10/21/2014 NatureAndScopeOfLawOfTortsAuthorLakshmiSomanathan

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NatureAndScopeOfLawOfTorts
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LakshmiSomanathan
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Introduction
Lawisanyruleofhumanconductacceptedbythesocietyandenforcedbythestateforthebettermentofhumanlife.Inawidersense
itincludesanyruleofhumanactionforexample,religious,social,politicalandmoralrulesofconduct.Howeveronlythoserulesof
conductofpersonswhichareprotectedandenforcedbythestatedoreallyconstitutethelawofthelandinitsstrictsense.According
toSalmondthelawconsistsofrulesrecognizedandactedonbycourtsofjustice.Theentirebodyoflawinastate(corpusjuris)may
bedividedintotwo,viz,civilandcriminal.

Civillaw:Thetermmaybeusedintwosenses.Inonesenseitindicatesthelawofaparticularstateasdistinctfromitsexternallaw
suchasinternationallaw.Ontheotherside,inarestrictedsensecivillawindicatestheproceedingsbeforecivilcourtswherecivil
liabilityofindividualsforwrongscommittedbythemandotherdisputesofacivilnatureamongthemareadjudicateduponand
decided.Civilwrongistheonewhichgivesrisetocivilproceedings,i.e.,proceedingswhichhavefortheirpurposetheenforcementof
somerightclaimedbytheplaintiffasagainstthedefendant.Forexample,anactionfortherecoveryofdebt,restitutionofproperty,
specificperformanceofacontractetc.hewhoproceedscivillyisaclaimantorplaintiffdemandingtheenforcementofsomeright
vestedinhimandtheremedyheseeksiscompensatoryorpreventiveinnature.
CriminalLaw:Criminallawsindicatetheproceedingsbeforethecriminalcourtswherethecriminalliabilityofpersonswhohave
committedwrongsagainstthestateandotherprohibitedactsaredetermined.Criminalproceedingsontheotherhandarethosewhich
havefortheirobjectthepunishmentofthewrongdoerforsomeactofwhichheisaccused.Hewhoproceedscriminallyisanaccuser
orprosecutordemandingnothingforhimbutmerelythepunishmentoftheaccusedfortheoffencecommittedbyhim.

DefinitionOfTort
ThetermtortistheFrenchequivalentoftheEnglishwordwrongandoftheRomanlawtermdelict.Thewordtortisderivedfromthe
Latinwordtortumwhichmeanstwistedorcrookedorwrongandisincontrasttothewordrectumwhichmeansstraight.Everyoneis
expectedtobehaveinastraightforwardmannerandwhenonedeviatesfromthisstraightpathintocrookedwayshehascommitteda
tort.Hencetortisaconductwhichistwistedorcrookedandnotstraight.AsatechnicaltermofEnglishlaw,torthasacquiredaspecial
meaningasaspeciesofcivilinjuryorwrong.ItwasintroducedintotheEnglishlawbytheNormanjurists.

Tortnowmeansabreachofsomedutyindependentofcontractgivingrisetoacivilcauseofactionandforwhichcompensationis
recoverable.Inspiteofvariousattemptsanentirelysatisfactorydefinitionoftortstillawaitsitsmaster.Ingeneralterms,atortmaybe
definedasacivilwrongindependentofcontractforwhichtheappropriateremedyisanactionforunliquidateddamages.Someother
definitionsfortortaregivenbelow:

WinfieldandJolowiczTortuousliabilityarisesfromthebreachofadutyprimarilyfixedbylawthisdutyistowardspersonsgenerally
anditsbreachisredressiblebyanactionforunliquidateddamages.

SalmondandHuestonAtortisacivilwrongforwhichtheremedyisacommonactionforunliquidateddamages,andwhichisnot
exclusivelythebreachofacontractorthebreachofatrustorothermereequitableobligation.

SirFrederickPollockEverytortisanactoromission(notbeingmerelythebreachofadutyarisingoutofapersonalrelation,or
undertakenbycontract)whichisrelatedinoneofthefollowingwaystoharm(includingreferencewithanabsoluteright,whetherthere
bemeasurableactualdamageornot),sufferedbyadeterminateperson:

a)Itmaybeanactwhich,withoutlawfuljustificationorexcuse,isintendedbytheagenttocauseharm,anddoescausetheharm
complainedof.
b)Itmaybeanactinitselfcontrarytolaw,oranomissionofspecificlegalduty,whichcausesharmnotintendedbythepersonso
actingoromitting.
c)Itmaybeanactviolationtheabsoluteright(especiallyrightsofpossessionorproperty),andtreatedaswrongfulwithoutregardto
theactorsintentionorknowledge.This,aswehaveseenisanartificialextensionofthegeneralconceptionswhicharecommonto
EnglishandRomanlaw.
d)Itmaybeanactoromissioncausingharmwhichthepersonsoactingoromittingtoactdidnotintendtocause,butmightand
shouldwithduediligencehaveforeseenandprevented.
e)Itmay,inspecialcases,consistmerelyinnotavoidingorpreventingharmwhichthepartywasboundabsolutelyorwithinlimits,to
avoidorprevent.

TheLawOfTortsInIndia
UndertheHindulawandtheMuslimlawtorthadamuchnarrowerconceptionthanthetortoftheEnglishlaw.Thepunishmentof
crimesinthesesystemsoccupiedamoreprominentplacethancompensationforwrongs.ThelawoftortsinIndiaismainlythe
EnglishlawoftortswhichitselfisbasedontheprinciplesofthecommonlawofEngland.ThiswasmadesuitabletotheIndian
conditionsappeasingtotheprinciplesofjustice,equityandgoodconscienceandasamendedbytheActsofthelegislature.Itsorigin
islinkedwiththeestablishmentofBritishcourtsinIndia.

Theexpressionjustice,equityandgoodconsciencewasinterpretedbythePrivyCounciltomeantherulesofEnglishLawiffound
applicabletoIndiansocietyandcircumstances.TheIndiancourtsbeforeapplyinganyruleofEnglishlawcanseewhetheritissuited
totheIndiansocietyandcircumstances.TheapplicationoftheEnglishlawinIndiahasthereforebeenaselectiveapplication.Onthis
thePrivyCouncilhasobservedthattheabilityofthecommonlawtoadaptitselftothedifferingcircumstancesofthecountrieswhereit
hastakenrootsisnotaweaknessbutoneofitsstrengths.Further,inapplyingtheEnglishlawonaparticularpoint,theIndiancourts
arenotrestrictedtocommonlaw.IfthenewrulesofEnglishstatutelawreplacingormodifyingthecommonlawaremorein
consonancewithjustice,equityandgoodconscience,itisopenothecourtsinIndiatorejecttheoutmodedrulesofcommonlawand
toapplythenewrules.Forexample,theprinciplesofEnglishstatute,theLawReform(ContributoryNegligence)Act,1945,havebeen
appliedinIndiaalthoughthereisstillnocorrespondingActenactedbyParliamentinIndia.

ThedevelopmentinIndianlawneednotbeonthesamelinesasinEngland.InM.C.Mehtav.UnionofIndia,JusticeBhagwatisaid,
wehavetoevolvenewprinciplesandlaydownnewnormswhichwilladequatelydealwithnewproblemswhichariseinahighly
industrializedeconomy.WecannotallowourjudicialthinkingtobeconstructedbyreferencetothelawasitprevailsinEnglandorfor
thematterofthatinanyforeigncountry.Wearecertainlypreparedtoreceivelightfromwhateversourceitcomesbutwehavetobuild
ourownjurisprudence.

Ithasalsobeenheldthatsection9ofTheCodeofCivilProcedure,whichenablesthecivilcourttotryallsuitsofacivilnature,
impliedlyconfersjurisdictiontoapplytheLawofTortsasprinciplesofjustice,equityandgoodconscience.Thusthecourtcandraw
uponitsinherentpowersundersection9fordevelopingthisfieldofliability.

InamorerecentjudgementofJayLaxmiSaltWorks(p)ltd.v.StateofGujarat,Sahai,J.,observed:trulyspeakingtheentirelawof
tortsisfoundedandstructuredonmorality.Therefore,itwouldbeprimitivetoclosestrictlyorclosefinallytheeverexpandingand
growinghorizonoftortuousliability.Evenforsocialdevelopment,orderlygrowthofthesocietyandculturalrefinenesstheliberal
approachtotortiousliabilitybycourtwouldbeconducive.

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NatureOfTorts
A.Tortandcrime
Historicallytorthaditsrootsincriminalprocedure.Eventodaythereisapunitiveelementinsomeaspectsoftherulesondamages.
Howevertortisaspeciesifcivilinjuryorwrong.Thedistinctionbetweencivilandcriminalwrongsdependsonthenatureofthe
remedyprovidedbylaw.Acivilwrongisonewhichgivesrisetocivilproceedings.Acivilproceedingconcernswiththeenforcementof
somerightclaimedbytheplaintiffasagainstthedefendantwhereascriminalproceedingshavefortheirobjectthepunishmentofthe
defendantforsomeactofwhichheisaccused.Sometimesthesamewrongiscapableofbeingmadethesubjectofproceedingsof
bothkinds.Forexampleassault,libel,theft,maliciousinjurytopropertyetc.insuchcasesthewrongdoermaybepunishedcriminally
andalsocompelledinacivilactiontomakecompensationorrestitution.
Noteverycivilwrongisatort.Acivilwrongmaybelabeledasatortonlywheretheappropriateremedyforitisanactionfor
unliquidateddamages.Thusforexample,publicnuisanceisnotatortmerelybecausethecivilremedyofinjunctionmaybeavailable
atthesuitoftheattorneygeneral,butonlyinthoseexceptionalcasesinwhichaprivatepersonmayrecoverdamagesforloss
sustainedbyhiminconsequencethereof.Howeverithastobeborninmindthatapersonisliableintortirrespectiveofwhetherornot
anactionfordamageshasbeengivenagainsthim.Thepartyisliablefromthemomenthecommitsthetort.Althoughanactionfro
damagesisanessentialmarkoftortanditscharacteristicremedy,theremaybeandoftenotherremediesalso.

A.1.Differencebetweencrimeandtort
Beingacivilinjury,tortdiffersfromcrimeinallrespectsinwhichacivilremedydiffersfromacriminalone.Therearecertainessential
marksofdifferencebetweencrimeandtorttheyare:
#Tortisaninfringementorprivationofprivateorcivilrightsbelongigngtoindividuals,whereascrimeisabreachofpublicrightsand
dutieswhichaffectthewholecommunity.
#Intortthewrongdoerhastocompensatetheinjuredpartywhereasincrime,heispunishedbythestateintheinterestofthe
society.
#Intorttheactionisbroughtaboutbytheinjuredpartywhereasincrimetheproceedingsareconductedinthenameofthestate.
#Intortdamagesarepaidforcompensatingtheinjuredandincrimeitispaidoutofthefinewhichispaidasapartofpunishment.
Thustheprimarypurposeofawrdingcompensationinacriminalprosecutionispunitiveratherthancompensatory.
#Thedamagesintortareunliquidatedandincrimetheyareliquidated.

A.2.Resemblancebetweencrimeandtort
Thereishoweverasimilaritybetweentortandcrimeataprimarylevel.Incriminallawtheprimaryduty,nottocommitanoffence,for
examplemurder,likeanyprimarydutyintortisinremandisimposedbylaw.Thesamesetofcircumstanceswillinfact,fromone
pointofview,constituteacrimeand,fromanotherpointofview,atort.Forexampleeverymanhastherightthathisbodilysafetyshall
berespected.Henceinanassault,thesuffererisentitledtogetdamages.Also,theactofassaultisamenacetothesocietyand
hencewillbepunishedbythestate.Howeverwherethesamewrongisbothacrimeandatortitstwoaspectsarenotidentical.Firstly,
itsdefinitionasacrimeandatortmaydifferandsecondly,thedefencesavailableforbothcrimeandtortmaydiffer.

Thewrongdoermaybeorderedinacivilactiontopaycompensationandbealsopunishedcriminallybyimprisonmentorfine.Ifa
personpublishesadefamatoryarticleaboutanotherinanewspaper,bothacriminalprosecutionforlibelaswellasacivilaction
claimingdamagesforthedefamatorypublicationmaybetakenagainsthim.InP.Rathinam.v.UnionofIndia,theSupremeCourt
observed,Inawaythereisnodistinctionbetweencrimeandatort,inasmuchasatortharmsanindividualwhereasacrimeis
supposedtoharmasociety.Butthen,asocietyismadeofindividuals.Harmtoanindividualisultimatelytheharmtothesociety.

Therewasacommonlawrulethatwhenthetortwasalsoafelony,theoffenderwouldnotbesuedintortunlesshehasbeen
prosecutedinfelony,orelseareasonableexcusehadtobeshownforhisnonprosecution.ThisrulehasnotbeenfollowedinIndia
andhasbeenabolishedinEngland.

B.Tortandcontract
ThedefinitiongivenbyP.H.Winfieldclearlybringsaboutthedistinctionbetweentortandcontract.Itsays,Tortuousliabilityarises
fromthebreachofadutyprimarilyfixedbylawthisdutyistowardspersonsgenerallyanditsbreachisredressiblebyanactionfor
unliquidateddamages.Acontractisthatspeciesofagreementwherebyalegalobligationisconstitutedanddefinedbetweenthe
partiestoit.Itisalegalrelationship,thenature,contentandconsequenceofwhicharedeterminedanddefinedbytheagreement
betweentheparties.AccordingtoSalmond,acontractarisesoutoftheexerciseoftheautonomouslegislativeauthorityentrustedby
thelawtoprivatepersonstodeclareanddefinethenatureofmutualrightsandobligations.

Atthepresentday,tortandcontractaredistinguishedfromoneanotherinthat,thedutiesintheformerareprimarilyfixedbylawwhile
inthelattertheyarefixedbythepartiesthemselves.Agreementisthebasisforallcontractualobligations.Peoplecannotcreate
tortiousliabilitybyagreement.ThusIamunderadutynottoassaultyou,nottoslanderyou,nottotrespassuponyourlandbecause
thelawsaysthatIamundersuchdutyandnotbecauseIhaveagreedwithyoutoundertakesuchduty.

Someofthedistinctionsbetweentortandcontractaregivenbelow:
#Atortisinflictedagainstorwithoutconsentacontractisfoundeduponconsent.

#Intortnoprivityisneeded,butitisnecessarilyimpliedinacontract.

#Atortisaviolationinrem(rightvestedinsomepersonandavailableagainsttheworldatlarge.)abreachofcontractisan
infringementofarightinpersonam(rightavailableagainstsomedeterminatepersonorbody).

#Motiveisoftentakenintoconsiderationintort,butitisimmaterialinabreachofcontract.

#Intortthemeasureofdamagesisnotstrictlylimitednorisitcapableofbeingindicatedwithprecisioninabreachofcontractthe
measureofdamagesisgenerallymoreorlessnearlydeterminedbythestipulationsoftheparties.

Incertaincasesthesameincidentmaygiverisetoliabilitybothincontractandintort.Forexample,whenapassengerwhilsttraveling
withaticketisinjuredowingtothenegligenceoftherailwaycompany,thecompanyisliableforawrongwhichisbothatortanda
breachofacontract.

Thecontractualdutymaybeowedtoonepersonandthedutyindependentofthatcontracttoanother.Thesurgeonwhoiscalledbya
fathertooperatehisdaughterowesacontractualdutytothefathertotakecare.Ifhefailsinthatdutyheisalsoliableforatortagainst
thedaughter.InAustinv.G.W.Railway,awomanandherchildweretravelinginthedefendantstrainandthechildwasinjuredby
defendantsnegligence.Thechildwasheldentitledtorecoverdamages,forithadbeenacceptedaspassenger.

ThereisawellestablisheddoctrineofPrivityofContractunderwhichnooneexceptthepartiestoitcansueforabreachofit.
Formerlyitwasthoughtthatthisprincipleoflawofcontractalsopreventedanyactionbeingbroughtundertortuousliability.Butthis
fallacywasexplodedbytheHouseofLordsinthecelebratedcaseofDonoghuev.Stevenson.Inthatcaseamanufacturerofginger
beerhadsoldtoaretailer,gingerbeerinabottleofdarkglass.Thebottle,unknowntoanyone,containedthedecomposedremainsof
asnailwhichhadfounditswaytothebottleatthefactory.Xpurchasedthebottlefromtheretailerandtreatedtheplaintiff,alady
friend(theultimateconsumer),toitscontents.Inconsequencepartlyofwhatshesawandpartlyofwhatshehaddrunk,shebecame
veryill.Shesuedthemanufacturerfornegligence.Thiswas,ofcourse,nocontractualdutyonthepartofthemanufacturertowards
her,butamajorityoftheHouseofLordsheldthatheowedadutytotakecarethatthebottledidnotcontainnoxiousmatterandthat
hewasliableifthatdutywasbroken.

ThejudicialcommitteeofthePrivyCouncilaffirmedtheprincipleofDonoghuescaseinGrantv.AustralianKnittingMillsLtd.Thus
contractualliabilityiscompletelyirrelevanttotheexistenceofliabilityintort.Thesamefactsmaygiverisetoboth.
Anotherdiscrepancybetweencontractsandtortsisseeninthenatureofdamagesundereach.Incontractstheplaintiffwillbe
claimingliquidateddamageswhereasintortshewillbeclaimingunliquidateddamages.Whenapersonhasfiledasuitorputaclaim
fortherecoveryofapredeterminedandfixedsumofmoneyheissaidtohaveclaimedliquidateddamages.Ontheotherhandwhen
hehasfiledasuitfortherealizationofsuchamountasthecourtinitsdiscretionmayaward,heisdeemedtohaveclaimed
unliquidateddamages.

C.TortandQuasiContract
Quasicontractcoverthosesituationswhereapersonisheldliabletoanotherwithoutanyagreement,formoneyorbenefitreceivedby
himtowhichtheotherpersonisbetterentitled.AccordingtotheOrthodoxviewthejudicialbasisfortheobligationunderaquasi
contractistheexistenceofahypotheticalcontractwhichisimpliedbylaw.ButtheRadicalviewisthattheobligationinaquasi

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contractissuigenerisanditsbasisispreventionofunjustenrichment.

Quasicontractdiffersfromtortinthat:
#Thereisnodutyowedtopersonsforthedutytorepaymoneyorbenefitreceivedunliketort,wherethereisadutyimposed.
#Inquasicontractthedamagesrecoverableareliquidateddamages,andnotunliquidateddamagesasintort.

Quasicontractsresemblestortanddiffersfromcontractsinoneaspect.Theobligationinquasicontractandintortisimposedbylaw
andnotunderanyagreement.Inyetanotherdimensionquasicontractdiffersfrombothtortandcontract.If,forexample,Apaysa
sumofmoneybymistaketoB.inQuasicontract,Bisundernodutynottoacceptthemoneyandthereisonlyasecondarydutyto
returnit.Whileinbothtortandcontract,thereisaprimarydutythebreachofwhichgivesrisetoremedialdutytopaycompensation.

ConstituentsOfTort.
Thelawoftortsisfashionedasaninstrumentformakingpeopleadheretothestandardsofreasonablebehaviourandrespectthe
rightsandinterestsofoneanother.Thisitdoesbyprotectinginterestsandbyprovidingforsituationswhenapersonwhoseprotected
interestisviolatedcanrecovercompensationforthelosssufferedbyhimfromthepersonwhohasviolatedthesame.Byinteresthere
ismeantaclaim,wantordesireofahumanbeingorgroupofhumanbeingsseekstosatisfy,andofwhich,thereforetheorderingof
humanrelationsincivilizedsocietymusttakeaccount.Itishowever,obviousthateverywantordesireofapersoncannotbe
protectednorcanapersonclaimthatwheneverhesufferslossheshouldbecompensatedbythepersonwhoistheauthoroftheloss.
Thelaw,therefore,determineswhatinterestsneedprotectionanditalsoholdsthebalancewhenthereisaconflictofprotected
interests.

Everywrongfulactisnotatort.Toconstituteatort,
#Theremustbeawrongfulactcommittedbyaperson
#Thewrongfulactmustbeofsuchanatureastogiverisetoalegalremedyand
#Suchlegalremedymustbeintheformofanactionforunliquidateddamages.

I.WrongfulAct
Anactwhichprimafacielooksinnocentmaybecomestortious,ifitinvadesthelegalrightofanotherperson.InRogersv.Ranjendro
Dutt,thecourtheldthat,theactcomplainedofshould,underthecircumstances,belegallywrongful,asregardstheparty
complaining.Thatis,itmustprejudiciallyaffecthiminsomelegalrightmerelythatitwillhoweverdirectly,dohimharminhisinterest
isnotenough.

Alegalright,asdefinedbyAustin,isafacultywhichresidesinadeterminatepartyorpartiesbyvirtueofagivenlaw,andwhichavails
againstaparty(orpartiesoranswerstoadutylyingonapartyorparties)otherthanthepartyorpartiesinwhomitresides.Rights
availableagainsttheworldatlargeareverynumerous.Theymaybedividedagainintopublicrightsandprivaterights.Toeveryright,
correspondsalegaldutyorobligation.Thisobligationconsistsinperformingsomeactorrefrainingfromperforminganact.

Liabilityfortortarises,thereforewhenthewrongfulactcomplainedofamountseithertoaninfringementofalegalprivaterightora
breachorviolationofalegalduty.

II.Damage
Ingeneral,atortconsistsofsomeactdonebyapersonwhocausesinjurytoanother,forwhichdamagesareclaimedbythelatter
againsttheformer.Inthisconnectionwemusthaveaclearnotionwithregardtothewordsdamageanddamages.Theworddamage
isusedintheordinarysenseofinjuryorlossordeprivationofsomekind,whereasdamagesmeanthecompensationclaimedbythe
injuredpartyandawardedbythecourt.Damagesareclaimedandawardedbythecourttotheparties.Thewordinjuryisstrictly
limitedtoanactionablewrong,whiledamagemeanslossorharmoccurringinfact,whetheractionableasaninjuryornot.

Therealsignificanceofalegaldamageisillustratedbytwomaxims,namely,DamnumSineInjuriaandInjuriaSineDamno.

(i)DamnumSineInjuria(DamageWithoutInjury)
Therearemanyactswhichthoughharmfularenotwrongfulandgivenorightofactiontohimwhosuffersfromtheireffects.Damage
sodoneandsufferediscalledDamnumSineInjuriaordamagewithoutinjury.Damagewithoutbreachofalegalrightwillnot
constituteatort.Theyareinstancesofdamagesufferedfromjustifiableacts.Anactoromissioncommittedwithlawfuljustificationor
excusewillnotbeacauseofactionthoughitresultsinharmtoanotherasacombinationinfurtheranceoftradeinterestorlawfuluser
ofonesownpremises.InGloucesterGrammarSchoolMasterCase,ithadbeenheldthattheplaintiffschoolmasterhadnorightto
complainoftheopeningofanewschool.Thedamagesufferedwasmeredamnumabsqueinjuriaordamagewithoutinjury.Actonv.
Blundell,inwhichamillownerdrainedoffundergroundwaterrunningintotheplaintiffswell,fullyillustratethatnoactionliesfromere
damage,howeversubstantial,causedwithouttheviolationofsomeright.

Therearemoralwrongsforwhichthelawgivesnoremedy,thoughtheycausegreatlossordetriment.Losordetrimentisnotagood
groundofactionunlessitistheresultofaspeciesofwrongofwhichthelawtakesnocognizance.

(ii)InjuriaSineDamno(injurywithoutdamage)
Thismeansaninfringementofalegalprivaterightwithoutanyactuallossordamage.Insuchacasethepersonwhoserighthasbeen
infringedhasagoodcauseofaction.Itisnotnecessaryforhimtoproveanyspecialdamagebecauseeveryinjuryimportsadamage
whenamaninhinderedofhisright.Everypersonhasanabsoluterighttoproperty,totheimmunityofhisperson,andtohisliberty,
andaninfringementofthisrightisactionableperse.actualperceptibledamageisnot,therefore,essentialasthefoundationofan
action.Itissufficienttoshowtheviolationofarightinwhichcasethelawwillpresumedamage.Thusincasesofassault,battery,
falseimprisonment,libel,trespassonland,etc.,themerewrongfulactisactionablewithoutproofofspecialdamage.Thecourtis
boundtoawardtotheplaintiffatleastnominaldamagesifnoactualdamageisproved.Thisprinciplewasfirmlyestablishedbythe
electioncaseofAshbyv.White,inwhichtheplaintiffwaswrongfullypreventedfromexercisinghisvotebythedefendants,returning
officersinparliamentaryelection.Thecandidatefrowhomtheplaintiffwantedtogivehisvotehadcomeoutsuccessfulintheelection.
Stilltheplaintiffbroughtanactionclaimingdamagesagainstthedefendantsformaliciouslypreventinghimfromexercisinghis
statutoryrightofvotinginthatelection.TheplaintiffwasalloweddamagesbyLordHoltsayingthattherewastheinfringementofa
legalrightvestedintheplaintiff.

III.Remedy
Thelawoftortsissaidtobeadevelopmentofthemaximubijusibiremediumorthereisnowrongwithoutaremedy.Ifamanhasa
right,hemustofnecessityhaveameanstovindicateandmaintainitandaremedyifheisinjuredintheexerciseorenjoymentofit
andindeeditisavainthingtoimaginearightwithoutremedywantofrightandwantofremedyarereciprocal.

Wherethereisnolegalremedythereisnowrong.Butevensotheabsenceofaremedyisevidencebutisnotconclusivethatnoright
exists.

SomeGeneralConditionsInTorts
1.ActAndOmissionToconstituteatorttheremustbeawrongfulact,whetherofomissionorcommission,butnotsuchactsasare
beyondhumancontrolandasareentertainedonlyinthoughts.Anomissionisgenerallynotactionablebutitissoexceptionally.
Wherethereisadutytoactanomissionmaycreateliability.Afailuretorescueadrowningchildisnotactionable,butitissowhere
thechildisonesown.Apersonwhovoluntarilycommencesrescuecannotleaveithalftheway.Apersonmaybeunderdutyto
controlnaturalhappeningstohisownlandsoastopreventthemfromencroachingothersland.

2.VoluntaryandInvoluntaryActsavoluntaryacthastobedistinguishedfromaninvoluntaryactbecausetheformermayinvolve
liabilityandthelattermaynot.Aselfwilledactlikeanencroachmentfrobusiness,isvoluntary,butanencroachmentforsurvivalmay
beinvoluntary.Thewrongfulnessoftheactandtheliabilityforitdependsuponlegalappreciationofthesurroundingcircumstances.

3.Malicemaliceisnotessentialtothemaintenanceofanactionfortort.Itisoftwokinds,expressmalice(ormaliceinfactoractual
malice)andmaliceinlaw(orimpliedmalice).Thefirstiswhatiscalledmaliceincommonacceptanceandmeansillwillagainsta
personthesecondmeansawrongfulactdoneintentionallywithoutjustcauseorexcuse.Whereamanhasarighttodoanact,itis
notpossibletomakehisexerciseofsuchrightactionablebyallegingorprovingthathismotiveintheexercisewasspiteormalicein
thepopularsense.Anact,nototherwiseunlawful,cannotgenerallybemadeactionablebyanavermentthatitwasdonewithevil
motive.Amaliciousmotivepersedoesnotamounttoinjuriaorlegalwrong.

Wrongfulactsofwhichmaliceisanessentialelementare:

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#Defamation,
#Maliciousprosecution,
#Willfulandmaliciousdamagetoproperty,
#Maintenance,and
#Slanderoftitle.

4.Intention,motive,negligenceandrecklessnessTheobligationtomakereparationfordamagecausedbyawrongfulactarisesfrom
thefaultandnotfromtheintention.Anyinvasionofthecivilrightsofanotherpersonisinitselfalegalwrong,carryingwithitliabilityto
repairitnecessaryornaturalconsequences,insofarastheseareinjurioustothepersonwhoserightisinfringed,whetherthemotive
whichprompteditbegood,badorindifferent.Athingwhichisnotalegalinjuryorwrongisnotmadeactionablebybeingdonewitha
badintent.Itisnodefencetoanactionintortforthewrongdoertopleadthathedidnotintendtocausedamage,ifdamagehas
resultedowingtoanactoromissiononhispartwhichisactivelyorpassivelytheeffectofhisvolition.Awantofknowledgeofthe
illegalityofhisactoromissionaffordsnoexcuse,exceptwherefraudormaliceistheessenceofthatactoromission.Foreveryman
ispresumedtointendandtoknowthenaturalandordinaryconsequencesofhisacts.Thispresumptionisnotrebuttedmerelyby
proofthathedidnotthinkoftheconsequencesorhopedorexpectedthattheywouldnotfollow.Thedefendantwillbeliableforthe
naturalandnecessaryconsequencesofhisact,whetherheinfactcontemplatedthemornot.

5.Malfeasance,misfeasanceandnonfeasancethetermmalfeasanceappliestothecommissionofanunlawfulact.Itisgenerally
applicabletothoseunlawfulacts,suchastrespass,whichareactionableperseanddonotrequireproofofnegligenceormalice.The
termmisfeasanceisapplicabletoimproperperformanceofsomelawfulact.Thetermnonfeasanceappliestothefailureor
omissiontoperformsomeactwhichthereisanobligationtoperform.

6.Faultliabilityfortortgenerallydependsuponsomethingdonebyamanwhichcanberegardedasafaultfrothereasonthatit
violatesanothermansright.Butliabilitymayalsoarisewithoutfault.Suchliabilityisknownasabsoluteorstrictliability.Animportant
exampleistheruleinRylandsv.Fletcherthusthetwoextremesofthelawoftortareofnonliabilityevenwherethereisfaultorliability
withoutfault.Betweenthesetwoextremesisthevarietyofintentionalandnegligentwrongstothequestionwhetherthereisany
consistenttheoryofliability,allthatcanbesaidisthatitwhollydependsuponflexiblepublicpolicy,whichinturnisareflectionofthe
compellingsocialneedsofthetime.

GeneralPrinciplesOfLiability
Therearetwotheorieswithregardtothebasicprincipleofliabilityinthelawoftortsortort.Theyare:
#Widerandnarrowertheoryallinjuriesdonebyonepersontoanotheraretorts,unlessthereissomejustificationrecognizedbylaw.

#Pigeonholetheorythereisadefinitenumberoftortsoutsidewhichliabilityintortdoesnotexist.

ThefirsttheorywaspropoundedbyProfessorWinfield.Accordingtothis,ifIinjuremyneighbour,hecansuemeintort,whetherthe
wronghappenstohaveaparticularnamelikeassault,battery,deceitorslander,andIwillbeliableifIcannotprovelawfuljustification.
Thisleadstothewiderprinciplethatallunjustifiableharmsaretortious.Thisenablesthecourtstocreatenewtortsandmake
defendantsliableirrespectiveofanydefectinthepleadingoftheplaintiff.Thistheoryresemblesthesaying,mydutyistohurtnobody
bywordordeed.ThistheoryissupportedbyPollockandcourtshaverepeatedlyextendedthedomainofthelawoftorts.For
example,negligencebecameanewspecifictortonlybythe19thcenturyAD.Similarlytheruleofstrictliabilityfortheescapeof
noxiousthingsfromonespremiseswaslaiddownin1868intheleadingcaseifRylandsv.Fletcher.

ThesecondtheorywasproposedbySalmond.ItresemblestheTenCommandmentsgiventoMosesinthebible.Accordingtothis
theory,IcaninjuremyneighbourasmuchasIlikewithoutfearofhissuingmeintortprovidedmyconductdoesnotfallunderthe
rubricofassault,deceit,slanderoranyothernominatetort.Thelawoftortconsistsofaneatsetofpigeonholes,eachcontaininga
labeledtort.Ifthedefendantswrongdoesnotfitanyofthesepigeonholeshehasnotcommittedanytort.
TheadvocatesofthefirsttheoryarguethatdecisionssuchasDonoghuev.Stevensonshowsthatthelawoftortissteadilyexpanding
andthattheideaofitsbeingcribbed,cabinedandconfinedinasetofpigeonholesinuntenable.Howeversalmondarguesinfavour
ofhistheorythatjustascriminallawconsistsofabodyofrulesestablishingspecificoffences,sothelawoftortsconsistsofabodyof
rulesestablishingspecificinjuries.Neitherintheonecasenorintheotheristhereanygeneralprincipleofliability.WhetherIam
prosecutedfroanallegedoffenceorsuedfroanallegedtortitisformyadversarytoprovethatthecasefallswithinsomespecificand
establishedruleofliabilityandnotfroformetodefendmyselfbyprovingthatitiswithinsomespecificandestablishedruleof
justificationorexcuse.ForsalmondthelawmustbecalledTheLawofTortsratherthatTheLawofTort.

Thereis,however,norecognitionofeithertheory.Itwouldseemmorerealisticfrothestudenttoapproachthetortiousliabilityfroma
middleground.InanIndiandecision,LalaPunnalalv.KasthurichandRamaji,itwaspointedoutthatthereisnothinglikean
exhaustiveclassificationoftortsbeyondwhichcourtsshouldnotproceed,thatnewinvasionofrightsdevisedbyhumaningenuity
mightgiverisetonewclassesoftorts.Onthewholeifweareaskedtoexpressourpreferencebetweenthetwotheories,inthelightof
recentdecisionsofcompetentcourtswewillhavetochoosethefirsttheoryofliabilitythatthesubsequentone.Thusitisamatterof
interpretationofcourtssoastoselectbetweenthetwotheories.Thelawoftortshasinthemainbeendevelopedbycourtsproceeding
fromthesimpleproblemsofprimitivesocietytothoseofourpresentcomplexcivilization.

Conclusion
Thustoconclude,lawoftortsisabranchoflawwhichresemblesmostoftheotherbranchesincertainaspects,butisessentially
differentfromtheminotherrespects.Althoughtherearedifferencesinopinionamongthedifferentjuristsregardingtheliabilityintorts,
thelawhasbeendevelopedandhasmadefirmrootsinthelegalshowground.Therearewelldefinedelementsandconditionsof
liabilityintortlaw.

Thisboughoflawenablesthecitizensofastatetoclaimredressalfortheminorormajordamagecausedtothem.Thusthelawhas
gainedmuchconfidenceamongthelaymen.

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10/21/2014 NatureAndScopeOfLawOfTortsAuthorLakshmiSomanathan
FindAlawyer:DelhiKolkataMumbaiChennaiBangaloreHyderabadAllahabadPuneAhmedabadNagpur
CochinChandigarhGurgaonJaipurLudhiana

Theauthorcanbereachedat:lakshmisomanathan@legalserviceindia.com/ PrintThisArticle

106comments Addacomment

ManiSharma TopCommenterRajasthanUniversity
AnHcjudgeinTamilnadudisposes5005andaSubJudgeinKeraladisposes2575casesperyear.Ifthisrateisappliedthere
are7500subJudgesand272HCJudgessurplusinIndia.thereisnopolicyforJudgespostshencetheJudiciaryhasbeen
functioninginaHighhandedandarbitrarymanner.Onemaysayinadequateoradequateifanyatransparentpolicyforcreationof
posts.Sincethereisnosuchpolicyhencenoinadequacy.Acaseofrapeandmurderon26.12.12wasdecidedon5.2.13.Then
whyothersaredelayed.Isitequalitybeforejusticeoradramainthenameofjusticetodupeandextractpeople.
ReplyLike 8June15at5:24am

AsishKumarBeheraActivistatWakeUpMyIndiawithASHP
weneedjurysystem

..
ReplyLikeJuly24at12:04pm

BalaSubramanian
Agreed.OurJudicialsystemneedscompletereorientation.Thereshouldbemoretransparencyinappointmentof
Judges.ThewordsofParkinson"delayisdeadliestformofdenial'holdsgoodintheworkingofJudiciary.
ReplyLikeOctober9at9:56pm

JoelSebastianStAntony'sPublicSchoolSAPS
idon'tagreewithyourlastview...Theamplitudeandveracityofeachcasesdifferfromeachother...itisthedutyofthe
judiciarytogobeyondreasonability...
ReplyLike9hoursago

DevYatiChairmanatJurisDelhi
Merelydisposalorjusticeisthebigquestion
Thejudgesshouldnotkeentodisposethecasesbuttheirmainsimshouldbetodothejustice
ReplyLikeOctober19at7:24am

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