The Effect of Mass on the Impulse in Elastic Collisions

Joshua Ahearn and Abigail Gonzales

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center

Physics

11B

Mr. McMillian / Mrs. Cybulski / Mrs. Tallman

25 May 2016
 The Effect of Mass on the Impulse in Elastic Collisions
The purpose of this experiment was to understand how mass affects

momentum in an elastic collision. It was hypothesized that the highest mass of

0.3926 kg would cause the greatest change in momentum. This is important to

understand because sometimes a car accident is an elastic collision. Therefore,

understanding how they work and how the different masses of different vehicles

would affect them can help engineers develop better safety precautions that will

help people survive automobile accidents.

To carry out the experiment, two carts were placed onto an air track

equipped with Photogates attached to a LabQuest. Each cart had a rubber

bumper installed, and cart one was loaded with either 0.1926 kg of mass, 0.2926

kg of mass, or 0.3926 kg of mass. Cart one was then collided into cart two, and

the velocities of both carts were recorded, and the change in momentum was

calculated to determine what mass would have the greatest effect on the change

in momentum.

The changes in momentum were used as the data for two-sample t tests.

These were conducted between the lowest and standard mass, the standard and

highest mass, and the lowest and highest mass. The null hypotheses were that

the change in momentum would be the same for both masses and the alternate

hypotheses were that the higher mass would have a greater change in

momentum. After conducting these two-sample t tests, each one ended up

having a p-value of zero. This ultimately meant that the original hypothesis, or

that the highest mass of 0.3926 kg would cause the greatest change in

momentum, could be accepted.

 Table of Contents

Introduction.............................................................................................................1

Review of Literature................................................................................................3

Problem Statement.................................................................................................7

Experimental Design...............................................................................................8

Data and Observations.........................................................................................10

Data Analysis and Interpretation...........................................................................16

Conclusion..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Appendix A: Setting Up LabQuest........................................................................28

Appendix B: Equations for Momentum.................................................................29

Appendix C: Two-Sample t Test Sample Calculation...........................................30

Appendix D: Table B for determining P-Value from t-Score.................................31

Appendix E: Two-sample t Interval Sample Calculation.......................................32

Works Cited..........................................................................................................33
 Ahearn Gonzales 1

Introduction

Every day, approximately 3,287 people around the world die due to

injuries related to car crashes (Road Crash Statistics). Although technology

involving the safety of passengers in automobile crashes has greatly improved

over the years, the number of fatalities is still considerably high for something

that occurs so often. Momentum is important because it plays a significant role in

determining whether a crash will be fatal or not. The larger the vehicle and the

faster the speed, the higher the momentum will be which will result in a larger

force being applied to the car that is hit. Therefore, the smaller the change in

momentum is, the safer the collision is.

Accidents in which one car rear-ends another are one of the most

common types of accidents to occur. If the car that is hit moves away from the

car that hit it, this is known as an elastic collision. In an elastic collision, almost all

of the energy from the one car is transferred to the other car. However, modern

cars are designed with flexible and easily crushable materials in an area called

the crumple zone. This zone absorbs some of the energy in a collision, resulting

in only some of the car's energy being transferred to another vehicle. In order to

understand how mass affects momentum and the conservation of momentum, an

experiment was designed to test the effects of mass in an elastic collision. To

carry out the experiment, two carts were placed onto an air track equipped with

Photogates attached to a LabQuest. Each cart had a rubber bumper installed,

and cart one was loaded with either 0.1926 kg of mass, 0.2926 kg of mass, or

0.3926 kg of mass. Cart one was then collided into cart two, and the velocities of
 Ahearn Gonzales 2

both carts were recorded, and the change in momentum was calculated. This

value was then used to determine what mass of cart one would play the largest

effect on the change of momentum.

This experiment hoped to create a better understanding of the effect that

mass plays on the change in momentum. Understanding how mass affects this is

major in the automotive industry. This information can help engineers and other

designers determine how much mass a car should have to ensure that the

passengers inside the vehicle remain safe and injury-free in the event of an

accident. It can also help consumers be wise on which types of vehicles to

purchase to ensure that themselves, along with any friends and family they are

transporting, remain as safe as they can possibly be while operating a vehicle.

 Ahearn Gonzales 3

Review of Literature

Momentum is a crucial topic in physics that can be applied to many

aspects of life. Momentum of an object is the product of its mass multiplied by its

velocity (Momentum). It also falls under the branch of physics labeled classical

mechanics. Classical mechanics is the study of the motion of objects, as well as

being the first branch of physics to be discovered and having all other branches

based off of it (Fitzpatrick). Momentum is such an essential topic because it can

be related to something so many people interact with on a daily basis: cars.

Engineers can use the knowledge of what momentum is and how it works in

order to help find solutions to the prevalent issue that is car crashes. Car crashes

can be either elastic or inelastic collisions. An inelastic collision occurs when an

object is hit and moves away from the object that hit it. An elastic collision occurs

when both objects stick together during a collision and continue in a single

direction. The definition of momentum alone, or mass multiplied by velocity, can

help to prove that larger cars with more mass and faster speeds result in a higher

momentum; crashes with higher momentums usually result in more fatalities. In

this research experiment, mass was chosen as the sole factor to determine its

effect on the change in momentum, also known as impulse, in an elastic collision.

 Ahearn Gonzales 4

(Head-on Elastic Collisions, Target at Rest)

Figure 1. Elastic Collision

Elastic collisions are a specific type of collision where kinetic energy along

with momentum are both conserved (Henderson). In elastic collisions, when a

moving object collides with a stationary object, the moving object transfers all of

its energy to the stationary object, conserving its momentum and kinetic energy.

Figure 1 above is a visual representation of this. As can be seen before the

collision, the white object of a certain mass, or m 1, and velocity, or v1, is moving

towards the red object which has a certain mass, or m 2, and no velocity, or v2 =

0, since it is at rest. After the elastic collision has occurred, m 1 has now become

stationary, or v 1= 0, and has transferred all of its energy to m2, which now has a

velocity, or v 2 0, and is moving. To find the momentum of the white object in

this scenario, the mass would be multiplied by the velocity which would be m 1

multiplied by v1. The same would go for the red object except that m 2 and v2

would be used. In an elastic collision, the relative velocities of the objects are

equal and opposite before and after the collision.

p=m v

Figure 2. Momentum Equation

 Ahearn Gonzales 5

Figure 2 displays the equation used to find momentum, which is

represented by the letter p. Since momentum is known to be mass multiplied by

velocity, it can then be proven that a higher mass and higher velocity will result in

more energy transferred in an elastic collision where momentum is perfectly

conserved.

The conservation of momentum is especially important to this research

experiment since elastic collisions are being studied and tested. The Law of

Conservation of Momentum states that, ...the momentum of a system is

constant if there are no external forces acting on the system (Motta). Since a

perfectly elastic collision requires that no external forces to act on any of the

objects to ensure that all of the momentum is conserved, friction must be

reduced to guarantee accurate results. Friction is a force that is created when

two surfaces move, or attempt to move, across one another (The Force of

Friction). This force acting on the elastic collision could potentially have an

effect on the transfer of momentum between the moving object and stationary

object. To avoid these outside factors from affecting the results of this

experiment, the objects were placed on air track so rather than coming into

contact with another surface and creating friction, the two objects ride on air

instead.

This experiment was designed to test the change in momentum in an

elastic collision. The first cart, which has a mass of either 0.1926 kg, 0.2926 kg,

or 0.3926 kg and has a rubber bumper attachment to the end, is pushed into the
 Ahearn Gonzales 6

second cart which also is affixed with a rubber bumper attachment. The velocity

of both the first and second cart is recorded and the momentum is calculated

from these velocities. This experiment is similar to an experiment created by the

University of Missouri - St. Louis, in which carts were pushed into each other

underneath photogates, and the momentum was calculated (Conservation of

Skew and Linear Momentum). However, in the experiment done by the

university no factors were being tested since only the change in momentum was

calculated and no statistical tests were run. In this experiment, mass is being

adjusted, therefore testing the effect that mass has on the change of momentum.

It is also similar to an experiment done by two students from Virginia High School

where they reproduced elastic collisions on an air track and recorded the

velocities using photogates (Vosen). They determined that momentum is

conserved in elastic collisions based on their data collected. This experiment

should yield similar results to the experiment ran at Virginia High School, since

the experiments are so similar.

Overall, momentum is an important topic in the world of physics. It is

defined as the product of an objects mass and its velocity. Change in momentum

is also known as impulse. In an elastic collision, both kinetic energy and

momentum is conserved. There are also similar experiments that have been

conducted that help to design the experiment and develop a hypothesis.

 Ahearn Gonzales 7

Problem Statement

Problem:

Which mass in kilograms will cause the greatest change in momentum of

two objects in an elastic collision.

Hypothesis:

The largest mass will cause the greatest change in momentum of two

objects in an elastic collision.

Data Measured:

The independent variable in this experiment was the mass of the cart. The

mass of the cart was measured in kilograms with the smallest mass at 0.1926 kg,

the standard mass at 0.2926 kg, and the largest mass at 0.3926 kg. The

dependent variable was the change in momentum which was measured in

Newtons multiplied by meters per second (N*m/s). Two-sample t tests were used

to compare the means of the change in momentum between all masses. Thirty

trials were conducted for each mass.

 Ahearn Gonzales 8

Experimental Design

Materials:

Vernier LabQuest (2) Vernier Photogates

Air track Motorized air pump

(2) Air track carts (4) 50g Washers

(4) Rubber band attachments for carts (2) Stands

(2) Dual clamps Ruler

Air hose (2) 3in. x 5in. Index Cards

Scotch tape

Procedure:

Preparation:
 Ahearn Gonzales 9

1. Place air track and motorized air pump onto level surface near an outlet.
Connect air track to air pump with the hose and plug air pump into outlet.

2. Set up one stand 50 cm from the left end of the track and the other 80 cm
from the right end of the track. There should be a distance of 13 cm
between the track and the stand pole.

3. Place clamps 30 cm from the base of the stands.

4. Screw handles into photogates and screw handles into clamps.

5. Attach rubber band attachments to both ends of each cart and tape index
card on top.

6. Turn on LabQuest and set up for data collection (see Appendix A).

7. Turn on air pump and set the air coming out to 1.5.

8. Place glider two 90 cm from the left end of the air track (it should be about
halfway between both photogates). Adjust the levelness of air track until
glider two is stable and not moving in either direction. Place glider one 30
cm from the right end of the air track behind the first photogate.

Data Collection:

9. Add the proper masses (0.1926km, 0.2926 km, 0.3926 km) to the gliders.
 Ahearn Gonzales 10

10. Start data collection on LabQuest.

11. Gently push glider one and allow it to pass through photogate one and
strike glider two. Glider two should then pass through photogate two.

12. Record the velocities of the first glider and second glider from the
LabQuest.

13. Repeat steps 9-12 for all trials.

Diagram:

Figure 3. Diagram of Setup

 Ahearn Gonzales 11

Figure 3 shows a diagram of the setup for this experiment. Two

photogates are turned on and attached to a LabQuest while glider one passes

through the first photogate and collides with glider two which passes through the

second photogate. The time and velocity of both gliders is then recorded from the

LabQuest. Using the mass that was previously determined and the velocity

recorded by the two photogates, the momentum of both carts will be calculated.

Data and Observations

Table 1
Change in Momentum for 0.1926 kg Cart
Velocity of Velocity of Momentum Momentum of Change in
first cart second cart of first second momentum
Trial (m/s) (m/s) (N*s) (N*s) (N*s)
1 0.609 0.580 0.117 0.117 0.000
2 0.716 0.675 0.138 0.137 0.000
3 0.815 0.755 0.157 0.152 0.000
4 0.832 0.731 0.160 0.147 0.013
5 0.748 0.688 0.144 0.139 0.005
6 0.599 0.564 0.115 0.114 0.002
7 0.826 0.763 0.159 0.154 0.005
8 0.755 0.662 0.145 0.133 0.012
9 0.762 0.668 0.147 0.135 0.012
10 0.750 0.703 0.144 0.142 0.003
11 0.765 0.673 0.147 0.136 0.012
12 0.870 0.801 0.168 0.161 0.006
13 0.946 0.863 0.182 0.174 0.008
14 0.871 0.799 0.168 0.161 0.007
15 0.896 0.814 0.173 0.164 0.008
16 0.830 0.776 0.160 0.156 0.003
17 0.742 0.691 0.143 0.139 0.004
 Ahearn Gonzales 12

18 1.06 0.941 0.205 0.190 0.015

19 0.933 0.847 0.180 0.171 0.009
20 0.972 0.875 0.187 0.176 0.011
21 0.998 0.885 0.192 0.178 0.014
22 0.852 0.787 0.164 0.159 0.005
23 0.969 0.872 0.187 0.176 0.011
24 0.940 0.841 0.181 0.170 0.011
25 1.08 0.921 0.208 0.186 0.022
26 0.858 0.790 0.165 0.159 0.006
27 0.814 0.767 0.157 0.155 0.002
Velocity of Velocity of Momentum Momentum of Change in
first cart second cart of first second momentum
Trial (m/s) (m/s) (N*s) (N*s) (N*s)
28 0.958 0.859 0.185 0.173 0.011
29 0.875 0.802 0.169 0.162 0.007
30 0.919 0.827 0.177 0.167 0.010
Average 0.852 0.774 0.164 0.1564 0.008

momentum = mass * velocity

Figure 4. Momentum Equation

Figure 4 shows the equation for how momentum is calculated. This is

done by multiplying the mass of the object in kilograms by the velocity of the

object in meters per second.

change in momentum = momentum of first object - momentum of second object

Figure 5. Calculating the Change in Momentum

Figure 5 displays how to calculate the change in momentum. It is

determined by subtracting the momentum of the second object from the

momentum of the first object.

Table 1 shows the data from when the first cart had a mass of 0.1926 kg,

or when no mass was added. After the velocity of the first and second cart was
 Ahearn Gonzales 13

recorded, the momentum of both carts and change in momentum was found

(figures 12 and 13). See Appendix B for sample calculations. The averages for

each column are located at the bottom of the table.

Table 2
Change in Momentum for 0.2926 kg Cart
Velocity of Velocity of Momentum Momentum of Change in
first cart second cart of first second momentum
Trial (m/s) (m/s) (N*s) (N*s) (N*s)
1 1.131 1.18 0.331 0.238 0.093
2 0.921 0.963 0.270 0.194 0.075
3 0.927 1.00 0.271 0.202 0.069
4 0.684 0.774 0.200 0.156 0.044
5 0.682 0.745 0.200 0.150 0.049
6 0.942 1.01 0.276 0.204 0.072
7 0.873 0.959 0.255 0.193 0.062
8 0.988 1.03 0.289 0.207 0.082
9 1.10 1.12 0.321 0.226 0.095
10 1.11 1.13 0.324 0.228 0.096
11 1.13 1.15 0.332 0.232 0.099
12 1.07 1.08 0.313 0.217 0.096
13 1.12 1.13 0.326 0.228 0.098
14 1.21 1.21 0.353 0.243 0.110
15 1.14 1.19 0.334 0.240 0.094
16 1.15 1.19 0.336 0.240 0.096
17 1.12 1.14 0.329 0.229 0.100
18 1.00 1.07 0.291 0.216 0.076
19 0.925 1.10 0.271 0.222 0.049
20 0.955 1.04 0.279 0.209 0.071
21 0.965 1.05 0.282 0.211 0.071
 Ahearn Gonzales 14

22 1.07 1.10 0.313 0.220 0.093

23 0.820 0.913 0.240 0.184 0.056
24 0.835 0.934 0.244 0.188 0.056
25 1.07 1.10 0.314 0.222 0.092
26 0.926 1.00 0.271 0.202 0.069
27 0.984 1.06 0.288 0.213 0.075
28 0.715 0.810 0.209 0.163 0.046
29 1.00 1.07 0.293 0.215 0.077
Velocity of Velocity of Momentum Momentum of Change in
first cart second cart of first second momentum
Trial (m/s) (m/s) (N*s) (N*s) (N*s)
30 0.978 1.06 0.286 0.214 0.072
Average 0.9847 1.04 0.288 0.210 0.078

Table 2 shows the data from when the first cart had a mass of 0.2926 kg,

or when 0.1 kg of mass was added to the first cart. After the velocity of the first

and second cart was recorded, the momentum of both carts and change in

momentum was found (see Appendix B). The averages for each column are

located at the bottom of the table.

Table 3
Change in Momentum for 0.3926 kg Cart
Velocity of Velocity of Momentum Momentum of Change in
first cart second cart of first cart second cart momentum
Trial (m/s) (m/s) (N*s) (N*s) (N*s)
1 0.981 1.20 0.385 0.242 0.1428174
2 0.898 1.10 0.353 0.223 0.1299884
3 0.988 1.18 0.388 0.238 0.1497992
4 0.933 1.18 0.366 0.238 0.1286094
5 1.10 1.29 0.433 0.260 0.173377
6 0.929 1.14 0.365 0.230 0.135103
7 1.19 1.25 0.466 0.253 0.213
8 1.16 1.30 0.457 0.261 0.196
9 0.992 1.18 0.389 0.237 0.152
 Ahearn Gonzales 15

10 1.02 1.18 0.402 0.238 0.164

11 0.873 1.05 0.343 0.212 0.130
12 1.02 1.19 0.402 0.240 0.161
13 0.872 1.05 0.342 0.212 0.130
14 0.857 1.06 0.336 0.214 0.122
15 1.12 1.33 0.439 0.268 0.171
16 1.03 1.24 0.403 0.249 0.153
17 0.899 1.13 0.353 0.228 0.125
Velocity of Velocity of Momentum Momentum of Change in
first cart second cart of first second momentum
Trial (m/s) (m/s) (N*s) (N*s) (N*s)
18 0.963 1.20 0.378 0.242 0.136
19 0.982 1.19 0.386 0.240 0.146
20 1.06 1.27 0.415 0.256 0.159
21 0.946 1.16 0.371 0.233 0.138
22 1.12 1.33 0.440 0.267 0.173
23 1.14 1.36 0.448 0.273 0.175
24 1.17 1.37 0.457 0.277 0.180
25 1.01 1.19 0.397 0.240 0.157
26 1.10 1.31 0.431 0.265 0.166
27 0.974 1.19 0.382 0.240 0.142
28 1.12 1.34 0.440 0.270 0.170
29 1.04 1.25 0.409 0.252 0.156
30 1.13 1.35 0.444 0.271 0.173
Average 1.02 1.22 0.401 0.246 0.155

Table 3 shows the data from when the first cart had a mass of 0.3926 kg,

or when 0.2 kg of mass was added to the first cart. After the velocity of the first

and second cart was recorded, the momentum of both carts and change in

momentum was found (see Appendix B). The averages for each column are

located at the bottom of the table.

Table 4
Observations
 Ahearn Gonzales 16

Date Trial Observation

4/26/2016 0.2926 kg, Trial 17 Photogate Malfunction, LabQuest reset

4/26/2016 0.3926 kg, Trial 11 Photogate Malfunction, LabQuest reset

Table 4 shows all of the observations that may have an effect on the data.

Twice while conducting the experiment, the Photogates malfunctioned and began

displaying velocities that were much too high for the data to be accurate. To

remedy the issue, data collection was halted, each of the Photogates were

unplugged from the LabQuest, and then plugged back in. This appeared to fix the

issue, and data collection resumed as outlined in the procedures.

Figure 6. Process

Figure 6 shows an example of the process of the experiment. Cart 1 is

placed on the air track before Photogate 1, and Cart 2 is placed on the air track

in between Photogate 1 and Photogate 2. Each photogate is attached to a

 Ahearn Gonzales 17

LabQuest. Cart 1 is then pushed through Photogate 1 and collides with Cart 2,

which then slides through Photogate 2. The velocity of both the carts is recorded

on the LabQuest.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

The data from this experiment was quantitative, continuous, and univariate

data. For each trial, the velocity of the cart was measured to the nearest

thousandth.

The data collected in this experiment is valid because it follows the

principles of a comparative experiment which are control, randomness, and

replication. As a control, data was collected when the cart had no mass added to

it. This then allowed the data where the mass of a cart was changed to be

compared to a standard. A control was used so that lurking variables would then

affect all trials equally and confounding could be reduced. Randomness was

achieved by randomizing the trials so that not all the same treatments were done

at the same time which was used to reduce bias. Replication was met by doing

thirty trials of each mass which was used to ensure that variability was reduced

as much as possible.

Two-sample t tests were conducted between all of the different masses to

determine the mean difference between them. This experiment met all the

conditions that a two-sample t test requires. The data is from a randomized

 Ahearn Gonzales 18

experiment. All of the different masses had thirty trials which meets the condition

that n 30; n 30 to make sure that the data comes from a normal sampling
1 2

distribution by the Central Limit Theorem. Also, the condition that N 10n; N
1 2

10n is met because the experiment could be run infinite times, meaning that the

sample will always be smaller than the population. All observations and groups

were independent of each other.

Figure 7. Boxplot of Change in Momentum

In Figure 7, boxplots of the changes in momentum for the three masses

were plotted on the same graph. It can be seen that the range and interquartile

range of the boxplots increase as the mass of the cart increased. This shows that

there is more variability in the data for the carts where mass was added as

opposed to the control group where no mass was added to the cart. However,
 Ahearn Gonzales 19

the control group has one outlier, whereas the trials where mass was added have

no outliers. This outlier could affect the mean of the data when performing the

two-sample t tests, yet separate tests were not conducted because the outliers

was not extreme, the data was not extremely skewed, and the numbers are so

small that the outlier plays no difference on the median or mean. None of the box

plots have any extreme skewness to them, indicating that the data comes from

normally distributed populations. However, since 30 trials were ran of each mass,

the Central Limit Theorem states that the data comes from a population with a

normal distribution, the sampling distribution.

Figure 8. 0.1926 kg Momentum Change and 0.2926 kg Momentum Change T-

Test Hypothesis

Figure 8 shows the null and alternate hypotheses for this two-sample t

test. In these hypotheses, stands for the mean of the change in momentum for
1

the cart with a mass of 0.1926 kg, and stands for the mean of the change in
2

momentum for the cart with mass of 0.2926 kg. The null hypothesis was that the

change in momentum would be the same for both masses. The alternative

hypothesis was that the change in momentum for the cart with a mass of 0.2926

kg would be greater than the cart with a mass of 0.1926 kg.

 Ahearn Gonzales 20

Figure 9. 0.1926 kg Momentum Change and 0.2926 kg Momentum Change T-

Test Results and P-Value Graph

Figure 9 shows the results of the two-sample t test using the TI-Nspire

student software. The same results can be found using a formula (see Appendix

C). The null hypothesis, H , can be rejected because the p-value of 0 is less than
o

the alpha, , level of 0.05. The p-value can also be calculated by using the t

value, -19.94 in this case, and Table B (see Appendix D).

There is significant evidence that the change in momentum for the cart

with a mass of 0.2926 kg is greater than the change in momentum for the cart

with a mass of 0.1926 kg. If H was true, that is there was no change in
o

momentum between the cart with a mass of 0.1926 kg and the cart with a mass

of 0.2926 kg, then there would be a 0% chance of getting a change in

momentum this extreme by chance alone. Since this is so unlikely to happen, the

null hypothesis was rejected.

 Ahearn Gonzales 21

Figure 10. 0.1926 kg Momentum Change and 0.2926 kg Momentum Change T-

Interval

Figure 10 displays the results of the two-sample t interval using the TI-

Nspire Student Software. The same results can be found by using a formula (See

Appendix E). Using the information above, the researchers are 95% confident

that the true population mean will fall between -0.08 and -0.06. It can also be

determined that if this experiment were to be run in the future, 95% of the

differences in change of momentum would capture the true population mean.

Figure 11. 0.2926 kg Momentum Change and 0.3926 kg Momentum Change T-

Test Hypothesis

Figure 11 shows the null and alternate hypotheses for this two-sample t

test. In these hypotheses, stands for the mean of the change in momentum for
1

the cart with a mass of 0.2926 kg, and stands for the mean of the change in
2

momentum for the cart with mass of 0.3926 kg. The null hypothesis was that the

change in momentum would be the same for both masses. The alternative

hypothesis was that the change in momentum for the cart with a mass of 0.3926

kg would be greater than the cart with a mass of 0.2926 kg.

 Ahearn Gonzales 22

Figure 12. 0.2926 kg Momentum Change and 0.3926 kg Momentum Change T-

Test Results and P-Value Graph

Figure 12 shows the results of the two-sample t test. The null hypothesis,

H , can be rejected because the p-value of 0 is less than the alpha, , level of
o

0.05. The p-value can also be calculated by using the t value, -14.80 in this case,

and Table B (see Appendix D).

There is significant evidence that the change in momentum for the cart

with a mass of 0.3926 kg is greater than the change in momentum for the cart

with a mass of 0.2926 kg. If H was true, that is there was no change in
o

momentum between the cart with a mass of 0.2926 kg and the cart with a mass

of 0.3926 kg, then there would be a 0% chance of getting a change in

momentum this extreme by chance alone. Since the likeliness of this happening

is nonexistent, the null hypothesis was rejected.

 Ahearn Gonzales 23

Figure 13. 0.2926 kg Momentum Change and 0.3926 kg Momentum Change T-

Interval

Figure 13 displays the results of the two-sample t interval. The same

results can be found by using a formula (See Appendix E). Using the information

above, the researchers are 95% confident that the true population mean will fall

between -0.09 and -0.07. It can also be determined that if this experiment were to

be run in the future, 95% of the differences in change of momentum would

capture the true population mean.

Figure 14. 0.1926 kg Momentum Change and 0.3926 kg Momentum Change T-

Test Hypothesis

Figure 14 shows the null and alternate hypotheses for this two-sample t

test. In these hypotheses, stands for the mean of the change in momentum for
1

the cart with a mass of 0.1926 kg, and stands for the mean of the change in
2

momentum for the cart with mass of 0.3926 kg. The null hypothesis was that the

change in momentum would be the same for both masses. The alternative

hypothesis was that the change in momentum for the cart with a mass of 0.3926

kg would be greater than the cart with a mass of 0.1926 kg.

 Ahearn Gonzales 24

Figure 115. 0.1926 kg Momentum Change and 0.3926 kg Momentum Change T-

Test Results and P-Value Graph

Figure 15 shows the results of the two-sample t test. The null hypothesis,

H , can be rejected because the p-value of 0 is less than the alpha, , level of
o

0.05. The p-value can also be calculated by using the t value, -14.80 in this case,

and Table B (see Appendix D).

There is significant evidence that the change in momentum for the cart

with a mass of 0.3926 kg is greater than the change in momentum for the cart

with a mass of 0.1926 kg. If H was true, that is there was no change in
o

momentum between the cart with a mass of 0.1926 kg and the cart with a mass

of 0.3926 kg, then there would be a 0% chance of getting a change in

momentum this extreme by chance alone. Since the chance of the changes of

momentum being the same is never, the null hypothesis was rejected.
 Ahearn Gonzales 25

Figure 16. 0.1926 kg Momentum Change and 0.3926 kg Momentum Change T-

Interval

Figure 16 displays the results of the two-sample t interval. The same

results can be found by using a formula (See Appendix E). Using the information

above, the researchers are 95% confident that the true population mean will fall

between -0.16 and -0.14. It can also be determined that if this experiment were to

be run in the future, 95% of the differences in change of momentum would

capture the true population mean.

 Ahearn Gonzales 26

Conclusion

The purpose of this experiment was to test the effect of mass on the

change of momentum in elastic collisions. By conducting this experiment, it was

determined which mass would cause the greatest change in momentum. It was

hypothesized that the highest mass of 0.3926 kg would cause the greatest

change in momentum. This hypothesis was accepted after determining that the

highest mass did have the greatest effect on the change of momentum. This

conclusion was made after performing two-sample t tests. The tests compared

the averages for the changes in momentum between all of the masses to find if

there was a significant difference between them.

All three of the two-sample t tests showed evidence to reject the null

hypothesis for they all had p-values of 0, which are less than the alpha level of

0.05 (see Figures 9, 12, and 15). The hypothesis that the largest mass will cause

the greatest change in momentum of two objects in an elastic collision was

accepted. It was shown that as the mass of the first cart increased, the change in

momentum also increased.

Scientifically speaking, these results back existing scientific theories.

Using the formula for momentum, p = mv, it is shown that mass and momentum

have a direct relationship, meaning that as the mass of an object increases, the

momentum of that object will also increase. As the results have shown, as the

mass of the cart increased, the momentum increased. Therefore, the carts with

lower masses had lower momentums than the carts with higher masses; this

ultimately lead to a greater change in momentum in an elastic collision.

 Ahearn Gonzales 27

These results also agree with current work in the field of momentum.

Although momentum is a generally accepted and understood topic within the

realm of physics, its applications are still used in real-world situations. Car

crashes are one of the most relevant applications of this research. This research

could be used to help scientists and engineers that are currently working on

methods to improve safety relating to car collisions, such as developing

techniques on making cars weigh less or analyzing where the ideal spot for a

cars weight to be located is.

Although the experiment was successful, there are multiple improvements

that could be made to further ensure the accuracy of the results provided. Since

this experiment was modeled after a pre-existing experiment, flaws from that

experiment may have easily carried over into this one. Ideally, to ensure that

momentum was perfectly conserved, all outside forces needed to be removed.

Friction, the primary outside force acting on the carts, was almost fully removed

with the usage of an air track. Yet, some friction still acted on the carts and may

have affected the data. Another outside force acting on the carts would be air

resistance. However, this was impossible to eliminate with the resources

available. Removing air resistance may affect the data, but its effect would be

limited. Another error would be the fact that every trial had a different starting

velocity, which may have affected the momentum of the carts. Although starting

velocities did not vary greatly, there was still some variance in starting velocities

since it is impossible to push a cart with the same amount of force using your

hands for every trial. One way to combat this issue would be to design a spring
 Ahearn Gonzales 28

mechanism that launches the cart to ensure the same starting velocity every

time.

Further research pertaining to this experiment would be to remove all

errors and weaknesses stated above from the experimental design and run the

experiment again. The data collected from the experiment ran could then be

compared to this experiment, and any effects that these errors played on this

experiment could be analyzed. More research could also be done on this topic by

taking this experiment and applying it to large scale items. Items such as wagons

or other types of rolling vehicles could be used as the carts with different masses

being added. How much the momentum changed could then be calculated when

these objects collide. Since friction was virtually eliminated from this experiment,

it may also be beneficial to research the effect that friction plays on momentum of

objects with varying masses.

 Ahearn Gonzales 29

Appendix A: Setting Up LabQuest

1. Plug both photogates into LabQuest.

2. Using the screen, go to the tab has File and Sensors (the icon looks like a

gauge).

3. Tap on the box that is on the right of the screen labeled Mode in bold letters.

It should bring up a new screen.

4. At the top of this new screen, tap on the drop down menu labeled Photogate

Mode and select Gate.

5. Change Length of object to the width of the index card which is 0.127 m.

6. Select OK.
 Ahearn Gonzales 30

Appendix B: Equations for Momentum

m
0.1926 kg 0.609 =0.177 Ns
s

Figure 17. Momentum Sample Calculation

Figure 17 shows a sample calculation for the equation shown in Figure 4.

The substitutions for the variables in the equation were taken from the first trial

data for the 0.1926 kg cart. The mass of the cart was 0.1926 kg and the velocity

was 0.609 m/s. The momentum was calculated by multiplying the mass and

velocity together and the product was 0.177 N*s, which matches the data.

0.117 Ns0.117 Ns=0.000 Ns

Figure 18. Change in Momentum Sample calculation

Figure 18 shows a sample calculation for the equation shown in Figure 5.

The substitutions for the variables in the equation were taken from the first trial

data for the 0.1926 kg cart. The momentum for the first cart was 0.177 N*s and

the momentum for the second cart was 0.177 N*s as well. The change in

momentum was calculated by subtracting the momentum of the second cart from

the first and the difference was 0.000 N*s, which matches the data.
 Ahearn Gonzales 31

Appendix C: Two-Sample t Test Sample Calculation

Figure 19. Two Sample t Test Equation

Figure 19 shows the equation used to calculate a two-sample t test. First,

the sample mean from the second population, x , is subtracted from the sample
2

mean from the first population, x . Then, the standard deviations of both samples,
1

s and s , are squared, divided by their sample sizes, n and n and added
1 2 1 2

together. The square root of that product is then taken and the result of the two

sample means being subtracted is divided by the answer from the square root.

Figure 20. Two-Sample t Test Sample Calculation

The calculation above is a sample of the equation shown in Figure 19. The

substitutions for the variables in the equation were taken from the data for 0.1926

kg momentum change and 0.2926 kg momentum change. The t value calculated

was -19.9, which is the same t value as shown in Figure 4.

The p-value, assuming the null hypothesis is true, is the probability that

the test statistic would take a value as extreme or more than that observed by

chance alone. This can be found using the t value. The tail probability, p, can be

approximated by using Table B, a table of t distribution critical values, and

locating the t value by the given degrees of freedom and tracing upwards.
 Ahearn Gonzales 32

Appendix D: Table B for determining P-Value from t-Score

Figure 21. Table B to Find P-Value

Figure 21 shows the table that is used to find the P-Value

from the t-value. The first digit

of

the t-score is located on the leftmost side of the table,

and the following digits are located among the top.

Appendix E: Two-sample t Interval Sample Calculation

( x 1x 2 t
S12 S 22
+
n1 n2
 Ahearn Gonzales 33

Figure 22. Two-sample t Interval Equation

Figure 22 is the equation that is used to find a Two-sample t test interval.

First, the sample mean from the second population, x , is subtracted from the
2

sample mean from the first population, x . Then, the t value is multiplied by the
1

square root of the standard deviations of both samples, s and s , which are
1 2

squared, divided by their sample sizes, n and n and added together. The
1 2

difference between the two sample means is then both added and subtracted to

the t value product.

( 0.0080.078 ) 19.948
0.0052 0.0192
30
+
30

Figure 23. Two-sample t Interval Sample Calculation

Figure 23 above is a sample of the equation shown in Figure 22. The

substitutions for the variables in the equation were taken from the data for 0.1926

kg momentum change and 0.2926 kg momentum change. The confidence

interval calculated was between -0.08 and -0.06, which is the same confidence

interval as shown in Figure 10. The confidence interval is used to determine

where the true population mean would fall.

 Ahearn Gonzales 34

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 Ahearn Gonzales 35

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