Parts of Speech (April)

NOUN
The Identifying “Name-Calling” Word
A noun is a word coming from the Latin word “nomen” which means
name. It is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, idea, action or
point of time.
Example:
Person - April girl
Place - England country
Thing - Standard electric fan
Idea - philosophy argument
Action - work
point of time - evening lunch
Traditional grammar defines a noun as the name of person, thing,

place, quality or idea. Descriptive grammar identifies a noun by its form,
position in the sentence and by noun makers called determiners, which
includes articles (a, an, the), the demonstrative (this, these, that, those), and
the possessives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their).
Words ending with the following suffixes are noun:
-ity - popularity, sanctity, enmity

-ence - pestilence, abstinence, conference
-ness - fairness, ugliness, hoarseness
-ment - allotment, firmament, deportment
-er(or) - actor, teacher, preacher
-ship - friendship, courtship, trusteeship
-tion - caution, demotion, motion
-ism - truism, communism, fascism
-hood - childhood, girlhood, manhood
Another big help in the recognition of nouns is an understanding of

prefixes and suffixes. A prefix is a unit added to the beginning of a word
(unhappy) to form another word. A suffix is a unit added to the end or base
of a word (happiness) to form a new word. Many nouns possess distinctive
suffixes.
1|April M. Bagon-Faeldan 2009

A great many nouns are used in two ways, when the simple form is
used without a/an, it refers to all kinds of materials named, e.g. ‘glass breaks
easily”. But in the sentence “Would you like a glass of milk?” a glass refers
to a receptacle from which we drink. In the sentence “ I can’t read without
my glasses’, glasses refers to lenses used to correct defects of vision.
Simple form Singular & Plural Specialized

without a/an Expressions Meanings
business business-businesses -stores or factory
cake a cake-cakes -cake of a special

size or shape
candy a candy-candies -individual pieces

of candy
change a change-changes -alterations
company a company-companies -business

establishment
-military units
experience an experience -isolated experiences

-instances of experience
glass a glass-glasses -receptacle for drinking

-mirror
-eyeglasses
iron an iron-irons -household appliance for

smoothing clothing
lace a lace-laces -string for lacing

(e.g.. shoes)
All underlined words in the passages below are nouns:

Knowledge dwells
In heads replete with thoughts of other men:
Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own.
William Cowper
All men see the same objects, but all men do not understand them.
Intelligence is the tongue that discerns and tastes them.

Thomas Taherne
Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers.
Lord Alfred Tennyson
Liberalism is trust of the people, tempered by prudence:

Conservatism, distrust of the people, tempered by fear.
Thomas Hardy
KINDS OF NOUN
Major Kinds of Noun
1. Proper noun – names of particular persons, animals, places or things;

they begin with capital letter and usually written without
the, a, an before them.
Person : Diego, Dianne, Jonas

Animal : Tagpi, Butz (the lizard)
Place : Philippines, Victoria, Oriental Mindoro
Thing : Toyota, Levi’s, Guess, Standard
2. Common noun- names that do not pertain to definite persons,

animals, places or thing. It always begins in small
letters.
Person : father, mother, brother, sister

Animal : kangaroo, frog, lizard, pig, horse,
Place : uptown, downtown, country, city
Things : computer, cellular phone, calculator
Minor Kinds of Noun
1. Collective noun – names classes or groups taken as one, or

collectively. Although a collective noun refers to more
than one, it is singular in form.
Person : company of soldier, orchestra, band

Animal : pride of lion, colony of ants
Thing : bunch of banana, deck of cards

Note: They are considered plural and take plural verbs when
members of the group are thought as of individuals acting separately.
2. Abstract noun – name things that do not have physical existence. It

names qualities, ideas, action, feelings, mental concepts and intangible
characteristics (not directly perceivable or readily grasped).
Ideas : nobility
Action : work
Feelings : happiness, joy, hate
Characteristics : courage, industrious, sweet
3. Concrete noun – name of things that have physical existence and can
be perceived by the sense of touch, hear, smell, sight
and taste.
table, plant, disk, birds, chocolate bar, fan, bed cover, salad, sound,
stone, shoes
4. Mass or non-countable noun – name materials in general rather

than materials in particular.
a pack of cigarette a flash of lightning

a bag of cement a grain of salt
a loaf of bread a tablet of medicine
a glass of water an ear of corn
5. Count noun – name things that can be counted individually.
bottle, can, book, card, television, pillow, motorcycle
6. Compound noun – nouns made up of two or more words. These

words may be written as a single word (safeguard),
as two words (safe deposit), or with hyphen (safe-
conduct)
schoolboy, playground, saleslady, mailman, basketball
USES OF NOUN
1. As a subject – noun is used is a part which something is said.
a. simple subject – noun used in subjection
Anna prepares a card for me.

The President delivers her State of the Nation Address last week.
b. compound subject – two noun used as a subject
Shyrel and Dhennis went to the library.

House and car is all I want.
c. subject that does not always directly preceded the verb.
“Doggie”, Ana called.

“Prrtt…”, when the policeman whistle.
2. As a direct object – the noun is written after a transitive verb
Jonathan loves books.

Manuel can draw a tree better than Joseph.
A. As indirect object – the noun is written before the direct object
I wrote Diana a letter.

Carlos Miguel sent an invitation to his party.
B. As a subjective complement – the noun is written after the

linking verb
Marie is a student of Bachelor of Science in Chemistry.

The officers are the front liners in the dialogue.
C. As objective complement – the noun can function as an

objective complement after the
direct object.
The couple named their baby, Joshua.

They considered the statue as a monstrosity.
D. As appositive – the noun is written after another noun to identify

it.
Arnold, the janitor, received a reward for his honesty

I met Cecilia, the new student.
E. As nominative address – the noun is the person directly

addressed or spoken to.
Jeffrey, count your blessings.

Dr. Alvarez, may I know your plans for your clinic?

RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION
Proper nouns begin with capital letters, like:
a. names of persons, nicknames titles used for specific persons
Gloria Queen Empress Her Excellency
b. names of places, countries, states, regions, localities, and geographic

areas but not compass direction.
Thailand New York to the West
c. names of bodies of water and land forms
Angel Fall Red Sea Mount Everest Taal Volcano
d. names of streets
J.P. Rizal Street McArthur Highway Kalayaan Avenue
e. names of schools, colleges, and universities
Oxford University Polytechnic College of Calapan

University of the Philippines
f. names of the days of the week, and the month of the year but not the
season
DiegoNovember Sunday autumn winter
g. names of nationalities ad languages
French Italian Greek Latin
h. names of deity, personal pronoun referring to God, sacred writings,

religion and religious organization
Almighty Holy Spirit Koran Catholic Charismatic

Movement
i. names of ranks, positions, and professions
Brig. Gen. Duke Professor Accountant

j. names of historic periods, era and holidays
Stone Age Renaissance Christmas Day Valentine Day
k. titles of the books, researches and other works like poem, songs /
hymns, stories and novels etc.
Sacred Garden The Owl

Correlates of English Proficiency Cinderella
Lupang Hinirang Aesop’s Fables
l. Vivid personifications
Destiny, the hands of time.
m. Trade names
Toyota Pilot Coca Cola Standard
Sanyo Jaguar Ferrari Suzuki
PROPERTIES OF NOUN:
I. Person of Noun
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
II. Gender of Noun
1. Masculine gender - nouns are names of male person and

animal
2. Feminine gender – names of female person and animal
LIST OF MASCULINE AND FEMININE NOUNS
MASCULINE FEMININE
groom bride
gander goose
bull cow
drake duck
actor actress
man woman

bachelor old-maid
fiancé fiancée
nephew niece
husband wife
uncle aunt
best man maid of honor
salesman saleslady
policeman policewoman
statesman stateswoman
boyfriend girlfriend
gentleman lady
congressman congresswoman
sir madam
lord lady
tailor dressmaker
waiter waitress
hero heroine
monitor monitress
leopard leopardess
patron patroness
baron baroness
shepherd shepherdess
poet poetess
lad lass
alumnus alumna
priest/monk nun
earl countess
aviator aviatrix
heir heiress
guy/boy girl
widower widow
tiger tigress
duke dukes
fox vixen
bullock heifer
man-servant maid-servant
boar sow
rooster/cock hen
stallion mare
colt filly
dog bitch
buck doe
ram ewe
sire dam
stag hind
mull hinny

brother-in-law sister-in-law
father-in-law mother-in-law
emperor empress
schoolmaster schoolmistress
prince princess
king queen
3.Common gender
student leader speaker laborer
4. Neuter gender – noun denoting neither male nor female
house book letter bag
 The gender of nouns may be indicated by several ways.
a. By means of different words.
Masculine Feminine
brother sister
uncle aunt
father mother
buck doe
b. By addition of an ending usually to designate the feminine.
Masculine Feminine
actor actress
hero heroine
emperor empress
heir heiress
c. By the addition of masculine or feminine words
Masculine Feminine
boyfriend girlfriend
salesman saleswoman
boy cousin girl cousin
III. Cases of Noun

Case is a distinctive sign or feature of nouns or pronouns that shows
its grammatical relation to other words in the sentence. It is the
grammatical term that refers to the form or inflection taken by a noun
to indicate its function in the sentence. In English there are three
cases: the nominative case, the objective case and the possessive
case.
1. Nominative case can be used as:
a. Subject of the sentence – names the thought you are

talking about in the sentence.
Sunsets in Manila Bay are unbelievably beautiful.

Ana sing a lovely song.
b. Predicate nominative – is a noun that completes the

meaning of a linking verb.
Mrs. Alvarez was a great teacher.

Baguio is a beautiful city.
c. Nominative of apposition – noun that explains another

noun.
Gloria Macapagal- Arroyo, the President, was the second

female president in the history.
Mandy Moore, the singer, is one of my favorite singers.
d. Nominative independent - noun being used which has no

grammatical relation to the
predicate.
Are you ready man?

The game is over, we went home.
2. Objective case – noun that is used to complete the meaning of

the transitive verb. Noun used as direct object,
indirect object, objective complement,
appositive to the direct object and object of the
preposition.
He knew the answer. (answer as direct object of the verb

knew)
We gave the boy chocolates. (boy as indirect object)
The students greeted Mr. Cruz, the new principal. (principal
as the noun in apposition with the direct object, Mr. Cruz)
10 | A p r i l M . B a g o n - F a e l d a n 2 0 0 9
They made Mario captain. (captain as objective
complement of direct object Mario)
He is a champion of the masses. (masses as the object of
the preposition of)
3. Possessive case – designates cases of noun or pronoun that

denotes possession or origin.
Kelly’s skin is flawless.

I have just met Mao’s brother.
The teacher’s room is air-conditioned.
The children’s books and notebooks are in the room.
Notes:
1. Use the apostrophe to indicate the possessive case. (Marlowe’s

poems, the child’s toys, the lady’s bags, the ladies’ dresses, the
girl’s books)
2. The plural noun which does not end in an s, forms its possessive
case by adding ‘s.
3. The plural noun that ends in s forms its possessive case by

adding only an apostrophe.
men’s shoes, women’s bags, children’s toys, boys’ caps,

foxes’ tails, girls’ handkerchiefs.
IV. Number of Noun
Number indicates whether a noun denotes one person, place, or

thing or more than one. If it refers to only one, it is said to be in the
singular number. If it refers to more than one, it is plural in number.
Singular Plural
book books
person persons
teacher teachers
flower flowers
RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF PLURAL NOUNS
1. The majority of nouns form their plural by simply adding s.
prayer - prayers invitation - invitations
2. Nouns ending in s, x, ch and sh form their plural by simply adding

es.
pass – passes tax - taxes

crush – crushes beach - beaches
3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural by adding

s.
portfolio – portfolios taboo - taboos

bamboo - bamboos
4. Nouns ending in o preceded by consonant form their plural by

adding es.
potato - potatoes
cargo - cargoes
5. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant form their plural by

changing y to I and add es.
navy - navies duty – duties
6. Nouns ending in y preceded by vowel form their plural by adding s

alone.
key – keys monkey – monkeys

bay – bays
Note: This rule is not true in case of a proper noun ending in y. proper
nouns in this type form their plural by adding s.
Cassidy-Cassidys Gregory - Gregorys

Cathy - Cathys
7. Certain nouns form their plural by changing the spelling or within

the word of by adding en.
foot-feet mouse - mice

ox-oxen child - children
8. For musical terms ending in o, simply add s.
concerto-concertos baho - bahos
Solo-solos cello - cellos
9. For nouns ending in ix or ex, either ices or es is added.
cervix-cervixes apex – apexes

vortex – vortexes
10. For compound nouns without hyphen, just add s or es.
bookcase-bookcases handful - handfuls
11. For a word made of noun and a modifier, add s or es to the noun.
editor-in-chief - editors-in-chief
son-in-law - sons-in-law
12. For nouns of Latin origin ending in is, change is to es.
basis – bases thesis – theses

analysis – analyses
13. For lain word ending in a, add e to a.
formula – formulae alumna – alumnae
14. For nouns of Latin origin ending in us, change us to i.
cactus – cacti syllabus – syllabi

stimulus – stimuli
15. For nouns of French origin, just add x.
plateau – plateaux chateau – chateaux
16. For letters and number, add ‘s.
100’s E’s I.D’s
POSSESSIVE FORM OF NOUNS
1. For singular noun, add ‘s to the noun.
student’s crowd’s sister’s
2. For singular noun with more than one syllable and ending in s, simply
add an apostrophe.
goddess’ Mr. Reyes’ actress’
3. For a plural noun not ending in s, add ‘s.
personnel’s sister’s dog’s
4. For a plural noun ending in s, add an apostrophe.
churches’ processes’ speeches’
5. For compound nouns, add ‘s or ‘ to the last noun.
step-daughter’s step-son’s
father-in law’s
6. For persons of nobility and high office, form the possessive using the
of-phrases.
The Office of the Governor

The House of Representative
7. To show separate ownership between two or more persons, for the

possessive of each name.
Diego’ and Carlos’ salon.
8. To show joint ownership, add ‘ or ‘s to the last name given.
Meynard and Mely’s house
9. For inanimate objects, form the possessive form by using the of-
phrase.
the roof of the house the door of the garage
10. “Noun-noun” compounds express possession.
bed cover dog house rice mill
SPECIAL NOUNS
A big number of nouns are used in two ways. When the simple
form is used without a or an, it refers to all material named. For
example, the sentence “glass is fragile” means that all materials
known as glass is fragile and therefore it breaks easily. But in the
sentence “Would you like a glass of orange juice?” a glass refers to
container from which one may drink.
The following are some other nouns, which can be used in two
ways:
Business - Business requires full attention of its owner.

(all kinds of business)
I want to put up a business.

(a particular kind of business)
cake - Children enjoy eating cake.

(all kind of cake)
A cake has been baked for Neely’s birthday.

(a specifics kind of cake)
paper - The price of paper has become prohibitive.

(all kinds of paper)
A piece of paper has been found in the cabinet.
(a particular work, e.g., composition,
examination, paper, etc.)
wood - Wood is used in building houses.

(all kinds of wood)
A piece of wood caused the car to stall.

(a particular piece of wood)
experience - Experience is said to be a great teacher.

(all kinds of experience)
An experience I can forget is the death of my loved one.

(a specific experience)
company - I have company with me.

(visitors)
Your company is well-liked.

(business firm)
Other words belonging to the list of troublesome nouns are the
following.
SIMPLE EXPRESSION OF EXPRESSION

FORM ONLY THE SINGULAR OF THE PLURAL
apparatus a piece of apparatus pieces of apparatus

equipment a piece of equipment pieces of equipment
lighting a flash of lighting flashes of lighting
thunder a bolt of thunder bolts of thunder
corn an ear of corn ears of corn
jewelry a piece of jewelry pieces of jewelry
luggage a piece of luggage pieces of luggage
mail a piece of mail pieces of mail
music a piece of music pieces of music
There are many things by which nature cannot be counted. The

students will find it helpful to know what these are, so that they will not
commit errors in using them. The following is a list of these words:
1. Gases
hydrogen oxygen nitrogen

air smoke
2. Fluids
water oil milk soup
3. Natural Phenomena
electricity heat darkness

sunshine weather
4. Materials that is too small to cut.
dirt dust rice salt sand
5. Fields of academic endeavor
research study chemistry economics

accounting theology foods
6. Abstraction: Ideas, Modes of Behavior
bravery justice happiness courage
love patriotism independence luck
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF NOUN DETEMINER
a her the
all his their
an its that
a few lots of this
a good deal many these
a great deal many a those
a little more two, three etc.
a lot of most what
all the much whatever
another my which
any neither whichever
both no whose
each one your
either other
enough our
every several
few some
PRONOUN
The Soft-Spoken Noun - Substitute
Pronoun is a word that is used in place of one or more nouns, which

are called antecedents. It prevents the use of the same noun again and
again. Since the prefix pro means for instead of, pronoun, therefore, is a
word instead a noun.
Generally, a pronoun should have clear antecedent. The antecedent

determines the pronoun agreement as to person, number or gender.
A man is looking for you. He seems to be in a hurry.
My book is missing. Somebody must have taken it by mistake.
KINDS OF PRONOUN
1. Personal Pronoun – pronouns that refer to person or persons.
They can be labeled as:
first person – indicates the speaker or writer
second person – indicates the persons spoken to
third person – the person spoken of or written about.
Personal pronouns change their forms according to case and

number. Case is the grammatical term that delineates the relationship of
the personal pronoun with other elements or words in the sentence. The
three cases are nominative, objective (or accusative) and possessive (or
genitive). Number indicates the form a personal pronoun takes when it is
singular or plural in meaning.
Singular
Nominative Possessive Objective

First person I my, mine me
Second person You you, yours you
Third person:
Masculine He his him
Feminine She her, hers her
Neuter It its it
Plural

First person we our, ours us
Second You you, yours you
person
Third person They their, theirs them
Notes:
 Traditionally, the pronoun “it is” considered a personal pronoun

even though it refers to things more often than persons.
 Both you and I have the same form in the nominative case and in
the objective case.
 Countries, ships, airplanes are sometimes referred to by the
pronouns in the feminine gender she, her, hers.
 Animals may be referred to by the neuter gender it and its or by
the masculine gender, he, his or by feminine gender she, hers as
the sex of the animal may require.
 The personal pronouns mine, yours, hers, and theirs in the
possessive case are always used as modifiers before nouns. They
are called possessive adjectives or possessive pronouns
 The personal pronoun his and he be used either as pronoun or as
a modifier.
 The archaic forms of the second person, singular, thou, thy or
thee are used only in the Bible, religious services and occasionally
in poetry.
 Formal writing generally restrict the pronoun “you” to the
meaning of “you, the reader”. Most informal writing uses you with
indefinite references to people in general: formal writing would
substitute “one”.
Informal: In the Philippines you should at least be eighteen years

old to be able to vote.
Formal: In the Philippines one should at least eighteen years old
to be able to vote.
 In the past the pronoun you was used in inferring to two or more
only but now the pronoun you is regularly employed in addressing
one person as well as more than one.
2. Possessive pronoun – these are pronouns that indicates ownership.
The man lost his arm in a n incident.
A mother is always willing to sacrifice for her children.
Note: The possessives of personal pronouns are never formed with

apostrophes.
Personal Pronouns Possessive pronouns
I, we my, mine, our, ours

you you, yours
he, she, it they his, her, hers, its, their, theirs
Because of their similarity in sound to some words, the use of

certain pronouns in a possessive case sometimes becomes confusing. For
example, its and it’s of “of it” while the latter is the contraction of “it is”.
It’s miracle nobody died in the big fire that broke out in the
compound of Starlet Company when one of its machines exploded.
The personal pronoun are there is pronounced in exactly the same

way there and there are pronounced. There is an adverb and its points to
direction. There is contraction of they are. On the other hand, there is the
possessive of they and it means “belonging to them”.
They’re ready to begin their work.
(they are) (work belonging to them)
There was where their house used to stand.
(place/direction) (house belonging to them)
Theirs is the contraction of “there is” or “there was” while theirs is

the possessive form of they. It means “belonging to them”.
There’s difference between your opinion and mine.

Their opinion differs from our opinion.
You’re is the contraction of you are and should be mistaken for your
which is a personal pronoun in the possessive case.
You’re reminded of your duties.

(you are) (duties belonging to you)
3. Reflexive Pronoun- these are pronouns used to show that the doer of an
action is also the receiver ( object) of the action.
The carpenters build themselves a house to change for the better.

The student promises himself to change for the better.
The kind or pronoun likewise used to emphasized that the action of

the verb is done by the subject.
The Maharishis themselves said that they are withdrawing from the
university of The East.
The lawyer of the plaintiff himself announced that his client was
dropping the case
It is formed by adding –self or –selves to certain forms of personal

pronouns, as follows:
Singular Plural
First Person myself ourselves

Second Person yourself yourselves
Third Person himself themselves
It has two major uses:
1. As the object of a verb or preposition when that object is the same

as the nearest preceding subject.
She made herself a dress.
I saw the old lady fall and hurt her.
2. As an intensifier – in this usage, the reflexive pronoun may come

next to the subject, or it may follow the predicate.
The doctor himself answered the telephone.

The doctor answered the telephone himself.
In addition they have some idiomatic meanings. By …self means
“without self” or “alone”
The people built this schoolhouse by themselves.

The boy fixes the fence by himself.
4. Relative pronoun- pronouns that relate or connect the clauses they

introduced to independent clauses. For instance a relative pronoun
connects an adjective clause to an antecedent (noun or pronoun to
which a pronoun refers or for which it is substituted).
The town, which is inhabited by good industrious people, always

becomes progressive.
Fire get help from the Chinese Chamber of Commerce razed

Chinese businessman whose business established.
The success of a song that just been composed depends on its

singer and the promotion scheme.
Products which are produced in the Philippines can now complete

with those made outside the country.
The simple relative pronoun are who, which, that, what

(equivalent to that which) and occasionally as. The compound relative
pronouns are whoever, whichever, whatever. The compound relative
pronouns whosever, whichever, and whatsoever, whomsoever are
archaic forms.
The only relative pronoun fully inflected for case is who. It is

inflected as follows:
who whose whom
The compound whichever and whatever have no distinct forms

for the possessive. Whoever becomes whomever in the objective case.
Who, whose and whom refer to person.
The man who won the prize is from Quezon City.

(refers to man)
The person whom you met was the principal.

(refers to person)
Which refers to ideas and things. In standard in English which

now refers only to animals or objects or situations and also to
collective nouns even if they are refer to person.
I was reading a book, which was very interesting.(refers to

book)
Movies, which deal with crime, are not suitable for children.
(refers to movies)
The relative pronoun that refers to person and things.
Have you spent all the money that you saved?

(refers to money)
He has a dog that is more than human.

(refers to dog)
What, used as a pronoun, means that which or those which.
The carpenter took what was left. ( what in the sentence is both
the object of the verb took and the subject was)
He had no sense of what was appropriate. (what is the object of

the preposition; at the same time, the subject of was in the
sentence.
Whose is now widely used and accepted in reference to ideas

and things in addition to persons; it is often used as the possessive
(genitive) form of which instead of the more cumbersome form of
which.
Social cancer whose actor is Dr. Jose Rizal is a required reading

for high school and college students.
In Formal English as occur as a pronoun usually with the same or
such as antecedent.
It was such day as one rarely sees.

She will lend you such book as she can spare.
Which, as that may refer to a group of words in a sentence.
He was a Frenchman, as we could tell by his accent. (as refers to

“he was a Frenchman”
The police officer desired me to appear in his office, which I did.

(which refers to the police officer desired”
In formal English as occur as a pronoun usually with the same or

such as antecedent.
It was such a day as one rarely sees.

She will lend you such books as she can spare.
My wish is the same as his.
The pronouns who, which, that, what with their compounds,

whoever, whichever, whatever as are often used to introduced a
subordinate clause and relate to its main clause.
Many are the fools who have gambled with their fortunes here.
(subordinate clause introduced by who.)
There is the house that had been the scene of many

conferences.
(subordinate clause introduced by that)
Their native servant cooked on the three stones which serves as

a stove over the charcoal fire.(subordinate clause introduced by
which)
5. Demonstrative Pronoun – pronouns which stand specifically for person,

thing or idea singed out.
This is country which is known as the Pearl of the Orient.
These are plants drawn up by the managers.
The roses we want to buy are those which are in red container.
6. Indefinite Pronoun – pronouns whose antecedents are hard to pinpoint.
The most common indefinite pronouns are:
all anyone any

everyone everything everybody
few many none
nobody several each
It can ordinarily be preceded by noun determiners, but like nouns

they can be inflected for the possessive. They have no plural. They are
grammatically singular, but those referring to people are often felt to
be plural and are consequently replaced by they in the speech of many
people.
All indefinite pronouns can be followed but else. Meaning “other”

or “in addition”. If they are modified by adjectives, the adjectives must
follow.
Somebody forgot to turn off the light.

We have heard nothing from Rita since she left.
Everybody’s adviser was present
Something strange is going on here.
Note:
The pronouns everyone and everybody are sometimes used to

mean more than one. In certain sentences these words must be
referred to by plural pronouns to make sense.
Each has his work in the world.

We have not done either of these things.
Everyone has his faults.
Some, all and most are singular when they refer to a quality.
They are plural when they refer to a number.
Some of the juice was spilled. (quality)
Some of the books were destroyed. (Number)
Most of the poetry is about a nature. (quantity)
Most of the students are in their rooms. (number)
All of the rice was eaten. (quantity)
All of the teachers are busy. (number)
None may either be singular or plural but it is now more common

as plural.
None of the men have reported for duty.
None of the music is new.
7. Interrogative pronouns – pronouns which introduced questions.
Who introduced the use of credit in the Philippines?
What will help solve the ills of the society?
The interrogative pronouns corresponding to persons and things

are who and what. An object of a verb preposition whom alternates
with who. What is invariable.
What would you like to eat?

What are you doing?
What is making the noise?
Who is she?
Who did you invite? (to whom)
Who did you give it to? (or whom)
When preposition immediate precedes the form that is used.
To whom should I report?

To whom should I address the letter?
The possessive of who is whose. What has no possessive form.
Whose book is this?
Whose idea was it?
8. Reciprocal Pronoun – Each other, one another are called reciprocal

pronouns in sense that they are expressions of mutual relationship. They
are used only as objects of verbs or prepositions. In formal usage, some
writers use each other to refer only to two; one another for more than
two. General usage has each other in all senses. They are acceptable
and generally used interchange-ably.
Formal: The two brothers are helping each other.
General: The two brothers are helping one another.
Formal: All girls in the class are shouting at one another.
General: All the girls in the class are shouting at each other.
9. Impersonal pronoun- it is an impersonal pronoun construction with no

definite antecedent. The it in these constructions is also referred to as
pronominal expletive, which means a filling out.
It rained all day. It rains. It is dull today
It is the way things go. It is here.
It went well with us.
It is a holiday. It is warm.
The impersonal pronoun you is used in an informal style of writing.

In formal impersonal context one is used.
Personal, Informal: You can see the importance of having competent

person in the government.
Formal, impersonal: One can se the importance of having competent

personnel in government.
Personal, informal: You should not practice self-meditation.
Formal, impersonal: One should not practice self-meditation.
There is another pronominal force or expletive used in impersonal

construction such as the following examples:
There was no cry for help.
There was no choking sound.
10. Numerical pronouns- The cardinal numbers: one, two, three, etc. and
other ordinal numbers: first, second, third, etc. may used as pronouns as
shown in the following examples:
Five of them were interviewed.
The ninth won.
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN WITH ITS ANTECEDENT
The pronoun shall agree with the word it stands for-its antecedent. If
the antecedent is singular, the pronoun should be singular. If the antecedent
is plural, the pronoun should be plural. And we reword our writing so that the
masculine pronoun does not stand for both male and female.
Diego promises himself to be more careful in the future.
We met the person who lost his job last month.
In the past, the practice was always used the masculine pronouns to
stand to both male and female persons. However, recent usage is changing
this. Using pronouns in this manner is avoided because of the unfair sexist
interpretation. Shaw gives, three simple ways to avoid sexism in most
pronoun usage:
1. Change the antecedent and singular pronoun he/him/his to plural.
2. Change the wording so that the pronoun may be omitted.
3. Change he/him/his to you, one or (infrequently) he/she/him/her.
Every doctor should treat his patients, rich or poor equally.
a. Doctors should treat their patients, rich or poor equally.
b. Every doctor should treat patients, rich or poor equally.
c. You, as a doctor should treat patients, rich or poor equally.
To avoid the problem typecasting men and women into very definite,
limited roles, he or she or a similar combination of pronouns to refer to
simple subject that could either be masculine or feminine should be used.
The executive should win the confidence of his/her employees.
A businessman’s duty is to offer his/her customers product, which are

worth their money.
A parent’s decision to make his/her son stop schooling to teach him a

lesson is not wisely.
VERB
The Pivot, the Word Around Which the Sentence Revolves!
A verb is the part of speech that signals the execution of an action,

the occurrence of an event, or the presence of a condition or a state of
being.
The Philippines is an archipelago.

Filipinos love their freedom.
Structural-descriptive grammar considers a verb as a content word,

identified by the following characteristics:
1. Its form may be changed by adding the suffix-ing, the

suffixes or the suffix-ed to its base form.
2. Its syntactical function is typically to form the predicate of

a sentence or a subordinate clause.
English verbs are said to be inflected to show number, person, voice,

mood and tense.
Words ending with the following suffixes are verbs:
-fy - clarify, rectify, certify, specify, verify

-ize - memorize, criticize, specialize, concretize
-ate - regulate, circulate, enunciate, manipulate
-en - straighten, lengthen, widen, broaden
KINDS OF VERB
1. Transitive Verb – when a verb requires an object to complete
its meaning it is said to be used transitively.
Filipinos eat rice.

He tasted the roast.
He sang a kundiman.
They planted narra seedlings.
The policeman helped the victim.
Note:
The object receives the action expressed by the transitive verb
and performed by the subject.
2. Intransitive Verb – an action is used intransitively when it does

not require an object to make it meaningful.
Time flies.
The older children walked.
All men die.
The seed germinated.
Note:
An intransitive verb needs no object. It makes by itself a
complete statement of the action performed by the subject.
3. Linking Verb – sometimes called a copula, connects or links the

subject to a noun, pronoun or adjective. It establishes
a relationship between the subject and the noun,
pronoun or adjective.
The audience became restless.

They are happy.
He became a pediatrician.
His testimony seemed credible.
Note:
A linking verb always requires a complement, a noun, pronoun or
adjective to complete its meaning.
The noun or adjective comes after the linking verb. It is

traditionally known as subjective complement. The noun is known as a
predicate noun or nominative and the adjective is called predicate
adjective. Both the predicate nominative and the predicate adjective
are referred to as adjective complement.
The common linking verbs are, is, are, was, were, will be, shall
be, has been, have been, become, feel, get, grow, look, appear, prove,
smell, seem, taste, turn, sound. These verbs are used as linking verbs
if they have a complement; a noun, pronoun, or adjective. Without a
subjective complement these are either used as transitive or
intransitive verbs.
Marian is a student. (linking verb; student is the complement)
Marian is in the library. (intransitive; in the library is an adverb of

place, modifier)
They are noisy. (linking; noisy; adjective)
They are here. (intransitive; here, adverb of place)
The soup tastes rancid. (linking; rancid is an adjective,

complement)
He tastes the soup. (transitive; soup, noun direct object)
Some verbs may either be used as transitive verb or as

intransitive verb in a sentence.
Gianina reads biographies during her leisure hours. (transitive;

biographies, direct object)
Gianina reads slowly. (intransitive)
Try your hand at painting. (transitive; hand, direct object)
Try and try until you succeed. (intransitive)
The son succeeds his father to the mayorship. (transitive; father,

direct object)
The son succeeds in all his endeavors. (intransitive)
OTHER WAYS OF CLASSIFYING VERBS
1. Regular Verbs (or Weak Verb) – a transitive verb and

intransitive verb are classified regular verbs if they form their past tense
by adding – d or –ed to their base form.
Base Form Past Form
live lived
work worked
play played
walk walked
save saved
crave craved
arrive arrived
look looked
2. Irregular Verbs (Or Strong Verbs) – when the transitive

verb or the intransitive verb does not form its past form by adding –d or
–ed to its base form, it is an irregular verb.
BASE FORM PAST FORM
go went
see saw
begin began
blow blew
break broke
write wrote
3. Auxiliary Verbs
Based on traditional grammar, auxiliary verbs are helping verbs.

They assist in forming the voices, modes and tenses of the verbs. In
structural descriptive grammar they are known as auxiliaries and
they are classified as structure words (or function words). They are
used to mark verbs the way determiners mark nouns. Auxiliaries
combine with verbs to make verb phrases.
The most common auxiliaries (auxiliary verbs) are:

the verbs be, have, do, shall, will, may, can, must, ought, could,
should, would, might.
Verb forms with do, does, or did are used to make emphatic verb
phrases.
I did care for him.

I do appreciate your efforts.
The auxiliary verb have is infected in number and tense. (present

and past)
SINGULAR PLURAL
has have
has, have had
Can, could, may, might, must, ought are called modals (modal
auxiliaries). They always occur as part of verb phrases.
Can and could denote ability, may and might denote permission or
ability, must denotes necessity or obligation; ought denotes duty.
Should is used with all persons (first, second, third) and both
numbers (singular ad plural) in the following instances:
To express obligation or duty
I should know better.

They should not have said that.
You should mind your own business.
To express probability
She should be home by then.

These tires should be good for another 5,000 kilometers.
To express a condition or suppositions in an if clause:
If I should leave, he would not mind.

If you leave, I would mind.
If I should be late, will you hold dinner for me?
Would is used with all persons and both numbers to express

habitual action or a tendency.
He would sit alone by the hour waiting for her to come or to call.
When Jennie was a child he would always ask for the wing of the
chicken.
Mercy would always whistle when he went by graveyard.
Would is used as a polite form in requests or commands.
Would you mind making three copies of this letter?
Would is used to suggest willingness in a conditional clause; if

clause.
He would do it if he could. (meaning if he “were willing”)
Should and would are used as past forms of shall and will
respectively.
They follow the same pattern of use as shall and will.
Modal Auxiliaries - are a group of verbs that assists in formation of mood

and tense in the verb phrases. Modals carry special meanings.
The following is a list of auxiliary modals, taken from the book A

Complete Course in Freshmen English by Harry Shaw.
1. Can – used to express ability or power of the idea of being able to.
I can make good grades.
2. Could – use as “past tense’ of can to express the same ideas in a

weaker manner.
My friend could find another house.
3. Dare – used usually with say, to express probability.

I dare say everything will turn out all right.
4. To do – used to express emphasis (emphatic tone) in present and in
past tense.
I did study my lesson.
Also used to avoid repetition of a verb or full verb expression.
The boy walked in as silently as I did.
5. To have – used in the present perfect, and future perfect tenses; also
in the perfect infinitive and perfect participle.
He has eaten, they have eaten, will have eaten, to have eaten,
having eaten.
6. Let – used to express the ideas of “allowing” or “permitting”,

“suggesting” or “ordering”.
Let me do it for you.

Let us have party.
7. May – used to express permission.

May I go now?
May I borrow a book?
Also used to express probability or a wish.
The country may recover, financially, in 1989.

May you arrive at your destination safety.
8. Might – used as a kind of past tense of may to express the same ideas
of possibility or probability in a weaker manner.
He might return someday.

You might be able to help him.
9. Must – used to express obligation or compulsion.

You must take your studies seriously.
I must tell my friend about it.
Note: Must should never be followed by have to or has to.
Wrong: You must have to consult a doctor.

Right: You must consult a doctor. OR You have to consult a doctor.
10. Need – used to express necessity or obligation.
You need not come today.
Note: As auxiliary verb, the third person singular form is also need.
He need not follow my advice.
11. Ought – used to express duty or obligation, one of the few

auxiliary verbs followed by the sign of the infinitive to with the main
verb.
You ought to report for work earlier.

I ought to tell my friend what I heard about him.
12. Shall – used as the precise auxiliary for the first person, future
perfect tenses.
I shall take up dentistry.

I shall have finished my course by 2005.
13. Should – used a kind of “past” tense of shall in the first person,
but weaker in emphasis.
I should finish my project this afternoon.
Also used frequently in a conditional meaning:
You will make us happy, if you should come.

If Dante should sing, many will be pleased.
Used as well in all three persons to express duty or property or

necessity.
You should look for him.
Used likewise, in all three persons to express expectation.
My friends should arrive tomorrow.
14. Used – in the past tense only, used expresses past custom or
past habitual action.
I used to sing a lot when I was a little girl.

She used to live here.
Filipinos used to stay home all the time.
15. Will – used as the precise auxiliary for the second and third
persons, future and future perfect tenses.
You will leave tomorrow.

You will have left by the time the others arrive.
Also used in all three persons to express willingness or consent.
I will accompany you.

The others will join us.
16. Would – used as a kind of “past” tense of will, in the second and
third persons, but less strong in meaning.
Note: If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, use
would to express futurity in the dependent clause; if the verb is in the
independent clause is in the present tense, use will in subordinate
clause.
He told me that he would look for a job.

He tells me that he will write a letter for me.
Use frequently in a conditional meaning or after a

conditional clause.
If you would join, I would join too.

If I were you, I would study harder.
Used to express determination.
He would try, no matter how difficult the problem seemed to be.
He promised that he would accomplish the assignment given to
him.
Used in all three persons to express habitual action.
In the past he would always take a stroll in the park.
Also used infrequently to express a wish or desire.
Would that we had not done what we did.
SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT
1. Subject and verb must agree in number.
Louie drives carefully along the highway.
Many men today drive very reckless.
2. Compound subjects take plural verb.
Diego and Carlo are best friends.
The doctors and nurses are distributing free medicines.
3. A compound subject referring to a simple person takes plural verb.
My confidant and my teacher is my mother.
The president and secretary of our class is a trustworthy

classmate.
4. Compound subjects modified by each and every are singular.

Every father and mother carries out the assigned role.
Each female and male student wears I.D inside the school.
5. The verb agrees with its subject, not with the predicate nominative.
Books and magazines are only material used for this report.
Plain gown and black shoes are the right attire for the party.
6. When compound subjects are joined by or, nor, either-or, neither-nor
the verb agrees with the subject nearer it.
Neither the singer nor the composer is benefited by the concert.
Either Dianne or her friends are volunteering to clean the mess.
7. When regarded as unit, a collective noun is singular.
The committee stands firm to impose its decision.
The jury holds its verdict in abeyance.
8. When regarded as individuals, a collective noun is plural.
The audiences are clapping their hands after each number.
The crowds are agitating over a dispute among themselves.
9. When preceded by the article a, a subject number is plural.

The number of absentees from the Science class is reduced.
A number of people have passes through the test of life.
10. When preceded by the article the, the subject number is singular.
The audiences are clapping their hands after every number in

the show.
The number of enrollees generally decreases during the second

semester.
11. The verb agrees with the affirmative not with the negative subject.
The father, not the mother decides on the welfare of the family.
You, not me am accountable for the loss book.
12. Singular indefinite pronoun like someone, anyone, each, neither,

either, take singular verb.
Someone is by your side to support you at the confrontation.
Anyone is welcome to give his suggestions.
13. The plural indefinite pronouns such as both, few, all, several, many,
take plural verb.
Many have been invited to the party.
Few have come and attended, however.
14. Many a, followed by a singular noun takes singular verb.
Many a novel has been written on love.
Many youngsters today have already been aware of the crisis.
15. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take singular verb.
Statistics provides a numerical data in question.
Politics is always associated with the “pulling of the strength”
16. Scissors, refreshments, clothes, pliers etc., are always plural.
Refreshments are now serves on the canteen.
17. In personal pronouns, it, at the beginning of the sentence is

followed by a singular verb.
It is his suggestions that finally take precedence.
18. An amount of money, spaced of time or unit, measurements even in

plural forms take a singular verb.
Three meters of cloth makes a dress for my size.
19. Fractions are singular or plural depending upon the “of-phrase.”
One half of the class is missed out the first period.
20. Adjective used as noun are considered plural.
The old needs some recognition to feel that they belong.
21. Singular verbs used with mathematical abstractions.
Four times two is eight.
22. The indefinite pronoun none, is singular but may occasionally

require a plural verb.
None of the students have done their homework.
23. A relative pronoun used as a subject of the verb takes a verb that
agrees with the antecedent of the pronoun.
He, who is your brother and friend, understands your situation.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE VERBS
The principal parts of the verb are those forms that tense, moods and
the voices are derived. The three principal parts of the verb are base form
(or indicative form or infinitive form or present form), the past and past
participle. Most verb are weak verb or regular verbs which form their past
and past participle by adding –d, -ed, or –t. Strong or irregular verbs do not
follow a pattern in forming their principal parts.
The three principal parts of the verb are: Base form, Past, and the Past
participle.
See how some verbs form their principal parts:
1. The three principal parts are the same.
Base Past Past Participle
burst burst burst

cast cast cast
hurt hurt hurt
set set set
spread spread spread
spilt split split
sweat sweat sweat
thrust thrust thrust
broadcast broadcast broadcast
read read read
cut cut cut
put put put
hit hit hit
2. The base form and the past participle are the same.
come came come

run ran run
3. The past and the past participle are the same.
bring brought brought

buy bought bought
catch caught caught
stand stood stood
think thought thought
wind wound wound
build built built
have had had
make made made
rend rent rent
spend spent spent
cling clung clung
fight fought fought
find found found
sit sat sat
shoot shot shot
abide abode abode
bend bent bent
bleed bled bled
creep crept crept
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
feed fed fed
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
hold held held
keep kept kept
kneel knelt knelt
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
lose lost lost
mean meant meant
say said said
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
sleep slept slept
stick stuck stuck
teach taught taught
weep wept wept
win won won
4. The base form and the past is the same.
bit bit bitten
5. The three principal parts are different.
do did done
go went gone
lie lay lain
drink drank drunk
sing sang sung
break broke broken
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
freeze froze frozen
grow grew grown
ride rode ridden
write wrote written
arise arose arisen
be was, were been
bear bore born
befall befell befallen
begin began begun
blow blew blown
bite bit bitten
choose chose chosen
draw drew drawn
forbear forbore forborne
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
get got gotten
give gave given
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
see saw seen
shake shook shaken
slay slew slain
swear swore sworn
TENSE OF THE VERB
Tense means, “time”. In grammar tense is a distinguishing feature of

verbs shown by different forms that indicate the time of the action and the
state of being. The traditional names of the tenses are mainly arbitrary terms
used identify verb forms and verb phrases. The words indicate time.
KINDS OF TENSES
A. Simple Tenses
1. Present Tense – it tells the action or condition is going or existing at the

moment. This tense indicates a completed action, present condition, and
future time in a dependent clause introduced by when, if, as soon, as,
before, unless, until, and as long.
The Philippines is a democratic country.

Mr. Campos is the new principal of our college.
Classes start when the first week of June comes.
Forms of Present Tense:
1. Ordinary – the –s form, expresses habitual action,

general truth, or a place. Sometimes expressions like every month,
sometimes, usually, often, seldom, frequently, occasionally, etc., are
used.
Mother washes our clothes everyday.

The moon gets its light from the sun.
2. Emphatic – the “do” form emphasizes action.
I do believe in God.
He does pray unceasingly.
3. Progressive – the be plus V –ing from, tells an

action continued at the moment of speaking. The present progressive
tenses uses time expressions such as: at this moment, now, right now,
for the time being. Etc.
Conventional uses of the simple present or ordinary form:
1. To express present action or state of being
Dan’s father is ill.

Mary is present.
The boys are in the gymnasium.
2. Habitual action
Nanay Omeng mass every day.

They pray the Holy Rosary every night.
Nico drinks milk daily.
3. General truth (universal present or timeless present)
All men die.

Nature abhors a vacuum.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
4. Permanent action
Davao is in Mindanao.
The Pope lives in the Vatican.
England is a country in Europe.
5. Historical present is a past action, which for dramatic

purposes, is described as occurring in the present. The
use of the present tense in this case makes the
description vivid.
Suddenly a German plane dives vertically through our
formation firming as he goes. He misses.
The fire in the room is out now, but the smoke is still
heavy. There must be fire in the walls. A man from a ladder
company arrives and pulls the ceiling down in the huge
chunks. Now we can see the fire. He backs out of the room
so I can hit it. Then return to the other rooms to let loose a
final bath. Our job is finished. On the street we hear Pete
has a nasty burn on his legs.
3. Past Tense – indicates an action or condition happened or

existed at some definite time in the past.
Forms of Past Tense:
1. Ordinary – the –d or –ed is used with different sounds.

/d/ /t/ /td/
prayed preached devoted

weighted worked waited
sighted searched situated
denied clapped captivated tailored
talked tilted
2. Emphatic – consist of the auxiliary verb did, and the present

form of the main verb. The verb is also used in asking
questions.
The Senators did start the deliberations on the most urgent

bills.
Did the Senators start the deliberations on the most urgent

bills?
3. Progressive – this tense uses the past form of the verb “be”
and the main verb ending in –ing; and the was going to form.
It denotes a past action or condition, which is going on at
some time in the past; and the past action or condition going
on until another action occurred.
The examinees were preparing for the forth coming BAR

examinations.
The group was singing when the rain fell.
3. Future tense
The simple future tense is formed by adding shall or will to the

base form of the verb.
shall sing shall go will eat will play
In speech and in writing the prevailing use of will in the United

states and in many English-speaking countries in all persons to
express simple futurity or a simple future happening is observed.
I will attend my class on Monday.

You will buy the book next week.
She will return my umbrella tomorrow.
In expressing emphatic future in connection with strong

determination, definite obligation, or authoritative command.
General usage is divided. There is greater tendency, however, to
use shall.
I shall return.
Being the sergeant-at-arms, you shall maintain order in the
meeting.
In questions that invite approval or consent shall is in common use.
Shall we wait for you?

Shall we dance?
Shall I go now?
 Shall is usual in laws, resolutions, etc.

Wages of common laborers shall be in accordance with the law.
New cabinet members shall be appointed.
 Earlier practice, which some writers and grammarians still insist

on, is as follows:
 Shall is used with the first person and will for the second and
third person to express simple futurity.
 Will is used with the first person and shall for the second and
third person to express determination and obligation.
I shall go to the mall on Sunday.

You will study in the library.
We will win at any cost. (determination)
They shall do the right thing. (obligation)
Note:
Other ways of indicating time by usage idiom rather than by tense,
particularly future action are observed. The following sentences show that
future action is indicated other than by the conventional future tense of
the verb.
1. The newly appointed secretary of education is going to take oath

tomorrow.
2. The senators are to see the senate President next week.
3. Two popular movie personalities are to be married next summer.
4. We expect to hear from Phoebe in a day or two.
5. Be sure to call Joan when you come to the city.
B. Compound Tenses
1. Present Perfect Tense – is formed by adding has or have to the

past participle of the verb.
has gone have gone

has done have done
has worked have worked
has written have written
Uses of the Present Perfect Tense:
a. To denote an action that began in the past and continues

up to the present.
We have lived in New York for three years. (Three years ago we
lived in New York. We still live in New York.)
They have been here since this morning. (They were here this
morning. They are still here.)
Miss Diaz has taught English since 1990. (Miss Diaz started to teach
English in 1900. She still teaches English.)
b. Todenote action or state of being completed at the time

the statement is made if no definite past time is indicated. It uses
the term: since, for, already, yet, lately, ever.
We have heard the story several times.

I have asked her many times to give me her address.
Joshua has already read the book.
c. Regency of action or condition.
2. Past Perfect Tense – is formed by adding had to the past

participle of the verb.
had eaten had completed

had seen had talked
had been had cleaned
had chosen had answered
had drunk had learned
Uses of the Past Perfect Tense:
It is used to express an action that happened before another past

action.
He had finished his worked before we arrived. (The two past actions
are: He finished his work. We arrived. He finished his worked first.
Then we arrived.)
My sister had left when I came home. (My sister left first. Then I
came home.)
Note:
The past action that was completed before another past action is
expressed by the past perfect tense.
3. Future Perfect Tense – is formed by adding will have or shall
have to the past participle of the verb.
Shall or will have flown Shall or will have cooked

Shall or will have fled Shall or will have moved
Shall or will have sunk Shall or will have played
Shall or will have taken Shall or will have tested
Shall or will have brought Shall or will have pulled
Shall or will have shown Shall or will have cleaned
Uses of the Future Perfect Tense:
1. Used to denote a future action that happens before another future

action or before specified time in the future.
I shall have written my assignment before the bell will ring for
dismissal. (The two future actions: I shall write the assignment and
the bell will ring. Shall write will happen first; will ring will happen
later.)
I shall have written my assignment before the bell rings. (It is

considered reputable usage and grammatically acceptable to use
the present tense to express a future action.)
He will have cleaned the room before the class will begin.
He will have taken his examination by tomorrow morning (The two

future actions are: will take his examination; the other future action
is suggested or implied by the specified time “tomorrow morning”)
By next week, we shall have completed our project.
TONE OF THE VERB
The form of the verb expressing emphatic action or action in

progress is referred to as tone in traditional grammar. In some books of
grammar the progressive and the emphatic are under verb phrase.
The progressive tone of the verb is formed by combining the proper

auxiliary verb with the form of an action verb ending in “ing”.
Present singular Present plural
am writing are playing
is eating are doing
Past singular Past plural
was speaking were talking
Future singular Future plural
shall or will be interviewing shall or will be cooking
Forms of the Progressive tone of the verb
Present form Singular Present form Plural
am doing are playing

is talking
Past form Singular Past form Plural
was writing were celebrating
Future tense Singular Future tense Plural
will or shall be collecting will or shall dining
Use of the present progressive form
It is used to express an occurrence that is in progress at the time

the statement is made.
I am doing nothing now.

We are considering your request.
They are shouting at each other
Romeo and Sp are arguing heatedly.
Uses of the past progressive form
It is used to express an occurrence that was in progress in the

past when another past action happened.
He was talking with Gizelle when Leslie saw him.
They were having snack when the bell rang.
The future progressive form is used to express a future

happening that will be in progress at the time another future
event will happen or that will occur at a specified time.
He will be addressing the congregation by the time we shall arrive

at the town hall.
They will be playing against ABC team by this time tomorrow.
I shall be seeing you again.
The emphatic tone of the verb is formed by combining the

auxiliary verbs do, does, did with the base form of the verb.
Emphatic form Singular Emphatic form Plural
does care do think

did take
Present emphatic for Singular Plural
does see do value

He does see your point. We do value your
patronage.
Past emphatic for Singular Plural
did oppose did oppose
He did oppose rigorously the appointment of Mr. Velez.
He did oppose.
MOOD (occasionally mode) OF THE VERB
Mood is the grammatical term that refers to the forms of the

verb indicating the manner in which the action is thought of or expressed.
It classifies verb forms as indicative, imperative and subjunctive. Thus, a
verb form is said to be indicative mood, imperative mood or subjunctive
mood.
1. Indicative Mood – is the usual form of the verb in sentences and
clauses. It is used to state a fact or to ask a question. It denoted that
the action or state of being expressed by the verb is a fact, or is
thought of as fact. This is form of the verb that is used most of the
time.
1. He is an honest man.
2. We are in a witch-hunting again.
3. The government is looking at other options.
4. Of all arts haute couture is a reminder of the yawning gap
between the rich and the poor.
5. The book is considered easy reading.
6. Why are you here?
7. Do you like your job?
8. What is El Nino?
2. Imperative Mood – form of verb used to express a command,

directive, a request or an entreaty. This form of the verb is used only in
the second person (you) and it has only the present tense.
Please answer the phone.

Keep your hands off the door.
Be a man
Do your work all the time.
Do the right thing.
Keep up the good work.
3. Subjunctive Mood
Based on the conventions in grammar the subjunctive mood of

the verb has the following uses:
1. To express wish or regret.
I wish I were older.

I would that he were wiser.
2. To express a condition contrary to fact.
If today were Saturday, I would go home.

If she were thinner, she would be lovelier.
If he were guilty, he should suffer the consequences.
Note:
An if-clause expressing an improbability is something in the
subjunctive mood. The present tendency, however, is toward the use of
the indicative mood.
If she is thinner, she will be lovelier.

If she is guilty, she must suffer the consequences.
3. To express concession, contrary to fact.
After even though, if ,as if, as though were is used instead of

was if the possibility is highly improbable. Use is or was if you are
considering a genuine possibility.
He looks if he were guilty. (highly improbable)

He looks as if he is guilty. (highly possible)
He acts as though he were drugged. (highly improbable)
He acts as though he is drugged. (a possibility)
Even though he were to pay me, I would not protect his interest.
(concession)
4. to express indirect imperative
I insist that he tell the truth.

The terms of the agreement demand that the controversy be
settled amicably.
5. In motions and resolutions
I move that the minutes be approved.

Resolved, that the question be submitted to a committee.
Note:
1. Verb forms in the subjunctive mood make no distinction between

singular and plural.
2. In some established phrases, (like ‘be that as it may”) and in

distinctly formal writing or literary in tone, the subjunctive
expresses ordinary conditions or alternatives
3. The subjunctive mood is now being used less in informal speech

and in writing. It is still often required in formal usage.
VOICE OF VERB
Voice is a characteristic of a verb that shows whether the subject is

acting or acted upon. There are two voices that active and the passive. When
the subject is the doer of the action or is in the condition named by its verb,
the verb is said to be in active voice. When the subject of a verb is the
receiver of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice.
Active voice: The little boy kissed his mother.

Passive voice: The mother was kissed by the little boy.
Active voice: Rocel heard the tinkling of bells.
Passive voice: The tinkling of the bells was heard by Fe.
Note:
Verb in the active voice are more common than verbs in the passive
voice. This is because we are more accustomed to the who-does-what
pattern of expression
Uses of the Passive voice:
1. The passive voice is used when the performer or name of the doer is
withheld for reasons of secrecy or because he is unknown.
The judge is accused of abuse of authority.

The man is stabbed to death.
Note:
In the first sentence the identity of the person who accuses the
judge is withheld. In the second sentence, the person who stabbed the
man is unknown.
2. The passive voice is used when the doer is less important than the act.
We were driven around Luneta in a “calesa”.

The taxi driver was rewarded for his honesty.
During the military operation against kidnapping syndicates many
people were driven from their home
Note:
1. Only transitive verbs have a passive.
2. The passive voice is formed by the addition of the appropriate form
of the verb be to the past participle of the verb.
is believed was accommodated

am distracted were taken
Forms of the Verb in the Passive Voice
Simple Present Simple Present

Passive Singular Passive Plural
is done are carried

is appointed are brought
is fed are caught
am lost are lost
Simple Past Simple Past

was broken was torn

was begun was bitten
was submitted was frozen
Simple Future Passive
will be or shall be submitted

will be or shall be chosen
will be or shall be given
Present Perfect Present Perfect
has been seen have been injured

has been thrown have been arrested
has been known have been protected
Past Perfect Passive Future Perfect Passive
had been realized will or shall have been missed

had been mentioned will or shall have studied
had been remembered will or shall been finished
Present Progressive Present Progressive

Passive Form Singular Passive Form Plural
is being interviewed are being memorized

is being finished are being scrutinized
is being done are being investigated
Past Progressive Past Progressive

Passive Form Singular Passive Form Plural
was being cleaned were being cleaned

was being washed were being washed
was being polished were being polished
TROUBLESOME VERB
These are verbs that the students find confusing. One of these is the
irregular verb. As these have been discussed earlier, irregular verbs have to
be memorized since their past forms cannot be formed by the mere addition
of -d or -ed.
Another source of confusion for students is the verbal. Verbal are

words that are verbs in form but not in use. There are three kinds of verbs:
the gerunds, the infinitives, and the participles.
1. GERUND – is a verbal that takes the –ing form of the verb. Since it
functions as a noun, it can be used as subject of the
sentence, subjective complement, object of the verb, object
of the preposition as well as objective complement.
 Taking a stroll in the morning gives him pleasure (Taking with its
object stroll plus the adverbial phrase in the morning is used as the
subject of the sentence)
 My friend’s favorite pastime is reading love stories. (Reading as well

as its object love stories is used as subjective complement)
 I enjoy singing old songs (Singing together with its object old songs
is used as object of the transitive verb enjoy)
 Mother scolds me for telling a lie. (Telling and its object lie serve as
object of the preposition for)
 The man gave up his hobby gambling. (Gambling is used as

objective complement)
2. INFINITIVE - is a verbal that is either preceded by to or to is understood.

In English, infinitive possesses two tenses and past
participles; the user can derive many infinitive forms.
Present Active Infinitive
to play - The boys wants to play with his friend.
Present Active Progressive Infinitive
to be playing – The boy appears to be playing with someone who

cannot be seen
Present Passive Infinitive:
to be played - The game to be played by the men is dangerous.
Perfect Infinitive:
to have been playing – That woman is reported to have been

playing mahjong.
Perfect Passive Infinitive
to have been played – The new composition of Ryan Cayabyab is

said to have been played by the Manila
Symphony Orchestra.
Infinitive has several uses. They can be used as nouns, as

adjectives, as well as adverbs.
a. Infinitives used as nouns
When an infinitive is used as a noun, it can serve as several

parts of the sentence. It can serve as the subject, subjective
complement, object of the verb, objective complement as well as
object of the preposition. Note: As a noun an infinitive has the
same uses as a gerund.
 To err is human. (subject)
 His ambition is to become a surgeon. (subjective

complement)
 The boy wishes to follow the footsteps of his father and

become a successful businessman.(object of the verb
wishes)
 The Lord granted the old man’s wish, to see his missing
son. (objective complement)
 The audience were about to disperse when the much-

awaited celebrity arrived. (object of the preposition about)
b. Infinitives used as adjectives
When an infinitive is used as an adjective, it modifies a noun

or pronoun.
 The nurse has many patients to attend to. (to attend to

modifies the noun patients.
 The movie to be shown in many theaters is specifically

directed to erring children. ( to be shown modifies movie)
c. Infinitives used as adverbs
Infinitives used as adverbs modify verbs and adjectives.
 Tagalog is one dialect which is easy to learn. (to learn is a

modifier of the adjective easy)
 We should eat to live and not live to eat. (to live is a modifier
of the verb to eat; to eat is a modifier of the verb live)
Verbs followed by infinitives without to
There are some verbs which when followed by infinitives, the

word “to” is omitted. They are as follows:
Hear - I heard him promise (to promise) that he would

return
Feel - I felt my hair stand (to stand) when I heard

eerie sounds last night.
Watch - The mother watches her younger daughter

play (to play) in the garden.
Let - The teacher lets his or her students discuss (to

discuss) the topic they are interested in.
Dare - The policeman dared the demonstrators enter
(to enter) Mendiola St.
Help - We cannot help the man make his final

decision.
Bid - The owner of the house bids his guests enter

(to enter) his house.
Make - Please make the popular singer render (to

render) another song.
Need - You need not return (to return) the novel you
borrowed from me last week.
See - The witness has seen the accused pull (to pull)
out his gun.
There are sentences were abridged infinitives are used.

Abridged infinitives are shortened infinitives. The verbs that normally
follow to are omitted. In a sentence where the same infinitive is used
twice, in the second, the verb is not mentioned anymore. Only to is
used.
I love to take care of dogs, but my sister hates to. (Short for the
take care of dogs)
Nina’s parents want her to take up law, but she doesn’t want to.
(short for take up law)
The use of abridged infinitives provides the following

advantages:
a. sentences become shorter

b. redundancy is avoided
3. PARTICIPLE – is a verbal that used as an adjective and is

therefore a modifier of a noun or pronoun. There are
three kinds of participle: the present participle, the past
participle and the perfect participle.
a. Present Participle – this is easy to recognize. It is one-word modifier

of a noun or pronoun and it is always ends in –ing.
The girl singing in the hall is my cousin. (modifier of the girl)
Running, the child hit his head against the wall. (modifier of
child)
I saw Marie waiting for the bus. (modifier of the bus)
b. Past Participle – this has no definite form. If it is verb, then it is ends

with d or ed. On the other hand, if it is an irregular verb, third principal
form of the verb has to be used.
Tired, the boy sat down to rest. (modifier boy)
The examinations given to the applicants are very difficult.

(modifier examinations)
Past Perfect Participle – this is always a phrase made up of having, a verb

in the past participle form or in the third principal form and /or an object
and/or modifier/s.
Having won in the first prize in a sweepstakes lottery, my neighbor

went into buy and sell business. (modifier of the neighbor)
Having recovered from the serious illness, the woman decided to

spend the rest of her life in service to her fellowmen.(modifier of
woman).
DANGLING PARTICIPLES
As discussed earlier, participles are words that are verbs in form but
adjectives in use. Since they are adjectives, they modify either nouns or
pronouns. If they are far from the word/s, they qualify thus confusing the
listener or the reader, then these participles are said to dangle. To correct,
therefore, the participle and the noun or pronoun they modify should be
close to each other.
INCORRECT: Running down the street, tall buildings were seen by

Kero.
CORRECT: Running down the street, Kero saw tall buildings.
INCORRECT: Thinking that his father was angry with him the house
was left by Tony.
CORRECT: Thinking that his father was angry with him Tony left the
house.
The rule for modifiers, like participles are that the modifier be placed
as close as grammatically possible to the element it modifies.
INCORRECT: A man gave a bouquet to my sister covered with moss.
CORRECT: A man gave my sister a bouquet covered with moss.
The following is a list of the most common two-word verbs:
Meaning Example
Back out Undo or unsay A person who backs out of a

what has been contract he has made with
previously done someone loses his credibility.
or said
Bring up Rear children; The sound of Christmas carols
recall; return bringing memories of the past.
The behavior of a person reflects

the way he has been brought up
by his parents.
Call off Cancel The different airlines call off

flights whenever there are strong
typhoons.
Carry out accomplished A person can carry out whatever

plans he has provided he works
hard.
Came across Meet by chance I came across a high school

classmate in Makati yesterday.
Cheer up Get in good spirit Social workers do their best to

cheer up the deprived people.
Consult ask advice Usually poor people consult

(somebody) doctor about pains they feel
when it’s too late.
Cope with (not to cope up Employees are complaining that

with) they cannot cope with the work
they are given.
Delight in Take pleasure in Old people generally delight in

reminiscing their childhood days.
Do over repeat The manager told his secretary to
do her report over.
Drop off Leave something He will drop you off near your
or somebody at house.
a place
Exempt from Ignorance of the law does not
exempt anyone being punished.
Figure out Solve or reason Can you figure out what is

out happening?
Fill out complete Applicants fill out application

forms given them by the
recruiting officer.
Get at try to say Will you please stop mumbling

and say exactly what you are
getting at?
Get away escape the Some people believe they can

with consequence get away with the crimes they
committed.
Get by succeed with Because of his limited resources,

minimum effort the people in the community
barely get by.
Get over (an recover from Provided you are willing to

illness) cooperate with your doctor, you
will get over your illness.
Get on, off Board, leave (a We plan to get on the train and
plane, bus or get off in Pangasinan.
train)
Give back return A girl who breaks up her
engagement with a man should
give back everything that he has
given her.
Give up surrender Highly principled men would

rather lose their lives than give
up something they believe in.
Go over review It is always wise to go over one’s
lessons before his class.
Hand in submit Everyone will hand in his term

paper tomorrow.
Keep on continue He should on believe in the

goodness of God.
Look forward anticipate Children look forward to a

to vacation in Baguio.
Leave out Omit See to it that you don’t leave out

any name of a candidate for
graduation in the souvenir
program.
Look down regard as inferior No matter how rich a person is,

on he has no right to look down on
the poor.
Look for Seek All are looking for a better or

greener pasture.
Look like resemble The boy looks like his deceased

father.
Look over Examine The meticulous teacher looks

over the paper of everyone of his
or her students.
Look out Beware Look out! The plan you are

thinking of is dangerous.
Make sure of Verify Before we out overdue

statements of accounts, let us
make sure of our figures.
Make up invent, Let us avoid making up stories

compensate that harm others.
Point out call attention to Parents always point out the

accomplishments of their
children.
Put across communicate Use simple words when putting

across ideas.
Put off postpone Dutiful sons and daughter put off
attending parties when their
parents are sick..
Put on Modest girl do not put on clothes

that expose their body.
Put out extinguish To conserve energy, we should

put out lights which are not used
or needed..
Run across discover by I was walking, talking to a friend

accident or when I run across a professor.
chance
Run into Meet by chance I was applying for a job when I
run into my best friend in
elementary.
Show off Display It is not in good taste to show off

one’s wealth.
Show up Appear The case dismissed by the court

because nobody ever showed up
in the scheduled hearing.
Take after resemble Nita takes after his father who is

quick-tempered.
Take back regain Nobody take back what he has

possession sold to other unless it can be
proved that he was forced into
selling it.
Take down record in writing A girl has been asked to take
down everything that is going on
in the meeting.
Talk back Discuss Let us talk back this matter.
Try out Test Educators are continuously trying

out new ideas to upgrade the
standard of education.
Turn off Put out of Drivers turn off the engines of

operation their cars when they know it will
take a long time before they can
drive on.
Turn on Put into Will you turn on the light?

operation
Turn up appear True friend always turn up when
you needed help.
Use up consume We have realized that our guests

have used up everything we have
in the freezer.
Wait on Serve Some girls wait on their husband.
Users of English can make their communication stronger by avoiding

shift in tense.
WRONG: When I was still in the province, I take a walk along the
seashore every afternoon.
RIGHT: When I was still in the province, I used to take a walk along the
seashore every afternoon.
WRONG: The author uses simple words that are why readers will
understand him.
RIGHT: The author uses simple words that is why, readers understand
him.
VERB CONFUSED AS TO NOUN
1. Bring and Take – “Bring is used when something is carried to the

speaker; while take requires movement away from the
speaker.
The nun told Pam to bring her the booklet.
Please take these items back to the office.
2. Learn and Teach – Learn means to gain knowledge; while
teach mean to instruct and is usually followed by an
indirect object.
The grade schoolers learn to read and write.
God’s word teaches us to become peaceable.
3. Lend and Borrow –Lend means to give the used of something;

while borrow means to obtain on loan.
The committee will lend Tom twenty chairs.
Tom will borrow twenty chairs from the committee.
4. Forget and Leave – Forget means to fail to remember; while

leave means to fail to bring.
Wrong: I forgot my jacket in the car.
Right: I left my jacket in the car. OR I forgot to bring my jacket.
5. May and Can – May is used to ask permission and to express doubt;
while can is used to express ability.
The child can reach the cookie jar.
We may not be able to meet the deadline.
Weak: Can I help you?
Better: May I help you?
6. Lie and Lay - Lay means to put or to place something; while lie
means being in a horizontal position, to remain or to be
situated. Also lay is a transitive verb while lie is an
intransitive verb that has no object.
You must lie down to rest.
Lay your head upon my pillow.
7. Sit and Set – Sit means to rest on the lower part of one’s body;
while set means to put or to place something. Also sit is an
intransitive verb but set is a transitive verb.
You can set the flowers on the hall table.
Ben, you can sit over there.
8. Rise and Raise - Rise means to go to the higher position; while raise
means to lift to a higher position. Rise is intransitive verb
while raise is transitive.
The fog was rising as we left the airport.
Someone is raising the company flag.
9. Shall and Will – Before it is customary to use shall in the first

person with the verb and will in the second person and
third persons with the verb. But now will is used for all
three persons.
First Person: We shall / will call you.
Second Person: You will but the snacks.
Third Person: They will enjoy the party.
10. Affect and Effect – Affect means to influence or to pretend;

while effect as a verb means to accomplish or to
produce as a result.
His sudden loss did no affect his family.
The calamity effected changes all over the country.
11. Accept and Except – accept means to agree to something or to

receive willingly; while except means to omit.
Jeremy accepted the bank’s offer at once.
Please except Marty’s name from the list.
12. Hanged and Hung- Hanged means executed by hanging; while
hung means fastened to something above.
The bandits hanged the traitor.
Sybil hung the portraits on her office wall.
13. Imply and Infer – A writer or speaker implies or suggests

something. The reader or listener infers something on
the basis of what he sees or hears.
The writer implied that they mayor is corrupt.
She inferred that there is a rift between us.
14. Leave and Let – Leave means to go away from; while let means
to allow.
Wrong: Leave the children play.
Right: Let the children play.
You should let Mary go.
15. Emigrate and Immigrate – Emigrate means to leave ones

country; while immigrate is to enter a country
so as to settle there.
In the 80’s, many Jews wanted to emigrate from Russia.
Most Russian Jews chose to immigrate to Israel.
ADJECTIVE
The Modifying, Qualifying Word!
An adjective is that part of speech used to describe or limit a

noun or a noun equivalent. Many adjectives have come down from an early
period of the English language without a distinctive form but many have
been invented and still being coined by adding a derivational ending or suffix
to a noun or verb. Some suffixes commonly used are the following:
- able - comfortable, formidable, passable, salable
- ible - credible, edible, irreducible, irresistible,
- al - medical, surgical, practical, critical,
- ed - beloved, worked, aged, blessed, barefooted
-ful - dutiful, soulful, scornful, colorful, mournful
-ish - foolish, bluish, mannish, sluggish, grayish
-less - hopeless, lawless, fruitless, ceaseless
-ous - dolorous, analogous, amorous, courteous, callous, desirous,
courageous, outrageous
-y - thorny, balmy, squashy, salty, pony, stormy
-ese - Chinese, Japanese, journalese
-ish - Squeamish, selfish, fetish
-ary - primary, visionary, elementary
-ic - artistic, choleric, metric
-ive - indecisive, permissive, excessive
-en - broken, golden, wooden
-some - loathsome, handsome, tiresome
LIST OF ADJECTIVES
For Senses
Sight -bloody, beary, gaudy, grimy, inky
Sound- crackling, squeaky, rattling, chiming, jarring
Touch –clammy, gritty, velvety, tingling,
Smell – stench, musky, pungent, acrid, fetid
For people: For places
amiable uninhabited
avaricious crowded
benevolent rural
benign urban
choleric
complaisant
For events/actions
credulous decorous
disgraceful desultory
disreputable innocuous
eccentric nefarious
gullible ominous
grandiloquent portentous
gregarious surreptitious
heterogeneous pompous
homogenous weird
irascible eerie
inscrutable
magnanimous For literary style
mercurial
voracious ambiguous
meticulous aphoristic
mercenary connotative
neophyte denotative
nescient didactive
neurotic exuberant
perspicacious euphemistic
prodigal laconic
quixotic lucid
queer pithy
sagacious poignant
sardonic prosaic
squeamish redundant
vacillating rhetorical
sonorous
stereotyped
verbose
trite
wordy
figurative
idiomatic
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES
1. Before a noun.
permanent resident illegal contract

inalienable right pecuniary values
2. Between a determiner and a noun.
any hypothetical case the modern approach
some valuable information those negligent acts
3. After the linking verbs.
is tacit looks speculative

seems inadequate are remunerative
4. Following the intensifier.
very liberal somewhat feasible

really fruitful fairly successful
quite risky
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
1. Descriptive Adjectives – are the most common type; they modify nouns
by naming a quality or condition of the persons,
thing, or place named.
blue eyes difficult words pretty girl

poor man intelligent boy fat pocketbook
true friend stocky stranger starry night
2. Limiting Adjectives – point out the person place or thing referred to.
a teacher this policy the school hoes

an engineer the butterfly their discretion
3. Proper Adjectives – are originally limiting adjectives and are derived

from proper nouns.
Filipino traditions Chinese dynasty

Spanish influence Japanese corporations
4. Pronominal Adjectives – are pronouns used as a modifier.
Possessive:
my book, his, car, its tail, our country, your bag, their parents
Demonstrative:
this fan, that person, these baskets, those things
Interrogative:
Whose book is lost? Which one do you choose?

What provinces are included in the list?
Relative:
The man whose name was called could not answer.

She could identify the person whose bag was lost.
She can’t tell which one is missing.
Indefinite:
any book, each student, no person, some doctors, few men,

several girls, many animals
Intensive: adding emphasis or force to the subject
The going strong team win the game.
Numeral:
Cardinal: one book, two teachers, three tables

Ordinal: first boy, second girl
ANOTHER WAY OF CLASSIFYING ADJECTIVES
According to its position in sentence an adjective is either

attributive or predicate.
 An attributive adjective modifies a noun directly as in old

grandmother. It is placed next to the noun it modifies usually
preceding it. Sometimes an attributive adjective may follow the noun
and be separated from it by a comma as in: A girl, sweet, simple, and
gentle is hard to find nowadays. When attributive adjective follow the
noun, it is sometimes called an appositive adjective. The attributive is
also called adherent adjective.
 Predicate adjectives come after linking verbs.
The man is tall. She appeared sorry.

The cake looks delicious. The boys are noisy.
 Coordinate adjectives are two adjectives modifying the
same. They are coordinate if they can joined by and. In some cases the
second adjective is so closely linked with the noun.
Ramir is a faithful, sincere friend, (the adjectives are co-ordinate

in thought: faithful and sincere, they both modify friend)
We saw a grand, awe-inspiring sunset. (the adjectives are o-

ordinate)
Note:
Co-ordinate adjectives should be separate by a comma.
Alex is a good public servant.

(The adjectives are not co-ordinate: good modifies public servant
as a whole; hence good and public should not be separated by a
comma).
Note:
If and can be used instead of a comma, the adjectives are co-

ordinate as in grand and awe-inspiring or faithful and sincere.
USES OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adherent modifier – when the adjective comes directly before the

noun or pronoun it describes or limits.
Tall tree small house yellow mango

Red ribbon lovely lady black shoes
2. Appositive modifier – when adjectives stand directly after a noun or

pronoun is describes or limits.
Trees, tall and leafy, shaded the path.
3. Predicate adjective – are always found in the predicate after the

verb it completes.
The windows are open.
4. Objective complement – follows the direct object.
His good humor makes him popular.
5. As a noun – nouns are also frequently used as adjectives.

College credits (modifies credits)
Dress accessories (modifies accessories)
Summer clothes (modifies clothes)
OTHER USES OF ADJECTIVES
 Preceded by an article, word that are ordinarily

adjectives may not be found in the position of the noun as subject.
The just will receive their reward in heaven,

The rich wallow in luxury.
The rich live in palatial hoes: the poor in hovels.
The unemployed hope for better times.
 Adjectives may also occur in an object position after a

verb or a preposition.
We have great sympathy for the poor.

We revere the good and the true.
Who doesn’t love the beautiful in life?
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
There are three degrees of comparison among adjectives, namely:

positive, comparative and superlative.
1. Positive degree – when the adjective is in its simplest or base

form.
2. Comparative degree – when two persons, animals, places and/or
ideas are being compared.
3. Superlative degree - when three or more persons, animals,

places and/or ideas are being compared.
Positive Comparative Superlative
bright Brighter brightest

clear Clearer clearest
heavy Heavier heaviest
4. Irregular Comparison
a. For one-syllable adjectives, add –er and –est to the comparative

and superlative degrees, respectively.
near Nearer nearest

soft Softer softest
hard Harder hardest
b. For two or more syllable adjectives, add intensifiers like more

and most to strengthen the meaning of the adjectives in the
comparative and superlative degrees, respectively.
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful

Trustworthy more trustworthy most trustworthy
Faithful more faithful most faithful
Secure more secure most secure
Truthful more truthful most truthful
c. Change the spelling of the irregular adjectives in the

comparative and superlative.
Good Better best

Bad Worse worst
Much More most
Less Lesser least
ADJECTIVES IN COMPARISON
Comparison is the inflection of an adjective to indicate an increasing

or decreasing degree of quality or quantity. An adjective has three
characteristic forms to signify comparison: the positive, comparative, and
the superlative degrees.
 We use the positive degree when we make no particular comparison; we

use the comparative when we compare one object, person or place or
group with another, we use though superlative when we compare one
object or group with two or more.
The papaya is ripe, it is riper then the mango.

Nico is tall. He is taller then Marco.
Christian is big. He is bigger than I. (am).
Francis is a good basketball player. He is the best basketball
player of the team.
 The comparative degree indicates that the quality or quantity is higher

in degree in comparison to some standard expressed by the positive
degree.
The sampaguita flower is more fragrant than the gumamela

flower.
Lia’s grade in English is higher than my grade.
Note:
The double comparative is not acceptable in formal usage:
Objectionable : My eyesight is more better now.

Better : My eyesight better now.
 Uses of superlative degree
1. The superlative degree indicates that the quality or

quantity is at its highest or is most intense.
Franz is the oldest and the tallest boy in the class.

Who do you think is the wisest among the Three Kings?
She thinks that mathematics is the most difficult of all her
subjects.
2. For emphasis we may use the superlative absolutely, meaning
without comparison.
The trip was a most memorable one.

It was the hardest fight of his career as a fighter.
You are the most kind.
She is most clever.
I love my dearest mother.
 The comparative degree is formed by two easy:
1. All adjectives of one syllable and a few adjectives with more then two
syllables add –er. Those ending in y change the y to I and add –er. A
single final consonant, when preceded by a single accented vowel is
doubled.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree

Sharp sharper
Dirty dirtier
Slim slimmer
Glad gladder
Tiny tinier
Thin thinner
Fine finer
Sweet sweeter
Short shorter
2. Most adjectives with two syllables and all adjectives with more than
two syllables use more or less to form the comparative degree. This
rule is not absolute.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree
careless More or less careless

efficient More or less efficient
skillful More or less skillful
reliable More or less reliable
honest More or less honest
effective More or less effective
 The superlative degree of the adjective is formed by

adding –est or by using most. Adjectives that form the comparative with –
er form the superlative with –est. Those that form the comparative with
more or less form the superlative with most or least.
cheap cheaper cheapest

dear dearer dearest
dark darker darkest
expensive more expensive most expensive
stubborn more stubborn most stubborn
cooperative more cooperative most cooperative
 Some adjectives have irregular comparison. They form the

comparative and the superlative by change in the words themselves.
good better best

well better best
bad worse worst
ill worse worst
many more most
much more most
 No absolute rule can be formulated in the formation of the comparative

and superlative degree. Some adjectives have more than one
acceptable way of forming their comparative and superlatives. In this
case, what to use is a matter of choice, both being acceptable and in
reputable usage. Usually the choice will depend upon sound.
able abler or more able ablest or most able

empty emptier or more empty most empty
kind kinder or more kind most kind
fair fairer or more fair fairest or most fair
crisp crisper or more crisp crispest, most crisp
even evener or more even evenest, most even
 Some people have raised objections to the comparison of absolutes
such as unique, black, dead, excellent, fatal, impossible, perfect since
their meaning is thought to be absolute. In common use, however, the
meaning of each of these words is not absolute so that they are
frequently compared. In the writings of the best writers are found such
expressions as: “This was more impossible….”. “This is the deadest I
was ever in.” the American Constitutions contains the phrase”…… To a
more perfect union.
 To avoid being censured, writers usually use expressions such as more

nearly, less nearly, least nearly to express a difference in degree in the
comparison of absolutes.
The second copy is more nearly perfect then the first. (copy)
The second option is less nearly impossible then the first. (option)
Of the three options, the first is the least nearly impossible.
 Expression of comparison
1. Use other or else with the comparative degree in

comparing place, or thing with the rest of its class in order to
exclude the person, thing or place compared.
Right: Leo is taller then any other boy in the team.

Right: Atty. Joemar has a larger practice than anyone else in his
profession.
2. Use as and than in comparison.
Right: Adil is as reliable as Jhun, if not more reliable than he.

Right: Ronie is as bright as Rene, if not brighter than he.
Note:
The use of as and than should not be confused in comparisons. The

comparison should be fully stated before the qualifying expressions
are added. In the first sentence the qualifying expression is “if not
more reliable than he (is)” refers to Wilfredo, meaning Dexter is
more reliable then Wilfredo (is).
In the second sentence, the qualifying expression is “if nor

brighter than he”.
3. Use of all with the superlative degree.
Melvin is the most talented of all the boys in the class.

Sheryl is the prettiest of all the girls on the stage.
ADJECTIVES WHICH DO NOT HAVE COMPARISONS
perfect round final square

dead unique correct immortal
exact equal right
THE ARTICLE
The Article is a limiting word which you see in close connection with
Nouns. You use the Article before Nouns to show that they are to be taken
separately. Some grammarians classify the Article as a separate Part of
Speech, but it is here under Adjective. Actually you can also use the Article
to function as an Adverb, as in “the more the merrier.” More often, however,
you use the Article in close connection with Nouns. This is precisely why it is
taken up here under adjective. There are two types of this Article: an or a,
and the. An or a is called the Indefinite Article; the is called the Definite
Article.
You use the Indefinite Article “a” before words beginning with
consonants and also before words beginning with vowels which are
pronounced like the “y” of “you”; as in “a European” or “a usurer”.
You use an before words beginning with a vowel or a vowel sound; as,
“an honorable man..” The sound, not the spelling, determines the use
of a or an.
You use the Indefinite Articles a and an usually in the following various
ways:
1. When you are referring to an idea that represents it single unit.
That is an exception; a case that may be done in a million.

The typhoon will be around for at least a day or two.
2. When you are referring to time or measurement occurring regularly

or in routinary manner. Observe:
I visit Alma Mater at least once a year.
Our money is now twenty-eight pesos to a dollar.
3. When you are indicating the idea of just any example to represent a
class.
A good driver is a safe driver.

A model student behaves well in class.
 The following are usual instances when you use the Indefinite Article
“a” or “an”.
For units of measurements
five pesos a kilo

ten sacks a month
fifty kilometers an hour
ten centavos a piece
b. For expressions denoting quantity
a lot of fun
a hundred times
a group of people
a few exceptions
c. For Possessive denoting measure (in Singular Number)
a year’s pay
a month’s allowance
a week’s time
an executive’s salary
For expressions indicating comparison
as good a manager as any

not so successful a team as before
For expressions indicating result with the word such
It was such a wonderful party.

It was such a lovely night.
For expressions with the meaning of “the same”
They are of a common sentiment.

We are of a kind.
e. For Exclamatory Sentences with what used as a Count

Noun
What a friend! (friend is a Count noun)

What audacity! What nerve!
(no a because the Nouns here are Mass Nouns)
 Sometimes also you do not use the Article at all in nay of the
following instances:
1. When before Proper noun
New York is a city of tall buildings.

Mr. And Mrs. Adrian Lubos are my special guests.
2. When before material Nouns
Uranium is now most wanted for modern warfare.

Iron is necessary for concrete buildings.
3. When before Abstract Nouns
Pride goes before the fall!

Suffering strengthens the soul.
4. When before the names of meals
What shall we have for lunch?

When do we have breakfast?
What’s new for dinner?
5. When before languages and subjects taught in school
I think Chinese is a tonal language.

It’s Greek to me!
Calculus is not just a matter of calculating!
I teach Linguistics.
6. When before the names of diseases, sports and games
Malaria weakens the memory.

If you are short, choose some other sport, not basketball.
7. When before the names referring to persons, animals and things in

general
Cats are the favorite pets of women.

Tailors and barbers cannot do without scissors.
 Note that the following are commonly accepted expressions in English
I’m in a hurry. He took an interest in her.

What a day! It’s a pity.
All of a sudden. He made a fool of himself.
It’s a shame! I had a chance.
Occasional Exceptions
Sometimes, you use an before words beginning with the letter “h”.
this happens only when the first syllable is stressed.
An historical event.
But if the stress is given to the second syllable, as in “historical” the

a is used.
A historical event.
The use of an in the “first syllable case” is already less common.
POSITION OF ADJECTIVES IN THE SENTENCE
Single word adjectives precede the noun or noun equivalent modified.

When a series of adjectives precede a noun, the adjectives may be placed in
the order illustrated in the following chart.
Articles, numeral Descriptive

Demonstrativ s Other noun
es, noun
Possessive, Quality Size Color
Indefinite
adjectives
The third physic problem

The first s
These old brown envelopes
Her new small red bag
Mark’s negativ leather attitude
The two e oval-
shine shape white cabinets
Many d narra
Several
SUMMARY GUIDELINES IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS
Errors in the use of modifiers may consist of:
1. Incorrect
comparison – The comparative degree is used if
two persons or things are involved and the superlative degree if there
should be more than two persons or things.
Wrong: He is the better of them all.

Right: he is the best of them all.
2. Use of double negative – Negatives are words which include

no, none, not, never, nothing, no one, hardly, scarcely.
Wrong: They don’t have no communication with her.

Right: They don’t have communication with her.
3. Confusion between good and well – Good is used to modify

a noun or pronoun and well is used to modify a verb.
Wrong: He is well in athletics.

Right: he is good in athletics
4. Dangling or misplaced modifiers - Modifiers should be

placed next to word that you intent to modify.
Wrong: Our aunt visited us who lives in Oregon.

Right: Our aunt who lives in Oregon visited us yesterday.
ADVERB
“The Great Clarifier for Specific Meanings
An adverb is a word that is used to express something more about a

verb, an adjective or another adverb. Also, it is a part of speech that, by
tradition, serves as a modifier.
Adverb answers the questions how, where, and when. They indicate
time, place, manner and degree.
Time - early, late, soon, afterwards, never, now

Place - inside, under, behind, before, over, below
Manner - clumsily, awkwardly, slowly, truly, splendidly
FORMS OF THE ADVERB
Most adverbs are adjectives plus the ending –ly: quietly, completely,
diligently, correctly, effectively, industriously, etc.
Note:
Not all words ending in –ly are adverbs. Some are adjectives: lovely,
friendly, homely, kindly, lively, ghastly, holy, orderly, prickly, heavenly.
 Some adverbs have developed from Old English forms

without special adverbial sign: quite, since, then, abroad, forever, thus,
anew, sometime, sometimes, always.
 Some adverbs are formed from different parts of speech by

the addition of –wards, -ward, -way, and wise: backwards, downwards, (or
downwardly) end-wise, crosswise, likewise.
 Some adverbs have two forms, one form the same as that
of the adjective and another form with –ly added; for instance, slow,
slowly; loud, loudly; soft, softly; sharp, sharply; cheap, cheaply; quick,
quickly. Common usage, acceptable: Drive slow. Speak loud and clear.
Correct:
Look sharp.
You must drive slowly on slippery road.
On the platform you should speak loudly and clearly.
He looked at the gatecrasher sharply.
 Many adverbs combine with verbs to form an idiom:
bring about look down
get along carry away
break away carry out
hold back carry over
fall behind carry through
break in give out
carry off give up
carry on give in
hang together give off
look up look over
An adverb is usually formed by adding –ly to an adjective or –ways and

–wise to nouns.
-ly - easily, honestly

-ways - sideways, endways
-wise - stepwise, clockwise
-ward - (before or after a noun) forward movement
-wards - (after a noun or verb) sidewards, backwards
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERB
Classification of Adverb According to Meaning
1. Adverb of Manner- describes a word as to quality and character.
The senator always talks extemporaneously.

The topnocher answered the test items confidently.
2. Adverb of Frequency- expresses a customary or repeated action or

condition.
Adela usually visits us at this time of the year.
3. Adverb of Time and Succession - this shows when the action takes
place. It answers the interrogative pronoun when.
Please prepare the newsletter as soon as possible.

I shall meet my penpal soon.
4. Adverb of Place and Direction - indicates the direction or where the

action takes place.
The battered child run away.
5. Adverb of Degree and Measure - tells how large, how small, to

what extent, how much, how long, etc. It answers the question, to what
extent, etc.
The apple is very sweet. (very modifies the adjective sweet)

The price is too high. (too modifies the adjective high)
6. Adverb of Reason (cause and purpose) - indicates the purpose or

why the action of the verb takes place.
Our new classmate seldom talks because she is shy.
7. Adverb of Assertion – denoting affirmation denial: yes, no

apparently, certainly, indeed, really, absolutely, by no means, not at
all.
Note : Yes and no not modify other words and may stand alone.
8. Adverb of Opposition - denoting contrast: however, still, yet
9. Adverb of Numbers – denoting how many times or where in a series:

once, twice, three times, tenfold; first, secondly, fifthly.
10. Interrogative adverbs – introduce questions:
Why are you here?

How did you find him?
Where is he going?
11. Conjunctive adverbs:
Further, furthermore, also, moreover, likewise, again, then, so,

however, yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, therefore, hence,
consequently, accordingly, thereupon, thus, wherefore, namely.
12. Short forms of adverbs:
Go slow, Come quick, She talks loud. Take it easy, He talked big.
(slow, quick, loud, easy, big are examples of short forms of
adverbs).
13. Mid-position adverbs:
always, nearly, usually, generally, often, not always, sometimes,
occasionally, not often, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never,
frequently, infrequently, scarcely
Classification of Adverb According to Use
a.Simple- an adverb that is used to modify a verb, an adjective or another

adverb, or a group of any of these words with which is used.
The movie ended happily.

Time went by quite rapidly.
b. Demonstrative- points out, as does a demonstrative pronoun..
there here therein then

hither hence thence thither
herein the thus that
c.Interrogative- is often used at the beginning of the sentence to ask

question.
When did you arrive?

How many books have you read?
d. Relative- used in the subordinate clause of a complex sentence and is

related some words in the principal clause.
e. Modal responsive- modifies whole statement, not just single or

particular words.
POSITIONS OF ADVERBS
1. Front Position of Adverb.
1. Adverb of Assertion- yes, no never
Adverb Subject Predicate
No I didn’t see it
Yes I saw it
2. Interrogative Adverbs
Adverb Auxiliary Verb Subject Predicate
Why does she cry?

How has she been?
When does he leave
Where does she live?
3. Other adverbs like: then, now, unfortunately, occasionally, still, etc.
Adverb Subject Predicate
Still she does not listen

Unfortunately she has to live
Then she comes again
Now she studies here
First she takes off her shoes
2. Mid-Position Adverb
a. Adverb of frequency
a. between the subject and the verb
Subject Adverb Predicate
He gradually learns to do it
He often daydreams
b. Others adverbs like: anxiously, accidentally, deeply, indeed, perhaps,

rather, really, etc.
She anxiously waits for him.

She indeed needs a drink.
c. Some adverbs of manner
She patiently waits for him.

She quickly throws the ball.
d. Some adverbs of assertion
Subject Auxiliary verb Adverb Predicate
She does not see me.
e. Adverb of degree
Subject Linking Adverb Predicate

Verb
She is entirely correct

She is about through with it
f. Adverb of reason
Subject Predicate Adverb
She was late because she had no ride

She was late therefore she was not admitted
End Position Adverbs
c. Adverb of manner
Subject Verb Adverb
She sings beautifully.

She drives carefully.
d. Adverbs of number and quality
Subject Verb Adverb
She sings twice

She drives a little
e. Adverb of places
Subject Verb Adverb
She comes down
She goes there
f. Adverb of time
Subject Verb Adverb
She goes now

She goes immediately
POSITION OF ADVERBS IN THE SENTENCE
 Adverbs usually come immediately before the

adjectives or adverbs they modify.
He spoke very eloquently. (the adverb very is placed before the adverb
eloquently which it modifies)
He is certainly versatile as an actor. (The verb certainly is placed

before the adjective versatile which it modifies)
 Adverbs normally follow the verb they modify.
The dancers danced gratefully. (the adverb gracefully is placed after

verb danced which it modifies)
 As a rule the adverbs only, merely, just, almost ever,

hardly, scarcely, quite, nearly are placed next to the words they modify.
You should be quite certain of the answer.

He nearly ate the whole pie.
Edna is so weak she could scarcely walk.
She can hardly wait to speak.
His presence is only allowed on Saturday.
Note:
Scarcely, hardly and only should not be used with a negative. Formal
usage tends to put only directly before the element it modifies. General
usage tends to place it next to the verb.
 Adverbs are usually placed between the subject and

the verb.
The prisoner now thinks he is free.
He then went on his merry way.
 Adverbs are placed at the beginning or at the end of

the sentence.
Yesterday, I was reprimanded severely.

Slowly he turned the doorknob.
He turned the doorknob slowly.
 Mid-position adverbs are normally placed between the

subject and the verb.
Mr. Robles usually travels to Sydney once a year.

He always listen to the radio in the morning.
 Mid-position adverbs are placed after the verb to be.
He is always late.
They are seldom busy.
She is usually at the office at this time.
FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
1. Adverbs are used to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb.
The guests left hurriedly (modifier of a verb)

She was surprisingly charming. (modifier of an adjective)
The music ended rather abruptly. (modifier of another adverb)
2. Adverbs may modify a whole sentence.
Surprisingly, he failed in the examination.

Unfortunately, we lost the championship.
Perhaps, he will return the book today.
Incidentally, you are barking at the moon.
3. Interrogative adverbs introduce questions.
When did he arrive?

How did he solve the problem?
Where are you going?
Why is he complaining?
 Distinguishing between the adjective and adverb.

Some forms of the adverb are like adjectives. Take the following
examples.
Adjectives Adverb
The sun is bright. It shines bright.

He is late. He works late.
She is an early bird. She came early.
He is a slow learner. Go slow.
It was a hard fight. They work hard.
We heard a long story. Don’t stay long.
He made a quick response. Come quick.
Note:
The short forms of the adverb: bright, late, slow, hard, long and quick are
accepted as Standard English. They are more common in speech and in
informal writing.
 Uses of the conjunctive adverbs.
Conjunctive adverbs serve in a double capacity. As conjunctions they

connect; as adverbs they modify. But they are relatively weak modifiers
referring to the entire sentence instead of an element of it. As
conjunctions conjunctive adverbs are also called transition connectives.
Conjunctive adverbs may be used to start the sentence; but hey are
usually better near, not at, the beginning. By Consistently placing them at
the beginning may give them too much emphasis.
He was willing to advise us. He will not, however, accept

responsibility for what we do.
No power, however strong could make him change his mind.
The school, moreover, is locked up on weekends.
ADVERB DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Adverbs, like adjective have three degrees of comparison: positive
(base), comparative, and the superlative.
a. Add –er and –est with one syllable in the comparative and the superlative
degrees, respectively.
great greater greatest

long longer longest
fast faster fastest
b. Write the words lee and least, in weakening of the adverbs with two or
more syllables in the comparative and superlative degrees, respectively.
hurriedly more hurriedly most hurriedly

fluently more fluently most fluently
gracefully more gracefully most gracefully
c. Write words, less or least, in weakening the meanings of the adverbs with
two or more syllables in the comparative and superlative degrees,
respectively.
emphatically less emphatically least emphatically

nervously less nervously least nervously
d. Some adverbs are compared irregularly.
good better best

badly worse worst
little less least
much more most
e. A number of adverbs cannot be compared like: already, yet, uniquely,

entirely, somewhat.
CONJUNCTION
“The Discriminating Word That Has Connection!”
Traditional grammar classifies a conjunction as a part of speech.

Structural-descriptive grammar, also known as modern grammar categorizes
it as a function word. Conjunctions imply or denote certain relationships
between words and a group of words that they connect. Unlike prepositions,
conjunctions do not have objects.
The three principal uses of conjunctions are:
a. to link words, phrases and clauses
b. to introduce subordinate clauses
c. to join dependent clauses to independent
TYPES OF CONJUNCTION
1. Coordinating Conjunction - are simple conjunction which join the

sentences and sentence parts equal importance.
A. Classification of Conjunction according to meaning
Addition - and, further, furthermore, besides, also, moreover, nor,

too, and then
Contrast - but, however, yet, and yet, still, nevertheless,

notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand.
Result - therefore, hence, yet, and yet, still, nevertheless,

notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand.
Alternation - or, nor, otherwise, else, either…. or, neither…. nor,

so…. as, both…and, not only … but also
Cause - for
Repetition - exemplication, intensification: in fact, in other words,

that is, for instance, for example, thus.
2. Correlative Conjunction- Conjunctions that are usually used in pair to

join coordinate sentences.
The following are Correlative Conjunctions:
either……or neither…………nor
both…………and whether………or
not only…………but also
Both the cups and the saucers were cracked.

We must decide now whether to complete or give away.
Either Alex or Ray will go with you.
The test was only difficult but also long.
Neither Dean nor the Secretary can come.
Connectors are conjunctions, which join independent clause. They
function like coordinators, but unlike coordinators which occur between
coordinate constructions, connectors may occur not only between
coordinate independent clause but also between coordinate independent
clauses but also within or at the end of the second clause, They are used as
transitions words in the sentence.
He studies hard; therefore, he makes progress.

He studies hard; he, therefore, makes progress.
He studies hard; he makes progress, therefore.
List of Connectors
therefore hence consequently

also thus accordingly
however indeed nevertheless
moreover in fact furthermore
as a result yet on the other hand
Uses of therefore and however:
1. Use therefore to indicate that the second clause is consequently of the

first part. Consequently, so, thus, as a result, are also used to indicate
this consequence relationship.
She is absent; therefore, I can’t talk to her.
2. Use however to indicate that the second clause gives information your
consider contrary in some way to that in the first. Yet, nevertheless,
but, still, on the other hand, are also used to denote this idea.
She was here yesterday; however, I didn’t talk to her.
Subordinators are function words that join dependent clause to the

main clause; they are two types: Those that pattern like because, and forms
that pattern like who, whom, whose, which, that. These words not only
introduce that subordinate clause but to link it to the main clause, their chief
functions is to make clear exactly what is the relation between the two
clauses. The chief relations they show are time, place, result, exception,
condition, and alternative.
List of Subordinators
when whether that
where although after
while as if as until than
since where before
unless if till
whenever
so that whereas on account of
as long as as though provided
OTHER USES OF CONJUNCTION
1. To expand sentences. With the help of the coordinating conjunctions,

users of English can compound the subject of the sentence, the object of
the verb, the verb itself, prepositional phrases, and the nouns that are
used as object of prepositions within such phrases, adjectives, and
adverbs.
The First Lady and her companion went to Russia to attend the funeral
of Chernenco. (compound subject)
I left my bag and my books in our classroom. (compound object of the

verb)
The teachers came and congratulated us on our graduation from high
school. (compound verb)
The students returned to the room but could not find their teacher.
(compound predicate)
The Mayor came in a police jeep and with 3-policeman escort.

(compound prepositional phrase)
The news reporter, with a policeman and an interpreter, went to jail to

interview the accused foreigner. (compound objects of preposition)
The confused but enthusiastic accused foreigner answered the

question of the reporter promptly and willingly. (compound objects of
preposition)
To correct a comma which comes about when two independent clauses

are incorrectly joined by a comma. There are two ways by which to correct
this: One is by joining the sentences by means of a semicolon and another is
by comma followed by a coordinate conjunction (and, or, for, nor, but, so,
yet)
Wrong: Rose believes she is the best student in the class, her
classmates think otherwise.
Right: Rose believes she is the best student in the class; her classmate
thinks otherwise.
Note:
There are instances when the use of a conjunction alone is not

sufficient. Sometimes aside from a conjunction, a punctuation mark is also
needed. Examples are this fused sentences and the run-on sentences.
The fused sentences comes about when two principal or independent

clause are incorrectly run together using no punctuation or conjunction. The
two ways by which to correct this are by joining clauses by a semicolon or by
comma followed by a coordinating conjunction.
Wrong: Mother must be sick she is always ill-tempered nowadays.
Right: Mother must be sick; she is always ill-tempered nowadays.
Mother must be sick, for she is always ill-tempered nowadays.
A run-on sentence is a group of two or more independent clauses held

together only by coordinating conjunctions without punctuation.
Wrong: I wanted to see our lady manager I couldn’t find her.
Right: I wanted to see our lady-manager, but I couldn’t find her.
Conjunctive Adverbs – Aside from the subordinating conjunction,

coordinating and correlative, there are words which called conjunctive
adverb Hence, then, moreover, indeed, nevertheless, however, and
consequently are some of these. If a conjunctive adverb appears in the
second part of a compound sentence, a semicolon should be used before it
and a comma after it.
Rommel was disappointed with the result of the contest; nevertheless,

he joined the party given by the organizers.
The President of the company lost heavily in the risky investments;

consequently, he had retrench to save the company from certain
bankruptcy.
Conjunctive adverbs serve as transitions.
Conjunctive Pitfalls - these are dangers encountered in the used of a
conjunctions. They are usually of two types, namely:
1. Choosing a conjunction that does not best convey intended

meaning.
2. Choosing a preposition when it is a conjunction that is needed.
But or And?
Whereas the conjunction and just joins elements, the conjunction but
shows contrast between two elements which and does not show.
We bought a pair of pants and a pair of shoes yesterday.
We wanted another pair of shoes but it was more expensive that the
one we bought.
Who, Which or That
Who should be used to refer to persons. Which should be used to refer

to things or objects. That can be used to refer to persons or objects.
The girl that you saw is a friend of ours.

(Who can be used in place of that)
Is it the principal who decided to forego with Junior-Senior Prom and

not the student leader as suspected by others.
The wall which was built only last year, collapsed.

(Who cannot be used because which refers to wall)
Since or Because (not Being That)
Being that should never be used in place of since and because. There
is no such conjunction as being that.
The reason for his sudden departure is that he has found a job abroad.
(Do not say or write: The reason for his sudden departure is because
he has…)
Very often we pretend that everything is all right when it is not. (Never
say or write: Very often we pretend like everything….)
DISTINGUISH THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS, PREPOSITIONS,
AND ADVERBS
Some words used as conjunctions may also be used as prepositions

and adverbs.
We had the wettest summer since the flood. (used as a preposition; its
object is the noun flood)
Since the price was low we brought three. (used as a conjunction)
He hasn’t been around since. (used as a n adverb; it modifies the

adverb around).
My brother is named after my grandfather. (used as a preposition; its

object is grandfather.
Mark was called first. Leo came after. (used as an adverb; it modifies
the verb came).
Corinne arrived after Gina had left.(used as a conjunction)
I saw no one but him. (used as a preposition)
He seemed honest but he was lying. (used as a conjunction)
If I had but known, I would have refused his offer. (but means only as a
n adverb, modifying had known).
I never saw him before. (used as an adverb)
I saw him before he left. (used as a conjunction)
The chair is before the cabinet. (used as preposition)
Note:
Some grammarians group words varying functions as particles.
PREPOSITION
The “Influential” Word That Has Meaningful Relations!
A preposition is a word that is used to connect a noun or pronoun with

some other word in the sentence, and serves to show a meaningful
relationship between the connected words. Usually, a preposition is used to
show either possession, direction, or position.
A picture of his family hangs in the office. (possession)

Fred can ran excitedly towards his father. (direction)
Joe built his house below a hill. (position)
Traditional grammar classifies thus words as a part of speech.

Structural-descriptive grammar categorizes it as a function word.
Tes was born on May 22, 1986. (The preposition on connects May 10,1986
with was born)
We rode up the hill. (The preposition up connects hill with rode.)
Adrian was accompanied by his mother. (The preposition by links his

mother with was accompanied).
My grandmother believes in the power of prayer. (The preposition in links

power with believes, of links with prayer.)
KINDS OF PREPOSITION
1. Simple preposition – preposition which are single-word
as, in, to, from, for, of, on, over, about, beyond
I am about to retire next year.
2. Compound preposition – prepositions which are made up of a group of

two or more words regarded as a unit.
according to in consideration of
by means of in front of
contrary to with reference to
According to health authorities, we should refrain from too much sugar
intake.
We met in front of the supermarket.
3. Verbal preposition - verb-form that is used as a preposition.
regarding considering concerning respecting
She discusses extensively regarding new policies.
CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITION ACCORDING TO KIND OF

RELATIONSHIP THEY INDICATE
Place and Position
at above behind
in below back of
on under in front of
off beneath ahead of
across underneath beyond
about inside along

around outside next to
between by close to
among beside far from
throughout near after

over against before
Karen was standing in front of the corner store when I saw him.
The smuggled goods were found inside a private warehouse.
A stranger is observed walking outside the building.
Direction and Motion
in across at
into up by way of
to via over
toward about onto
out of around down

from by through
The old man’s hut is across the bridge.
The lady looking for you went toward the direction of the church.
You will find what you are searching for over the hill.
You will walk from Alcate to MinSCAT.
Time
at after through
in for throughout
on during around
by since about
before until from
till
I will see you on Sunday morning.
After the show, the theater looks like a ghost town.
Everyone is requested to remain silent when the song is being taped.
You will be here at three o’clock.
Josie is the most obedient during our camping in Gloria.
Cause
because of concerning for

by means of big reason of
The clerk was suspended for two days because of his bad behavior.
On accountant of his very satisfactory performance, my brother was

promoted.
By means of hard work, the widowed mother succeeded in sending all
children in school.
Manner
by way of like with

along with in accordance with
My neighbor goes to his office by the bus.
The police officer went to the house of the suspect armed with a search
warrant.
Miscellaneous Prepositions
as with instead
like along with according to
to together with besides
of in because of
concerning on account of in spite of
due to despite
Each preposition has an object. With its object and whatever modifiers,
the preposition forms a prepositional phrase. The phrase may be used as an
adjective, an adverb, or less frequently, as noun.
Below the window is a very beautiful narra table. (object-narra table)
We met each other inside hype restaurant. (object-restaurant)
I sat by the window. (object-window)
The money in the cabinet belongs to a friend who is staying with us. (in
the cabinet is an adjective modifying money)
I took a stroll around the park. (around the park is an adverb of place
modifying stroll)
Until tomorrow is the title of the book. (until tomorrow is a noun used as
subject in the sentence)
One preposition should be understood when a different preposition is

called for.
Wrong: The man was repelled and at the same time drawn toward
the city.
Improved: The man was repelled by and at the same time drawn
toward the city.
Preposition have always have objects. This object is any word or group
of word used as noun. However, it does not always have a noun. It can be
pronoun, an adjective, an adverb. The object can be also an infinitive or
gerund.
The Japanese collaborators left the country after the Second World War.
(War is a noun used as the subject of the preposition after).
The prize has been offered to someone who has helped bring about peace
in the community. (Someone is a pronoun used as object of the
preposition).
By tomorrow evening all the guest would have left. (tomorrow evening is
the object or by. It answers the question when so it used as an adverb.)
Some authors classify prepositional phrase into two:
1. Temporal – refers to a prepositional phrase which indicate time.

2. Spatial – refer top those prepositional phrase which indicate space.
Temporal Spatial
in the afternoon in the garden
on Monday inside the building
in two days beside the door
after the war on the bus
at two o’clock beneath the window
for six hours behind the shed.
Temporal prepositional phrases answers question when. They are,

therefore, used as adverb of time. Spatial prepositional phrases answers the
question where. They serve, therefore, as adverb of place.
Note:
There are other phrases which used as adverbs of time and place.
However, they are not prepositional phrases. How does one know if a phrase
is prepositional phrase or not? It is simple. Look at the word which introduces
the phrase. If it is a preposition then the phrase is prepositional phrase.
Compare the phrases that make up the two columns below:
Prepositional Phrase Other Phrase
toward the door leading to the door

into the room cozy room
about a week ago a week ago
for a telling a lie telling a lie
at the corner dark corner
between the rows
Many prepositions consist of two (or even three) words thus are called
compound prepositions. The main ones are the following:
ahead of due to
apart from inside of
as from instead of
as well as out of
aside form owing to
away from rather than
because of together with’
belonging to up at
contrary to up on
up to
WORDS WHICH REQUIRES SPECIFIC PREPOSITIONS
Idiomatic usage dictates that some words be followed by specific

prepositions. There are words that require one preposition for one meaning
and another preposition can destroy the effect. Below are some of the words
that require specific prepositions with those prepositions and examples of
their uses.
abide by a decision
abide with a person
confer on or upon (to give)
accompanied by (attended by something)
acquit of
adapted to (adjusted to)
agree to a proposal
agree with someone
correspond to or with (match or agree with)
conversant with
consist of (made up of)
angry at a thing or situation
angry with a person
but at a place
comply with a requirement
confer with (talk to)
enter in a record
familiarized with
foreign to (better then from)
part from (take leave of)
profit by
as regards
retroactive to (not from)
speak to (tell something to a person)
correspond with (exchange letters)
deal in good or services
deal with someone
depend on
independent of
dispense with
enter to (become a party to)
speak with (discuss with)
wait for a person (ride)
wait on a customer or a guest
enter a given point
SPECIFIC PREPOSITION OFTEN USED IN BUSINESS:
 Agree with, agree to
Use agree with when the object of the preposition is person; use agree to
when the object is anything but a person.
I am sorry but I don’t agree with you.
The lady will not agree to a suggestion which does not believe in.
 Angry with, angry to
When the object of the preposition is a person, with should be used. When
the object is not a person, at should be used.
I became angry with my friend who lost my watch.
The little girl angry at her sister for destroying her doll.
 Part from, part with
Part from means “to take of” while part with means “to relinquish or to
give up”. Part from is generally used when the object of the preposition is
a person and a part with, when the object is not a person.
The two friends parted from each other when they got married.
With a very heavy heart, Nora parted with her house.
 Discrepancy in; discrepancy between
When the object of the preposition is singular, discrepancy in should be

used. When the object is exactly two, discrepancy between should be
used.
The auditing team found certain discrepancies in the report of the

cashier.
Did you notice any discrepancy between you friend’s statement and
my statement?
 In regard to, with regard to, as regards
All these phrases are correct but regards cannot be used with in or with. It
is paired with as.
We have sent you a reminder in regard to your past due to account.
As regards you worry, there is no basis for it.

 Different from, identical with, plan to, retroactive to
Inasmuch as the words different, identical plan, and retroactive are

commonly used, the prepositions that should go with each should be
studied.
These notebooks are different from yours. (not different than)
Find out if your assignment is identical with (not to) mine.
We are planning to have a party.(not on having)

The employees are receiving an increase in their pay retroactive to
January. (not from)
PREPOSITION ILLITERACIES
Of is a preposition while have is a verb. Using of for have is a rave

error.
Knowing that you were in pain, I should have taken you to doctor. ((not
should of)
You ought to have taken the make up examination in accounting. (not

ought to of)
 Where…at, where…to
The use of at or to with where is incorrect.
I cannot imagine where my friend is. (not where my friend is at)
Do you know where your parents went last night? (not where your
parents went to)
 Help from
The use of from after the word help is another illiteracy.
I could not help praising them from their excellent performance. (not
help from)
The students couldn’t help showing their gratitude for the aid we gave
them yesterday. (not help from)
 Opposite to
The use of to after opposite is wrong.
The students house is opposite ours. (not opposite to ours)
The businessman opened as store his competitor’s. (not opposite to)
 Like for
Using like is incorrect. Omit the for.
We should like to invite the Cardinal as our guest speaker. (not for our
guest speaker)
The striking employees like a well known labor leader to join them as a
source of inspiration. (not for a source of inspiration)
POSITION OF THE PREPOSITION IN THE SENTENCE
Many people believe that it is incorrect to end a sentence with a
preposition. Very often it is more natural and more emphatic to place the
preposition at the end if the sentence. In many questions, the preposition
comes naturally at the end. But a preposition should not be used at the end
of the sentence if it sounds awkward or changes the meaning of the
sentence.
Whom are you looking for?
What kind of plane is he traveling in?
The preposition is found before the noun or pronoun that serves as its
object.
In the house beside him

From me to us
Into the room from them
Under the table with her
On the bed between them
The preposition may also be placed at the end of the sentence.
I don’t want to remember the gossip we talked about.
She found her mother-in-law hard to live with.
You know very well the reason I hired you for.
Note: The preposition that ends a sentence is idiomatic, natural English;

though it is more frequent in informal than in formal usage.
MEANING OF PREPOSITIONS
In concrete cases, prepositions carry as much meaning as other words

as the following examples show:
The meaning of under the table is different from on the table, behind
me, is different from beside me, by her is different from for her, from him, is
different from to him.
Even in abstract contexts, preposition having meaning.
Consider the following example:
in love with agree with a person

beneath contempt above suspicion
agree to a proposal behind the pretence
beside the point between life and death
beyond my understanding from fear
in spite of his prejudices within bounds
at odds in view of the oversight
THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
The preposition, its object and its modifiers make up a prepositional

phrase.
Example:
by the door near the end in the story

down the road of my favorite uncle by train
Uses of Prepositional Phrase
 The prepositional phrase may be used as an adjective to modify a noun

or noun equivalent.
 The prepositional phrase as an adjective modifier of the subject.
The lady in a long tube dress is an Italian fashion model.
The man with dreamy eyes appears bored.
Many of them were surprised.
A thing of beauty is a joy forever.
 The prepositional phrase used as an adjectival

modifier of the predicate nominative or subjective complement.
He is a firm believer in democratic ideals.
She is a professor of English.
Ryan is a man of honor.
 The prepositional phrase may be used as an adverbial modifier.
He is eligible for membership
Anna was absent from the class.
Josie and Rusty worked until dusk.
LIST OF PREPOSITIONS
Principal Preposition
aboard about above

across after against
along alongside amid (amidst)
among around as
at before behind
below beneath beside
besides between beyond
by concerning despite
down during for
from in inside
into like near
of off on
over past per
round since through
throughout till until
up via with
within
Compound Preposition
according to ahead of apart from

as far as aside from as to
back of because of by means of
contrary to due to in place of
in spite of instead of in view of
on account of out of owing to
prior to subsequent to up to
IDIOMATIC USE OF PREPOSITION
The following list shows the idiomatic uses of prepositions:
abide by (a decision)
absent from (the class, meeting not in)
abstain from (voting)
acquainted with (a person)
acquiesce in (the dispensations of
providence, in an opinion)
adhere to (a promise, a cause)
admit of (conflicting interpretations, several solutions) agree with
(a person, a proposal)
agree on (a course of action)
alarmed at (the news)
angry with (a person)
angry at or about (a thing)
apologize for (a mistake)
argue with (a person),
argue for or against or about (a measure)
arrive at (a conclusion)
aspire to (distinction)
assent at (a proposal)
assist at (a public meeting)
attend to (one’s business)
avail oneself of (an opportunity)
born in (month, year, place)
born on (day)
capable of (an action)
charge with (an offense)
collide with (a car)
compare to (similarity stressed)
compare with (stressing similarities and differences)
compatible with (recognized standards)
compete in (a contest)
compete with (a person)
compete for (prize, superiority, honor)
concur with (someone, in an opinion)
confide in or to (someone)
conform to (specifications)
deaf to (entreaties, argument)
deal in (coffee, merchandise)
deficient in (strength)
delight in (mischief)
deprive of (a right, privilege)
derived from (a source)
die of or from (a disease)
disappointed in (someone’s performance) dissent
from (majority opinion)
dissuade from (doing something foolish)
divest of (responsibility, authority)
enter upon (a new career)
enter into (business)
exception to (a rule)
familiar with (someone, classics)
find fault with (a course)
identical with (something looked for)
ignorant of (a fact)
inconsistent with (sound procedure)
independent of (outside help)
indifferent to (praise or blame)
infer from (evidence)
inferior to (a rival product)
interfere with (a performance)
jealous of (others)
live up to (one’s ideals, reputation)
long for (recognition, attention)
make up (one’s mind)
make yes for (failure in the past)
make off with (the cash and the jewelry)
object to (proposal)
oblivious of (warnings)
part with (possessions)
partial to (flattery)
participate in (activities)
persevere in (a task )
pertain to (a subject)
pick up (pieces of paper)
pick out (the correct answers)
preferable to (an alternative)
prevail on (someone to do something)
prevent someone from (an action)
refrain from (wrong-doing)
rejoice at (good news)
required of (all members)
resolve on (a course of action)
rich in (resources)
short of (cash)
secede from(a union, fellowships/political organizations)
succeed in (attempt)
superior to (an alternative)
threaten with (legal action)
wait for (developments)
wait on (a guest)
Note:
1. When different prepositions are used with a single

object, both prepositions should be given.
Athlete could have a great deal of respect for and confidence in their
coach.
No one could have been more interested in or more devoted to her

students than she was.
I have a great respect for and faith in him.
His behavior during the trial adds to rather than detracts from my
admiration for him.
She was jealous of but fascinated by her rival.
2. The preposition between is strictly used of only two in

American usage.
The cake was divided between Marco and his brother.

Miss Cruz apportioned the work between the two of then.
 The Oxford English Dictionary says that from the first

the preposition between has been used of several.
3.Different from is generally sanctioned by American

usage. Different then is good British usage. The use of different
then is increasingly accepted in American usage.
He is different from his brother. (American)

He is different than his brother. (British)
 The word due originally was an adjective and is still strictly used as one.
The dengue fever epidemic is due to a mosquito.
 The use of due to as preposition is often greatly criticized.

Popular usage: He cancelled his lecture due to the storm.
 The use of due to as ma preposition has long been
popular in magazine writing as in literature by John Galsworthy, a
famous British novelist, author of a series of novels and Nobel
prizewinner for literature in !932. Others of undisputed
respectability also accept the use of due to as preposition.
 Prof. John S. Kenyon, English professor, author of

“Cultural Levels and Functional Varieties of English” and the book,
Americam Pronunciation, is of the opinion that there is no sense in
retraining the use of due to as a preposition. Prof. Kenyon’s
reaction is an example of a linguist’s approach to a manner of
divided and debatable usage.
 In recent study reported by Prof. Margaret M. Bryant,

English professor and author of the book, Current American Usage
shows the “in some thousand pages of books periodicals and
newspapers due to as a preposition occurred in 56% of the
instances, because of (due to) in 25% and owing to (due to) is
19%.
 English professors who insist that due to should not

be used as a preposition should take note of this development.
 The use of the preposition of and about inside of (for

inside), outside of (for outside) and at about (for about) is
considered in reputable usage.
He was inside the room. (not inside of the room)

They were sitting outside the conference hall. (not outside of the
conference hall)
He arrived about one o’clock. (not at about one o’clock)
 Acceptable usage for some prepositions:
The pasture is behind the barn. (not in the back of the barn.)
He will be at home within a week. (not inside of or in less than a
week.)
The boys jumped off the plank into the water. (not of the plank)
The books fell of f the shelf. (not of the shelf)
There is nobody here besides me.(not outside of me)
Nobody knew him except Mina. (not outside of Mina)
Except this I can think of nothing. (not outside of this)
Our troubles were at last over. (not over with)
DISTINGUISING BETWEEN THE ADVERB, AND THE PREPOSITON
Some words may be used as an adverb or as a preposition.
Adverb Preposition
1. He has since 6.He has been working since eight
o’clock.
recovered from his illness.
7.The ball rolled down the lawn.
2. The trees were 8. He walked in the rain.
blown down during the 9.She works as a stenographer.
storm. 10. He fell off the ladder.
3. Please come in.
4. Do as required.
5. The birds flew off.
Explanation:
In sentence 1 since, as an adverb, modifies the verb has recovered.
In sentence 2 the adverb down modifies were blown.
In sentence 3 the adverb in modifies the verb come.
In sentence 4 the adverb as modifies required.
In sentence 5 the adverb off modifies the verb flew.
Note:
The word used as a modifier of a verb in the sentence is an adverb.
In sentence 6 the preposition since has as its object eight o’clock, a noun.
In sentence 7 the preposition down has as its object the noun lawn.
In sentence 8 the preposition in has as its object the noun rain.
In sentence 9 the preposition as has as its object stenographer, a noun.
In sentence 10 the preposition off has as its object the noun ladder.
Note:
The preposition is a word that relates a noun to another word or element
in the sentence. A preposition has always a noun or a noun equivalent as an
object in the sentence.
INTERJECTION
The Red-Blooded Emotional Word!
An interjection is a part of speech that expresses an attitude or

emotion and that has n grammatical relation with the rest of the sentence. A
number of grammarians classify an interjection as an independent word.
Others regard it as a subtype of adverbs. In some books of grammar,
interjection and exclamations are interchangeable.
Also, interjection are utterances characteristic of situations such as

surprise, sudden pain, disgust, anger, laughter, sorrow, impatience, wonder,
or other emotions.
It is a word that expresses emotion, assents or descent, attracts

attention, asks a question, and conveys sounds. Moreover, interjections are
usually set off from the words in the sentence followed by an exclamation
point.
Ouch! My foot is aching.
What I could hardly believe it.
Ah, how beautifully those children sing!
Sometimes interjections followed by commas in cases of exclamatory

sentence and ends in period.
Psst, look who’s talking.
Some of the different forms of emotions conveyed by interjections

include: surprise, joy, anger, dismay, discouragement, disapproval, etc.
Oh! This must be a dream. (surprise)
Yipee! We’ll go to the park. (joy)
Ngi! What a weird hairdo. (disapproval)
In order to attract attention, words like: hello! hey! hallo! is used.
Hello! Is anybody home?
Hey! Watch your steps.

In dissenting or assenting, this interjection may be used: bravo!
hurrah!.
Bravo! Bravo! What a magnificent performance!
Hurrah! We are the champion!
In asking questions, these expressions are usually used:
Boom! Bang! Zip! Whew!
Bang! Bang! The shooting goes on.
Whew! What a hot climate.
The two kinds of interjections have been detected, one is that is never
used in speeches like: tsk-tsk, and one that occurs as an interjection and/or
parts of a sentence as in: well, my goodness, alas, etc.
The most common interjections are:
Ah Good Listen
Alas Goodness My God
Bravo Goodness gracious Oh
Beware Ha Ouch
Damn it Heavens Pshaw
Darn Hey Say
The devil Hush What
Gee Look out Wow
KINDS AND USES OF INTERJECTIONS
As expression of strong feeling or emphatic statements of fact or

opinion, interjections range from the simple and often involuntary
monosyllabic utterances to fully developed sentences. Since interjections
may have a variety of meanings according to the manner of utterance, they
are classified or identified by the emotion expressed or by the emphasis
desired.
1. To express sorrow, regret, appeal, disappointment, remonstrance:
ah alack oh
o alas ah me
2. To express contempt, disgust, disbelief, repugnance, scorn:
boh huh pish

pooh pah poh (also spelled as pooh)
ugh fie faugh (also spelled as foh)
3. To express impatience, rebuke, annoyance, disapproval:
tush pshaw poohs pooh-pooh
“Tush-tush, never tell me such story as that!”
4. To express joy, surprise, suspicion, indignation:
Ha oh huh
5. To express doubt, hesitation, warning:
hem
6. To express triumph, exultation, wonder, joy:
aha hurrah ho ah wow
7. To express approbation, encouragement, agreement, resignation:
amen (so be it; so it)

bravo hurrah
8. To attract attention; to express pleasure; greeting:
hallo Halloa hello ho hem

hoy Hillo hilloa hush lo
hollo Hullo hist hoa ahoy
9. To express pain: Ouch
10. To express encouragement: Heigh
11. To express weariness: heigh-ho
12. Used as interrogative: eh
 Some interjections are imitations of sounds or are cries used to

attract attention.
Baa, bang, bowwow, cow, dingdong, mow, splash, etc.

Ahem, hist (a signal for silence)
 Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverb, short phrases are often

used in exclamations, like interjections but they are not classified as
interjections.
Nouns: Fire! Thief! Police! Heaven! Mercy!
Pronoun: I! What! You! O my! Dear me!
Adjectives: Good! Great! Enough! Impossible! Gracious! Quick!

Nonsense!
Adverbs: Here! Why! Well! Indeed! Away! Never! No! Really! Out!
Verbs: Listen! Stop! Hold! Go! Look! Hark! Behold! Halt!
Preposition: Up! Down! In! Phrases For shame! Good gracious! Good
heavens! For heaven’s sake! Well done! My goodness!
Good heavens! What a mess! Land Ho! Westward ho! How
absurd! Stuff and nonsense! What ho! Bless me!
 Interjections may be followed by a comma or exclamation mark
But, ah! So pale.
Alas! The happy day!
Fie. Fie. He’ll never come-Shakespeare.
 O and Oh are both used as interjections. The O is used before a

nominative of address (noun in direct address). The interjection oh
express emotion of various kinds, but it is used especially as a cry of
pain, terror, shame, derisive astonishment or disapproval.
 O is used always capitalized. Oh is capitalized at the beginning of the

sentence but not in the middle. O is not followed by a mark of
punctuation. Oh is followed by a comma, if the force is weak,, by an
exclamation mark if the stress is strong. Sometimes, it is not followed by
punctuation mark.
O dear, I suppose so. O God, unseen but ever near.

“O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore are thou.
O my father!
O Jerusalem!
Oh! You are here at last!
Oh, you are late.
Oh! Stop!
Oh, I wish he would agree.
COMMON AMERICAN ENGLISH EXCLAMATIONS

WHICH ARE SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE
Important: Take note of the exclamation opposite each exclamation!
(Note * denoted a spelling attempt)
Oh! (said in surprise, wonder, fear, or pain)

Oho! (said in surprise or in taunting)
Oh, well! (said when the speaker is resigned to the
circumstances)
Oh-oh! (said when something unfortunate has happened or is
about to happen)
Oh, no!
Oh, boy! (said in excitement or enthusiasm)

Ah! (said in admiration or satisfaction)
Aha! (said in satisfaction, pleasure, triumph, or sudden
comprehension)
Whew! * (said in relief or after the speaker has had a narrow
escape)
Ow! (said in pain)
Ouch! (said in pain)
Whoops! (said when the speaker drops something, stumbles, or
is otherwise clumsy)
Oops! (said when the speaker drops something, stumbles, or

is otherwise clumsy)
Hmmm! * (said when the speaker is thinking something over
examining something)
Mmmm! * (said when the speaker is eating especially tasty food)
Well! (said in surprise, as a preface to a remark, or to give
the speaker a chance to think)
Well, well! (said in mild surprise or when the speaker has
discovered something)
Indeed! (said in surprise, bitterness, doubt, or sarcasm)
Ugh! * (said in revulsion)

Yuck! * (said in revulsion)
Help! (an actual call for help or said in a humorous way
when the speaker experiencing some slight
difficulty)
Ahem! * (clearing the throat to get someone’s attention but
verges on the impolite)
Pssst! * (said when the speaker wants to call someone’s
attention)
Look out! (said as a warning to someone in danger)
Watch out! (said as a warning to someone in danger)
Watch in! (said as a mild warning or a sign of annoyance)
Say! (said when the speaker suddenly remembers

something or wants to call attention to
something)
Wow! (said in surprise or admiration)
Brrr! * (said when the speaker is very cold)
Gosh! (said in surprise)
Gee! (said in surprise)
Darn! (said in anger, annoyance, or disappointment)
Darn it! (said in anger, annoyance, or disappointment)
I’ll be darned! (said in surprise or annoyance
Note:
The following exclamations all have approximately the same meaning.

They are generally used by women and express surprise, astonishment,
fear, or consternation.
Heaven! For heaven’s sake! Goodness! For goodness

sakes!
Heaven forbid! For heaven’s My goodness! Mercy
sakes!
Good heavens! Land sakes! For goodness Mercy me!

sake!
Heaven help
us!
OTHER EXCLAMATIONS FREQUENTLY USED BY WOMEN
My! (said in surprise or admiration)

Oh, my! (said in surprise, admiration, or in a worried
fashion)
My, my! (said in surprise or in a worried fashion)
My word! (said in surprise or astonishment)
Well, I never! (said in amazement)
Eeek! * (said when the speaker is frightened by a mouse
or is in a similar frightening predicament)
Oh dear! (said when worried over some happenings)
In addition to using various exclamations, speaker of American English

may use the following pause forms in conversation:
Uh! * um *
The speaker sometimes inserts these forms between words or

phrases when pausing to think.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Almario, Ma. Concepcion “College English Grammar II” Manila Press Inc.
1982.
Brother H. Albert, F.S.C. et. al. “English Arts and Skills”. Revised Edition. New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1985.
Fernando, Jovita N., Habana, Pacita L., Cinco, Alicia L., “College Freshman
English”. Philippine Graphic Arts Inc., 1973.
Gucker, Philip. Essential English Grammar. New York: Dover Publishing, Inc.,
1996
Manalo, Jose M., Ph. D., “Toward Competence in English Grammar”
Ramsay, M.A. A Guide to English Usage. Melbourne, Australia: Globe Press

LTD., 1986.
Ramos, Carmen M. & Sanchez, Amelia C. Developing Skills in Grammar and

Composition I. Navotas Printing Press, Metro Manila. 1986.
Seidle, Jennifer. Grammar in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1982.
Steward, Marie M. and Kenneth Zimmer. College English and Composition. 5th
Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1982.
INTRODUCTION
This book, “The Parts of Speech”, was designed to give the students
reference about the 8 parts of speech. It is well arranged and organized to
provide faster scanning for the students who are using it.
It can be characterized as user-friendly, making its readers enjoy while
grasping knowledge concerning the parts of speech. Languages and words
used in this book are simple enough to be understood by young readers and
it cites various examples for better understanding. =
By using nine (9) reliable references, the researcher had finished
compelling this book. It is so complete that you need not get another book
to research on.
The encoder used fonts large enough to be easily read and was printed
originally for better reading.
It offers the students a complete information concerning various parts
of speech such as kinds, uses, forms, positions and other beneficial
information in their study.
This is a good example of a reference book that can be used in all
levels of education from elementary, to highschool and up to college.
POSITION OF DIRECTION
In Before/In Front Of On Behind
Below/Under Beside By/Near
To
Up Down Above
By
From
Along With
Without

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NOUN

The Identifying “Name-Calling” Word

Person - April girl

Place - England country

Thing - Standard electric fan

Idea - philosophy argument

point of time - evening lunch

Traditional grammar defines a noun as the name of person, thing,

Words ending with the following suffixes are noun:

-ity - popularity, sanctity, enmity

Another big help in the recognition of nouns is an understanding of

1|April M. Bagon-Faeldan 2009

Simple form Singular & Plural Specialized

business business-businesses -stores or factory

cake a cake-cakes -cake of a special

candy a candy-candies -individual pieces

change a change-changes -alterations

company a company-companies -business

experience an experience -isolated experiences

glass a glass-glasses -receptacle for drinking

iron an iron-irons -household appliance for

lace a lace-laces -string for lacing

All underlined words in the passages below are nouns:

2|April M. Bagon-Faeldan 2009

Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers.

Lord Alfred Tennyson

Liberalism is trust of the people, tempered by prudence:

Major Kinds of Noun

1. Proper noun – names of particular persons, animals, places or things;

Person : Diego, Dianne, Jonas

2. Common noun- names that do not pertain to definite persons,

Person : father, mother, brother, sister

Minor Kinds of Noun

1. Collective noun – names classes or groups taken as one, or

Person : company of soldier, orchestra, band

3|April M. Bagon-Faeldan 2009

2. Abstract noun – name things that do not have physical existence. It

4. Mass or non-countable noun – name materials in general rather

a pack of cigarette a flash of lightning

5. Count noun – name things that can be counted individually.

bottle, can, book, card, television, pillow, motorcycle

6. Compound noun – nouns made up of two or more words. These

schoolboy, playground, saleslady, mailman, basketball

1. As a subject – noun is used is a part which something is said.

a. simple subject – noun used in subjection

Anna prepares a card for me.

b. compound subject – two noun used as a subject

Shyrel and Dhennis went to the library.

c. subject that does not always directly preceded the verb.

“Doggie”, Ana called.

2. As a direct object – the noun is written after a transitive verb

Jonathan loves books.

A. As indirect object – the noun is written before the direct object

I wrote Diana a letter.

B. As a subjective complement – the noun is written after the

Marie is a student of Bachelor of Science in Chemistry.

C. As objective complement – the noun can function as an

The couple named their baby, Joshua.

D. As appositive – the noun is written after another noun to identify

Arnold, the janitor, received a reward for his honesty

E. As nominative address – the noun is the person directly

Jeffrey, count your blessings.

5|April M. Bagon-Faeldan 2009

Proper nouns begin with capital letters, like: