.

6. Contrast asexual and sexual types of reproduction that occur among unicellular and
multicellular organisms.
Asexual: single individual gives rise to offspring that are identical to itself.
Sexual: two individuals mixing their genetic material
7. Summarize the events that occur during each phase of meiosis and gamete
formation.
Meiosis I:
Prophase IL homologous chromosomes condense, pair up, and swap segments
and spindle microtubules attach to them
Metaphase I: homologous chromosomes pairs are aligned between spindle
poles. Spindle microtubules attach the two chromosomes of each pair to
opposite poles.
Anaphase I: All of the chromosomes separate and begin heading toward the
poles.
Telophase I: A complete set of chromosomes clusters at both ends of the cell.
Nuclear envelope forms around each set so two haploid nuclei form.
Prophase II: chromosomes condense. Spindle microtubules attach to each sister
chromatid as the nuclear envelope breaks up
Metaphase II: Still duplicated chromosomes are aligned midway between spindle
poles.
Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate. The now unduplicated chromosomes
head to the spindle poles.
Telophase II: complete set of chromosomes clusters at both ends of the cell.
New nuclear envelope forms so four haploid nuclei form.

9. Describe the events of meiosis and gamete formation that contribute to genetic
variability among organisms.
- shuffles alleles between homologous chromosomes and breaks up the particular
combination that was on the parents.

9. Compare mitosis and meiosis with respect to overall purpose, where and when each
occurs, and the resulting number of chromosomes.
Mitosis: one cell becomes two new cells.
Meiosis: formation of haploid gametes.
Different results but similar stages between mitosis and meiosis II like a spindle forming
and separating chromosomes in both processes.

10. Describe some of the methods and tools scientists use to study cell division.

Lesson 7 - Patterns Of Inheritance

1. Use Mendel's experiments to illustrate terms commonly used in genetics and to
explain the principles of dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
Dominance: in a heterozygous individual, when an allele masks the effect of a recessive
allele
Segregation: two members of each pair of genes on homologous chromosomes end up
in different gametes during meiosis
 Independent assortment: during meiosis, members of a pair of genes on homologous
chromosomes tend to be distributed into gametes independently of other gene pairs.
2. Determine all the possible kinds of gametes that can be formed from a given
genotype, and use this information with a Punnett square to predict the outcomes
of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.
3.
3. Describe variations that occur in observable patterns of inheritance that cannot be
explained by simple dominance or recessiveness.
Codominance: traits associated with two nonidentical alleles of a gene are equally
apparent in heterozygotes. Neither allele is recessive or dominant.
Incomplete dominance: one allele is not fully dominant over the other so the
heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate blend of the two homozygous phenotype.
Epistasis: polygenic inheritance in which a trait is influenced by multiple genes.
Pleiotropy: effect in which a single gene affects multiple traits.
3. State the relationship of genes to chromosomes, and use this information to
describe the concept of linkage and the likelihood of "crossing over."
Genes close together on a chromosomes usually dnt assort independently into
gametes. Genes that dont assort independently into gametes are said to be linked. All
of the genes on a chromosomes are called a linkage group. Humans have 23 linkage
groups.
4. Distinguish patterns of autosomal inheritance from those of X-linked inheritance.
One mutated copy of the gene in each cell is enough for that person to be affected by a
disorder. Can get it from a parent or from a new mutation in the gene.
5. Explain how changes can occur in chromosome structure and number, and
understand how these changes can affect the outward appearance of organisms.
Abnormal events occur before or during cell division causing a change in the
chromosome number. Extra chromosome results in down syndrome.
6. Identify and use the components of a simple pedigree.
Pedigree: chart showing the pattern of inheritance of a trait through generations in a
family.

7. Explain how modern methods of genetic screening can minimize potentially tragic
events.
Can help screen expectant mothers for possible birth defects and can try to target it before the
baby is born.

Lesson 8 - DNA Structure And Function

1. Relate how past experiments demonstrated that instruction for producing
inheritable traits is coded in DNA.

2. Describe the parts of a nucleotide and explain how nucleotides are linked together
to make DNA.
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides each with a five carbon sugar, three phosphate groups
and one of four nitrogen containing bases. (A G T C)
3. Explain how DNA is replicated and repaired, what materials are needed for replication,
and the importance of that process to cell division.
Metabolic pathway, enzymes and other molecules open the double helix of a DNA
molecule to expose the internally positioned bases then link nucleotides into new strands of
DNA according to the sequence. Each chromosome is replicated.

4. Describe the organization of DNA in chromosomes, including the structural

contribution of proteins.
Enzymes,
Primer: short single strand of DNA that base pairs with a targeted DNA sequence
DNA polymerase,: DNA replication enzyme, uses one strand of DNA as a template to
assemble a comp. strand of DNA from nucleotides.
nucleotide,
DNA ligase: enzyme that seals gaps in double stranded DNA

8. Outline the mechanism through which DNA controls a cell's structure and function.
DNA is how the cell makes all of its proteins and the proteins that function to control all
cellular functions.
6. Explain what plasmids are and how they may be used to make recombinant DNA
molecules.
Small ring of nonchromosomal DNA. After a restriction enzyme cuts a specific
sequence on the chromosomal DNA and in the plasmid cloning vector, they pair and
form a new recombinant plasma .
7. Describe in general terms how DNA can be cleaved, spliced, cloned, and
sequenced.
Cloned through recombinant DNA.
Sequenced through mixing with nucleotides, a primer and DNA polymerase.

8. Discuss some limits and possible applications of genetic engineering, and

distinguish this process from the more traditional techniques of selective
breeding.
GMOS, DNA profiling, gene therapy, eugenics

Lesson 9 - Proteins
1. State the major differences between DNA and RNA, and describe how the
structure of DNA determines the structure of the three forms of RNA during
transcription.
DNA permanently stores the cells genetic information which guides cell function and is
passed to offspring. RNA have various functions, disposable copies of DNA, catalytic,
gene control, etc. Fourth base is different between the two. RNA is ACGU. DNA is
ACGT. During transcription, enzymes use the genes DNA to assemble a strand of RNA.
RNA is single strand. DNA is double helix.
 2. Explain how the structure and function of the three forms of RNA determine the
primary structure of polypeptide chains during translation.
messenger: protein building message
ribosomal: becomes part of ribosomes
transfer: delivers amino acids to a ribosome during translation.
Translation: protein building info in mRNA is decoded into amino acids which results in a
polypeptide chain.

3. Outline how operons regulate gene expression the production of proteins in

prokaryotes.
DNA binding proteins regulate genes by controlling transcription. An operon is a group of
genes regulated together.

4. Describe how cell differentiation proceeds in eukaryotes by selective gene

expression during development.
Gene promoters have multiple binding sites for transcription. Complex gene regulation
makes cell specialization possible.

5. Relate the concept of changes in gene controls to changes in protein. Note those
changes that occur both naturally, as in some cancers, and those that can occur
through genetic engineering.
Genes contain the info needs to make proteins. Any errors in transcription and
translation which are gene expression.

6. Describe some of the experimental methods scientists use to investigate protein

transcription and translation.

Lesson 10 - Microevolution
1. Outline the major elements of the theory of evolution by natural selection, and
identify the ideas and observations that influenced Darwin as he developed the
theory.
Started with Alfred Wallace who thought three birds were descended from a common
ancestor. Wallace and Darwin proposed natural selection and proposed that all
organisms are descendants of earlier forms.started with Cuvier who suggested that
species that had once existed were now extinct. Lamarck thought that a line of descent
gradually improved over generations for inherent drive to perfection.

2. Describe mutation and the other events that contribute to variation within a
population.
Variation is original source of new alleles. Adaptive traits are the ones that push through
generations and thrive. Therefore over time, the non adaptive traits die out.

3. Describe a population in terms of its gene pool and allele (gene) frequency, and
outline the major conditions required to maintain genetic equilibrium.
Gene pool: all the alleles of all the genes in a population, a pool of genetic resources.
Microeveolution is change in allele frequency. Always occurring in natural populations
because processes that drive it are always operating.
Conditions for maintaining equilibrium:
1) mutations never occur
2) population is infinitely large
 3) population is isolated from all other populations of the species --- no individual enters
or leaves
4) random mating
5) all individuals survive and produce the same number of offspring
4. Explain how gene flow, genetic drift due to population size, and natural selection
can influence the rate and direction of changes in a population's allele
frequencies.
Genetic drift: random change in an alleles frequency over time by change. Reduces a
populations genetic diversity and has the greatest effect in small populations.
Gene flow: individuals leaving one population and joining another. Movement of alleles
between populations. Can change or stabilize allele frequencies which counters the
evolutionary effects of mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift.

5. Describe how patterns of environmental change and natural selection combine to

shape a population's range of traits, and explain how these patterns influence the
direction for evolution.
Directional selection: environment changes to where some genotypes/phenotypes do
not have the adaptive qualities to survive and those that do persist on.

Lesson 11 - Macroevolution
1. List what biologists generally accept as evidence to support the theory of
evolution, and explain how paleontology, comparative morphology, comparative
biochemistry and other techniques and observations are used to reconstruct the
past.
Fossils, similarities between related living things. Paleontology studies fossil records.
Comparative morphology analyzes the patterns of the locus of structures within the body
plan of an organisms. Comparative biochemistry uses structural and physiological
characteristics to determine levels of similarity and evolutionary links between
organisms.

2. Contrast the primordial Earth atmosphere with that of today, and other techniques
and observations are used to reconstruct the past.
Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago, little or no oxygen because no rusting.

3. Discuss the reasons why, of all the planets in our solar system, only Earth is
uniquely adapted to support life as we know it.
Has organic compounds we need possibly from meteorites. Has water, essential for life
Cell membrane genome prokaryotic cells early eukaryotes
Started from the sea into early eukaryotic
.
4. Describe the general movement of tectonic plates in the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cenozoic Eras, and relate this movement to changes in the fossil record.
Paleozoic: started off as relatively small continents broken up but then gathered up to
create Pangaea
Mesozoic: Pangaea split into north continent Laurasia and southern continent
Gondwana, created most of Atlantic coastline
Cenozoic: close to how it is today in terms of continents

5. Discuss the factors that encourage increased rates of speciation and the
formation of larger taxonomic groups, and identify the factors that bring about
extinction and replacement of species.
 Reproductive isolation: end of gene flow between populations. Could be
behavioral differences, gamete incompatibility, different reproduction timing,
hybrid sterility, physical separation between populations,

6. Identify some of the principal organisms associated with each of the five geologic
eras.
Archaean: bacteria/archaea
Proterozoic: oxygen accumulates, eurkaryotic cells, protists, fungi, plants, animals, ice
age
Paleozoic:sea animals, toward end land tetrapods and insects.
Mesozoic: turtles, dinosaurs, mammals, birds, modern insect.
Cenozoic: modern humans, modern animals adapt into what they are today.

Lesson 12 - Viruses, Bacteria and Protistans

1. State the purpose of a classification system, and list-in sequence-the major units
or groupings of the system we use today. Understand the difficulty of classifying
organisms into any artificially derived scheme.
Purpose: categorize the living world.to explain part of life.
Genus/species.
Genus: family name like Smith
Species: given persons name
System is always changing over time.

2. Name the five kingdoms into which living organisms are presently classified, and
explain why viruses are not included in the scheme.
Monera: bacteria and all prokaryotes
Protista
Three multicellular kingdoms: plants, fungi, and animals
Viruses not considered as prokaryotes or eukaryotes
2. Identify the general characteristics of a virus, describe the basic steps of viral
replication, and list examples of human illnesses caused by viral infection.
Virus: noncellular infectious particle that can only replicate inside a living cell.
Viral replication starts with a virus attaches to membrane proteins of a host cell letting
the viral material enter. The cell now produces viral components

3. Describe the metabolic processes, structural features and reproductive patterns

of bacteria, and distinguish between the main groups.
Bacteria: single celled, spherical, rod shapred or spiral cells.
Reproduction: asexual reprudction through binary fission where divides the cell into two
identical cells, horizontal gene transfer: transferring genetic material or conjugation
where you transfer genes on a plasmid.
Cocci spherical
Rod shaped bacilli
Spiral cell spirilli
 Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic oxygen producing bacteriaproteo bacteria: most diverse,
dont produce oxygen but are photosynthetic.
Gram positive bacteria: thick cell walls at are colored purple when prepared by gram
staining
Spirochetes: spring help break down cellulose, or are aquatic decomposers
4. Describe the characteristics unique to protistans, and distinguish between the
major phyla.
Eukaryotic organism, single cell, not a fungus plant animal or clade heterotrophic or
photosynthetic. Basis for aquatic food chains. Decompose organic material, prey on
bacteria, oxygen producing.

5. Summarize the theory of Endosymbiosis, and use a phylogenetic tree to explain

the possible evolutionary relationships among the five kingdoms.
Large host cell and ingested bacteria could easily become dependent on one another for
survival, resulting in a permanent relationship.