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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
1
Mechanical Behavior/Properties of Materials
3
Stress States
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
F
5
PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
7
Tensile Testing Setup (1)
Tensile testing requires a
stiff testing frame and
control, and a setup for
measurement of
displacement
9
Tensile Testing Setup (3)
Ft
s
Ao
original area * Shear Stress
before loading Stress has units: Parallel to Area
N/m2 or MPa
Lo
wo
/2
L/2 L/2
Shear strain:
q/2
/2 q/2
13
Tensile Testing
Force
The Engineering Stress vs
Strain curve has the same Yielding/
shape as the Force vs Plastic Deformation
Displacement curve; only
normalized with respect to
Elastic Behavior
original area and length
Displacement
14
Elastic Deformation: s-e Behavior
For most materials, at low level of stresses, Stress
and Strain are proportional:
s e and s = E e (Hookes Law)
Constant of proportionality E is the Modulus of
Elasticity or Youngs Modulus
For most typical metals E ranges from 45 to 400 GPa
Modulus can be thought of as STIFFNESS or a
material's resistance to elastic deformation
The modulus is an important design parameter used
for computing elastic deformations
15
Elastic Behaviour-Linear
Elastic deformation is
Stress
recoverable.
In most materials, elastic
deformation is linear. Unload
In some materials, elastic
deformation is non-linear
Slope = modulus
of elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity, E s=Ee
(also known as Young's modulus)
Load Hooke's Law
Units GPa
Strain
16
Elastic Behaviour-Non-Linear
For some materials the initial elastic portion of stress-
strain curve is non-linear
For this non-linear behavior tangent or secant modulus is
normally used
17
Effect of Temperature
and Melting Point on Modulus
18
YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete
109 Pa GFRE*
Based on data in Table B2,
20
CFRE* Callister 6e.
10 Graphite GFRE( fibers)* Composite data based on
8 CFRE( fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
6 AFRE( fibers)*
Polyester of aligned
4 PET carbon (CFRE),
PS
2 PC Epoxy only aramid (AFRE), or
PP
glass (GFRE)
1 HDPE fibers.
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE
19
Poissons Ratio
Tensile strain causes lateral
contraction in addition to
elastic elongation
This is given by Poissons
Ratio, .
lateral strain
-
tensile strain
ex ey
- -
ez ez
Poisson's ratio, n:
metals: n ~ 0.33 Units:
ceramics: ~0.25 n: dimensionless
polymers: ~0.40 20
Other Elastic Properties
t M
Elastic Shear G
modulus, G: Simple
1 g Torsion
t=Gg Test
Elastic Bulk M
modulus, K:
P
P P
Pressure
Vo Test
22
Plastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation Permanent or Non-recoverable
Deformation
Elastic deformation for (most metallic materials) only to
strain of about 0.002
Normally a curvature in Stress-Strain curve occurs at
the onset of plastic deformation
ON ATOMIC SCALE: Plastic deformation involves
breaking and reforming of bonds
25
Yield Strength Comparison
sy(ceramics)
>>sy(metals)
>> sy(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
26
Tensile Testing
27
Tensile Strength (TS)
After yielding the stress required to continue plastic
deformation increases to a maximum point called the Tensile
Strength (also called UTS or ultimate tensile strength)
It is the maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in
tension: If this stress is applied and maintained fracture will
take place
Before the maximum point the deformation is UNIFORM over
the whole specimen
At Maximum Stress a NECK begin to form at some point and
all the subsequent deformation is confined to neck
Tensile strength varies from 50-300 MPa for metals
Normally yield strength is used for design purposes
28
Tensile Strength (TS)
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
30
Engineering Stress and Strain
31
True Stress and True Strain
32
Work or Strain Hardening
An increase in yield or flow Stress
stress due to plastic deformation
Work hardening can be True Stress/Strain
expressed as:
s t Ke t n
34
Ductility (%EL)
L f - Lo
Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL x100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress, s Larger %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
36
Toughness
37
1. TOUGHNESS (using area under s-e curve)
smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers
38
2. TOUGHNESS (using Impact Test)
Impact Test:
Useful to measure toughness at high
strain rate with notch (or point of
stress concentration)
Standard Notched Specimen
Charpy and Izod Impact Testing
Machine
Steel
Fracture Energy
Aluminium
40
Hardness Testing
There are several common
types of hardness tests
The hardness test gives a
measure of strength and wear
resistance
Large hardness means:
resistance to plastic
deformation or cracking in
compression
better wear properties
The hardness is also affected
by work hardening of the
material around the
indentation Hardness Testers
41
Hardness Testing Basics
Earlier Hardness Tests were qualitative with the harder material defined as
one which can scratch the softer
Mohs scale was later defined with 1 for talc (soft) and 10 for Diamond (hard)
Current techniques involve small indenter forced in the surface of specimen
under controlled condition of load and rate of application
Measured hardness are only relative (rather than absolute) and care should be
exercised comparing values from different techniques
42
43
Rockwell Hardness Tests
Constitute the most common test used to measure hardness because it is
simple, requires no special skills and all kinds of materials can be tested
Rockwell Test consists of:
Diamond Cone or Steel Sphere (1/16, 1/8, , & in)
Indentation load depends on scale (15kg to 150kg)
A hardness number is determined from the depth of penetration or
indentation from the application of an initial minor load followed
by the larger major load (utilizing minor load improves accuracy)
Minor load can be 10 Kg and major load can be 60, 100 and 150 Kg
80 HRB represent Rockwell hardness of 80 on B scale
Inaccuracies can result for a thin specimen and when indentation is too
close to edge
For accuracy: The specimen thickness should be at least 10 times the
indentation depth and the specimen edge should be three indentation
diameters from the place to be tested 44
Brinell Hardness Tests
In Brinell test a hard spherical indenter is forced into the
surface of the metal to be tested:
Diameter of indenter is10mm and is made of steel or
Tungsten Carbide
Indentation load P ranges form 500 to 3000Kg in 500 Kg
increments
The load is required to be maintained for a specified time (10-
30s)
The Brinell hardness number is a function of both the magnitude
of the load and the diameter resulting form the indentation
(formula is shown in Table)
The diameter is measured by a microscope and the appropriate
HB number is found by using a chart
45
Knoop and Vickers Microhardness Tests
In these tests a very small diamond indenter having a
pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface of the
specimen:
Applied loads are smaller than Rockwell and Brinell (1g to 1Kg)
Impression is measured by microscope and then converted into a
hardness number (see table for formulae)
The hardness number are designated as HK (Knoop) and HV
(Vickers)
47
Variability of Materials Properties
All Material Properties are variable
Measured materials properties are not exact quantities
Identical tensile samples (prepared from single bar of same
metal alloy) tested on same tensile testing machines will lead to
a range of Modulus of Elasticity, Yield Strength and Tensile
Strength values
The reasons include:
Difference in test method
Variations in fabrication procedure
Apparatus calibration
Inhomogeneities within the same lot of material
Slight compositional differences from lot to lot
48
Variability of Materials Properties
The statistical distribution of materials properties should
be measured and quoted
To get a single property, MEAN or AVERAGE quantities are
specified
The standard deviation or degree of scatter is also specified
=(520+512+515+522)/4
49
DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
Design uncertainties in calculating the magnitude of the
APPLIED LOAD and variability of MATERIAL PORPERTIES
mean that design allowance must be maintained to protect
against the unanticipated failure
sy
s working
N
50
Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod shown below.
Use a factor of safety of 5.
sy
s working
N
220,000N
5
d2 / 4
51
SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
52
Questions:
1. What is happening to the bonded metal atoms during
elastic deformation?
53
Answers
3. Student answers.
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