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MODEL SCHOOL @ G.

ARIYUR
THIRUKOVILUR, VILLUPURAM (DT)-605751.

PHYSICS

XII-STANDARD
STUDY MATERIAL
(FOR SLOW LEARNERS)

PREPARED BY:
V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed.,
PG ASSISTANT IN PHYSICS,
MODEL SCHOOL @ G.ARIYUR,
THIRUKOVILUR,
VILLUPURAM (DT)-605751.
CELL: 9843431804.
Failure will never overtake me if my determination to succeed
is strong enough -ABDUL KALAM
+2 PHYSICS
3 MARK
STUDY MATERIAL
(for slow learners)

Prepared by:
V.MANIKANDAN.M.SC.,B.Ed.,
PG ASST. IN PHYSICS,
MODEL SCHOOL @ G.ARIYUR,
THIRUKOVILUR,
VILLUPURAM-605751
CELL:9843431804
1. Electrostatics
1.Coulombs law :
The force is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. F
2.Properties of lines of forces:
(i) It start from positive charge and to negative charge.
(ii) It never intersect.
(iii) The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of
the electric field (E) at that point.
3.Electric dipole
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a very small distance constitute an electric dipole.
ex : water
4. Electric potential
The amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the
electric forces.
5.Electric flux
The total number of electric lines of force, crossing through the given area.
6.Gausss law
The total flux is equal to 1/o times the net charge enclosed by the surface.
7.Applications of capacitors.
(i) They are used in the ignition system
(ii) They are used to reduce voltage fluctuations.
(iii) Capacitors are used in tuning the radio circuit.
8.Action of points or corona discharge.
The leakage of electric charges from the sharp points on the charged conductor.
9.Why it is safer to sit inside a bus or car than in open ground or under a tree?
The metal body of the bus/car provides electrostatic shielding, where the electric field is zero. The
electric discharge passes through the body of the bus/car.

2. Current Electricity
10.Drift velocity
The velocity with which free electrons get drifted towards the positive terminal, when an electric field
is applied. Unit : m/s
11.Mobility
The drift velocity acquired per unit electric field. Unit :
12.Ohms law
The steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference.
I V

13.Applications of superconductors
(i) It form the basis of energy saving power systems.
(ii) Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails.
(iii)It can be used to separate tumor cells from healthy cells.
(iv) It can be used for transmissionlines.
(v) It can be used as memory elements.
14.The temperature coefficient ofresistance
The ratio of increase in resistance per degree rise in temperature to its resistance at C. Unit :
/ C.
15.Comparison of emf and potential difference
S.NO Emf potential difference

1. It measured in open circuit It measured in closed


(Daniel cell) circuit (potentiometer)
2. Here V R
3. It is independent of resistance. Unit : Volt
Unit : Volt

16. The changes observed at the transition temperature:


(i) The electrical resistivity drops to zero.
(ii) The conductivity becomes infinity
(iii) The magnetic flux lines are excluded from the material.
17.Kirchoffs first law
The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in a circuit is zero.
18.Electric energy and electric power.
S.NO Electric energy Electric power
1. The rate of doing electric The capacity to do work
2. work Energy = VIt
3. P=VI Unit : watt hour
Unit : watt
19.Faradays laws of electrolysis
First Law : The mass of a substance is proportional to the charge passing through the electrolyte.
m q
Second Law : The mass of a substance is proportional to the chemical equivalent of the substance.
m E
20.Primary Cell and secondaery cell
S.NO Primary Cell Secondaery cell
1. Irreversible chemical Reversible chemical
actions actions
2. It cannot be recharged It can be recharged
3 Ex : Daniel cell Ex : Lead-acid
accumulator
(used in all automobiles)
21. The resistance of a nichrome wire at 0o C is 10 . If its temperature coefficient of resistance
is 0.004/oC, find its resistance at boiling point of water. Comment on the result.
Rt = Ro (1+ t)
Rt = 14
As temperature increases the resistance also increases.
3. Effects of electric current

22.Why nichrome is used as the heating element


(1) It has high specific resistance
(2) It has high melting point
(3) It is not easily oxidized
23.Limitations of Cyclotron
(i) Maintaining a uniform magnetic field over a large area of the Dees is difficult.
(ii) The electrons cannot be accelerated.
(iii) At high velocities, relativistic variation of mass of the particle upsets the resonance condition.

4. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current

24.Methods of producing induced emf


By changing
(i) the magnetic induction (B)
(ii) area enclosed by the coil (A) and
(iii) the orientation of the coil () with respect to the magnetic field.
25.Flemings right hand rule or generator rule
The forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand
are held in the three mutually perpendicular directions.
If the forefinger points magnetic field
the thumb motion of the conductor,
then the middle finger induced current.

26.Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction


First law [what is electromagnetic induction?]
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the
circuit.
Second law
Emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
e
27.Lenzs law
The induced current produced in a circuit always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change
or cause that
produces it. e = N
28.Q-factor
The ratio of the voltage across a coil to the applied voltage.
29.Distinguish b/w AF Choke coil and RF Choke coil
S.NO AF Choke coil RF Choke coil
1. Frequency is low Frequency is high
2. Inductance is high. Inductance is low
3. Iron core is used No Iron core is used
30. An aircraft having a wingspan of 20.48 m flies due north at a speed of 40 ms
1. If the vertical
component of earths magnetic field at the place is 2 10
5 T, Calculate the emf induced between
the ends of the wings.
e= Blv
e = 0.0164 V

5. Electromagnetic Waves and Wave optics


31.Tyndal scattering
When light passes through a colloidal solution its path is visible inside the solution. The scattering of
light by the colloidal particle is called Tyndal scattering.
32.Why the sky to appear blue?
According to Rayleighs scattering law, blue light is scattered to a greater extent than red light. This
scattered radiation causes the sky to appear blue.
33.On what factors depends optical rotation?
(i) thickness of crystal
(ii) density of the crystal or concentration in the case of solutions.
(iii) wavelength of light used
(iv) the temperature of the solutions.
33. Uses of IR (infrared ) rays
(i) Infrared lamps are used in physiotherapy.
(ii) Infrared photographs are used in weather forecasting.
(iii)Infra red absorption spectrum is used to study the molecular structure.

34.Differences b/w Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction


S.NO Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer
diffraction
1. wave front is wavefront is plane.
spherical or
2. cylindrical. Rays are parallel to
Rays are unparallel each other.
3. to each other Convex lens is used
No convex lens is
used
35. A plano convex lens of radius 3 m is placed on an optically flat glass plate and is illuminated
by monochromatic light. The radius of the 8th dark ring is 3.6 mm. Calculate the wavelength of
light used.
= nR
=5400
36. In Newtons rings experiment the diameter of certain order of dark ring is measured to be
double that of second ring. What is the order of the ring?
= 4nR
n = 8.
6. Atomic Physics
37.Moseleys law
The frequency of the characteristic X-ray spectrum is proportional to the square of the atomic number
(Z) of the element considered.
38.Characteristics of laser
(i) is monochromatic (ii) is coherent
(iii) does not diverge at all (iv) is highly intense
39.Conditions to achieve laser action
(i) There must be an inverted population
(ii) The excited state must be a metastable state.
(iii) The emitted photons must stimulate further emission.
40.Laue two important facts
(i) Xrays are electro magnetic waves of very short wave length.
(ii) The atoms in a crystal are arranged in a regular 3D lattice.
41.Calculate the longest wavelength that can be analysed by a rock salt crystal of spacing d =
2.82 in the first order.
2d sin = n
= 5.64

7. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter and Relativity

42.Postulates of the special theory of relativity


(i) The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
(ii) The velocity of light in free space is a constant in all the frames of reference.
43.Uses of electron microscope
(i) to study the structure of textile fibres.
(ii) to study virus and bacteria.
(iii) to study atomic structure .
44.Limitations of electron microscope
(i) It is operated only in high vacuum.
(ii) It is not applicable to study the evaporate and disintegrate of living organisms.
45. Cut-off or stopping potential.
The minimum negative potential given to the anode for which the photo electric current becomes
zero.
46.Uses of photo electric cells
(i) It is used for automatic switching on and off the street lights.
(ii) It is used in opening and closing of door automatically.
(iii) It is used in burglar alarm and fire alarm.
(iv) It is used for reproducing sound in cinematography.
8. Nuclear Physics
47.Properties of neutrons
(i) Neutron present in all nuclei, except hydrogen.
(ii) They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
(iii) Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus. But outside the nucleus they are unstable.
(iv) They penetrate any nucleus.
(v) Neutrons are classified to slow neutrons and fast neutrons.
48.Define-Roentgen
The quantity of radiation which produces 1.6 10 pairs of ions in 1 gram of air.
49.Define-Curie
The quantity of a radioactive substance which gives 3.7 10 becquerel.
50.Pair production and annihilation of matter
Pair production:The conversion of a photon into an electronpositron pair.
Annihilation of matter: An electron and positron combine to produce a photon.

9. Semiconductor Devices and their Applications

51. Advantages ICs


(i) Very small in size
(ii) Very small weight
(iii) Easy replacement
(iv) Reduced cost
(v) Reliability
52.Advantages of negative feedback
(i) Highly stabilised gain.
(ii) Reduction in the noise level.
(iii) Increased bandwidth
(iv) Increased input impedance and decreased output impedance.
(v) Less distortion.
53.Barkhausen condition for oscillation
(i) The loop gain A =1
(ii) The net phase shift is 0 or integral multiples of 2.
54.Universal gates
Universal gates: NAND and NOR gates
Because: They can perform all the three basic logic functions.
55.Bandwidth
The frequency interval between lower cut off and upper cut off frequencies.
BW = fU Fl
56.De-Morgans theorems
First theorem
The complement of a sum is equal to the product of the complements.
A++B = A .B
Second theorem
The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements.
A . B = A+
+B.
57.Rectification and Rectifier
Rectification : The process of converting from a.c to d.c.
Rectifier: The device used for this process is called as rectifier. Ex: diode
58.Uses of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
(i) It is used to measure a.c and d.c voltage.
(ii) It is used to study the waveforms of a.c voltages.
(iii) It is used to find the frequency of a.c voltage.
(iv) It is used to study the beating of heart in cardiology.
59.NPN Transister-CE mode:

10. Communication Systems

60.Skip distance
For a fixed frequency, the shortest distance between the point of transmission and the point of
reception along the surface
61.Modulation factor
The ratio of Signal amplitude to the Carrier amplitude.
!" #$%&
m=
' & !" #$%&

Prepared by:
V.MANIKANDAN.M.SC.,B.Ed.,
PG ASST. IN PHYSICS,
MODEL SCHOOL @ G.ARIYUR,
THIRUKOVILUR,
VILLUPURAM-605751
CELL:9843431804
PHYSICS
HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

(FOR SLOW LEARNERS)

5 MARKS

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


5 MARKS

1.Properties of lines of forces:


(i) It starts from positive charge and ends at negative charge.
(ii) It never intersect.
(iii) The tangent to a line of force gives the direction of E.
(iv) E is large if they are close together and E is small if they are far part.
(v) Each unit positive charge gives 1/o lines of force in free space. =

2.Applications of superconductors
(i) It is used as a superconducting generators
(ii) Superconducting magnets is used to levitate trains above its rails.
(iii) Superconducting magnetic propulsion system is used to launch satellites.
(iv) It can be used for transmission lines.
(v)It can be used as memory elements in computers.

3.Features of Magnetic lorentz force:


The force
(i) on the charge is zero, if the charge is at rest.
(ii) is proportional to the charge (q)
(iii) is proportional to the magnetic induction (B)
(iv) is proportional to the speed of the charge (v)
(v)is maximun when charge move perpenticular to the field.

4.Characteristics of electromagnetic waves


(i) They are produced by accelerated charges.
(ii) They do not require any material medium for propagation.
(iii)They are transverse in nature.
(iv) They travel in vacuum with a velocity c
(v) They are not deflectedby electric and magnetic fields.

5.Uses of Polaroid
1. They are used to produce and analyse plane polarised light.
2.They are used as polarising sun glasses.
3. They are used to eliminate the head light glare in motor cars.
4. They are used to improve colour contrasts in old oil paintings.
5. Polaroid films are used to produce 3D moving pictures.

6.Properties of Cathode / canal / alpha / beta / gamma/ X - rays


(i) They travel in straight lines.
(ii) They affect photographic plates.
(iii) They can produce fluorescence.
(iv)They ionize the gas through which they pass.
(v) They produce heat, when they fall on matter.

7.Applications of photo electric cells


(i) They are used for reproducing sound incinematography.
(ii) They are used for controlling the temperature offurnaces.
(iii)They are used for automatic switching onand off the street lights.
(iv) They are used in opening and closing of doorautomatically.
(v) They are used in burglar alarm and fire alarm.

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


8.de Broglies wavelength of matter waves
E = h
E=m
h = m

=
if c = v
=

=
p = mv
9. Electron microscope
Uses:
(i) It is used to study the structure of textile fibres, surface of metals.
(ii) It is used to study the virus andbacteria.
(iii) It is used to study the atomicstructure and of crystal structure.
Limitations:
(i)It is operated only in high vacuum.
(ii)It cannot used to study living organisms which would evaporate.

10. Properties of neutrons


(i) Neutrons are the constituent particles of all nuclei, excepthydrogen.
(ii)They are not deflected byelectric and magnetic fields.
(iii) Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus. But outside the nucleus they are unstable
with half life of 13 minutes.
(iv)They can easily penetrate anynucleus.
(v) Neutrons are classified to (a) slow neutrons and (b) fast neutrons.
11.De-Morgans theorems
First theorem
The complement of a sum is equal to the product of thecomplements.

Second theorem
The complement of a product is equal to the sum of thecomplements.

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


12.Energy losses in a transformer
(1) Hysteresis loss
This is due to repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core. This loss
can be minimised by using mumetal andsilicon steel. steel
(2) Copper loss
is is due to loss of heat energy in the primary and secondary windings.It
This windings can be
minimised by using thickhick wires with considerably low resistance.
(3) Eddy current loss (Iron loss)
This
is is due to loss of heat energy in core.
core. This loss isminimised by using a laminated
core made of stelloy, an alloy of steel.

(4) Flux loss


leakage in secondary coil. This loss can be minimised by using a
This loss is due to fluxleakage
shell type core.
(5)Due
ue to the vibration of the core,sound is produced, which causes a loss in the energy.

13. Brewsters law

The tangent of the polarising angle is numerically equal to the


refractive index of the medium.
14.Self
Self inductance of a long solenoid

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


15.Emf
Emf induced by changing the area enclosed by the coil

PQRS is a conductor bent in the shape. A uniform magnetic field B acts perpendicular
to the plane of the
conductor.

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


16.Wheatstones bridge

If Ig=0

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


17.Thermopile
Thermopile is a device used to detect thermal radiation. It works on
the principle of Seebeck effect.

a single thermocouple gives a very small emf, a large number


of thermocouples are connected in series.
The other set ofjunctions (2,4) called cold junction is shielded from the radiation.
When thermal radiation falls on (1, 3, 5),
5) a largethermo emf is produced.
The deflection in the galvanometer isproportional to the intensity of radiation.

18.

Electron jumps
ju
from higher
orbit(
rbit( ) to wavenumber Present
s.no series lower )
lower( region

1. 1 2,3,4, UV

2
2. 3,4,5, Visible

3
3. 4,5,6, IR

4
4. 5,6,7,
IR
5
5. 6,7,8,
IR

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


19. Braggs law for X-ray ray diffraction
*Consider homogeneous Xrays rays of wave length incident
incident on a crystal at a glancing
angle
*Let the crystal lattice spacing between the planes be d.
*The path difference between the two waves is equal to PE + EQ.

20.Length contraction or Lorentz-Fitgerald


Lorentz contraction

motion.

This is known as Lorentz Fitzgerald contraction.


Example : A circular object will appear as an ellipse
for a fast moving observer.

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


21.Time dilation
Consider two frames S and S.. Let Sbe
S moving with a velocity v
with respect to S in the positive Xdirection
direction.
Then theinterval t recorded by him is

Satellite Communication: Merits and Demerits


22.Satellite
Merits:
(i) Mobile communication can be easily established by satellitecommunication.
(ii) Satellite communication is economical compared where long distances areinvolved.
(iii)The quality of transmitted signaland location of sending and receiving stations are independent
ofdistance.
(iv) For thin traffic
raffic remote areas, it is most economical.
(v) For search, rescue and navigation,
gation, it is very superior and economical.
Demerits:
(i) The time delay between talks reduces the efficiency of satellite in datatransmission.
(ii) Echo suppressor has to be used to omit echo.echo
(iii) Repair of satellite is almost impossible, once it has beenlaunched.

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


23. Capacitors in series and parallel & Resistors in series and parallel:
Capacitors in series Capacitors in Resistors in series Resistors in parallel
parallel

The reciprocal of the The equivalent resistance The sum of the


The effective capacitance
effective capacitance is of a number of resistors in reciprocal of the
of the capacitors
equal to the sum of series connection is equal resistance of the
connected in parallel is
reciprocal of the to the sum of the individual resistors is
the sum of the
capacitance of the resistance of individual equal to the reciprocal
capacitances of the
individual capacitors. resistors of the effective
ndividualcapacitors
resistance of the
combination.

ALL THE BEST

V.MANIKANDAN.M.Sc.,B.Ed., PG Asst. in PHYSICS, MODEL SCHOOL,G.ARIYUR,THIRUKOVILUR. Cell: 9843431804


PHYSICS
HIGHER SECONDARY SECOND YEAR

(FOR SLOW LEARNERS)

10 MARKS
10 MARKS
1.Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on 2. Electric field due to an electric dipole at a point on the equatorial
line.
Its axial line.

3. Electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole 4. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric
medium.

i) ,

ii) ,

iii)
5. Capacitors in series and parallel 6. Van de Graaff Generator

Capacitors in series Capacitors in


parallel

It can produce large potential difference of


Principle:
i) Electrostatic induction
ii) Action of points.
Construction:
A- hollow metallic sphere
B, C- two pulleys
D,E- comb-shaped conductors
The pulley C is driven continuously by an electric motor.
The comb D is maintained at a positive potential of the order of
The effective capacitance
The reciprocal of the of the capacitors Working:
effective capacitance is connected in parallel is Action of points- the negative charges in air move towards
equal to the sum of the sum of the the needles and positive charges are repelled on towards the belt.
reciprocal of the capacitances of the Electrostatic induction- E acquires negative charge and the sphere
capacitance of the ndividualcapacitors acquires positive charge. The acquired positive charge is
individual capacitors. distributed on the outer surface of the sphere.
The leakage of charge from the sphere can be reduced by
enclosing it in a gas filled steel chamber at a very high pressure.

Use: accelerate positive ions (protons, deuterons)


deu

7.Heating effect : Joules law 8.Emf induced by changing the orientation of the coil
(i) Law of current:

PQRS is a rectangular coil of N turns and area A


The coil is rotated clockwise direction .
(ii) Law of resistance:

H=VIt
Heat produced is directly proportional to
i)the square of the current S.NO Alignment of plane Emf
(ii) resistance with B is
(iii) time 1. 0 perpendicular 0
(iii) Law of time: 2. parallel
3. perpendicular 0

4. parallel
5. 0
perpendicular
9.AC generator (Dynamo) Single phase: 10. Resistor, inductor and capacitor in series:

It is a used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.


Principle: Electromagnetic induction
Essential parts of an AC generator:
(i) Armature: It is a rectangular coil.
The copper wire wound on laminated soft iron core .
(ii) Field magnets: For high power dynamos, field is given by
electro magnet. Armature rotates between the magnetic poles.
(iii) Slip rings: Two hollow metallic rings R1 and R2.
These rings are fixed to a shaft.
(iv) Brushes: B1 and B2 are two carbon brushes.
They are used to pass the current on external power line.

Working:
* The induced current direction is given by Flemings right hand rule.
*ABCD is rotated in the anticlockwise direction. Instantaneous current i =
* AB side of the coil moves downwards and DC side moves upwards.
The current induced from B to A and fromD to C. 11. Transformer:
The current direction DCBA. Use: Converting low alternating voltage into
In external circuit cureent flows from B1 to B2. high alternating voltage and vice versa.
*On further rotation, Principle: Electromagnetic induction
DC side of the coil moves downwards and AB side moves upwards. Construction:
The current induced from A to B and fro C to D. NP - the number of turns in the primary coil
The current direction ABCD. NS -the number of turns in secondary coil, wound on a
soft iron core
In external circuit cureent flows from B2 to B1. EP - induced emf in the primary coil
e= Eo sin t , ES - induced emf in the secondary coil
Eo = NBA Ip - current in the primary coil

N - Number of turns , Is - current in the secondary coil


A -Area,
B -Magnetic field
-Angular velocity

The efficiency of transformer is always less than one.


12. Raman effect : 13.Expression for bandwidth
The scattered light contains some additional frequencies
other than that of incident frequency.
Stokes lines:The frequency lower than the incident frequency.
Antistokes lines: The frequencies higher than the incident frequency.
Rayleigh line: The spectral line will have unmodified frequency

* is positive and for Antistokes lines is negative.


*The intensity of Stokes line is greater than Antistokes Line.

The distance between any two consecutive bright


or dark bands

14.Determination of specific charge (e/m) of an electron 15.Bohr atom model:


Thomsons method. Postulates:
i)Bohrs quantization condition:
Specific charge: Charge per unit mass of the particle.
ii)Bohrs frequency condition:
Principle:
The cathode rays are deflected byelectric and magnetic fields.
electrostatic force
16.Ruby laser: 17.Helium neon laser:

*The 5500 radiation photons are absorbed by *He Ne laser containing helium and neon gas in the ratio of
the chromium ions 1 : 4 at a total pressure of about 1 mm of Hg.
* The excited ion gives up part of its energy to the crystal lattice. *The excited helium atoms transfer their energy to unexcited
Ne atoms by collision
* E2 has a much longer lifetime * It emits a 6328 photon in the visible region.
* The population inversion is achieved between * He atom help in achieving a population inversion in Ne atoms.
the states E2 and E1.
* It emits a photon of wavelength 6943

18. Bainbridge mass spectrometer Determination of 19. Geiger Muller counter


Isotopic masses of nuclei:

Use: to measure the intensity of the radioactive radiation.


Principle: When nuclear radiations pass through gas,ionisation
is produced.

* It is used for the accurate determination of atomic masses. Construction:


*It consists of a metal tube with glass envelope as cathode.
* S1 and S2- two slits. and a fine tungsten wire acts as anode.
P1 and P2- two plates to apply electric field. *The tube is filled with an inert gas like argon at a low pressure.
*A high potential difference is 1000 V and high resistance
B and B Uniform magnetic fields. is100 mega ohm.
* The electric field and magnetic field are nullified one Operation:
by the other *When an ionising radiation enters the counter, primary
ionisation takes place and a few ions are produced.
*An avalanche of electrons is produced in a short interval of
time. This avalanche of electrons on reaching the anode
generates a current pulse

*The counts in the counter is directly proportional to the


intensity of the ionising radiation.
*The ionisation of the gas is independent of the type of the
The diameter 2R from which radius R can be calculated. incident radiation
q- charge
m mass of ion. *G.M. counter does not distinguish the typeof radiation that
enters the chamber.
20.Nuclear reactor: 21.Cosmic Rays:
Principle: Controlled nuclear fission reaction. *The ionising radiation many times stronger than -rays entering
the earth from all the directions from cosmic space.
Types:
i) research reactors, *It can be classified into primary and secondary cosmic rays
ii)production reactors * The primary cosmic rays consist of 90% protons, 9%
helium nuclei and remaining heavy nuclei
iii) power reactors. Latitude effect:
*The variation of cosmic ray intensity with geomagnetic latitude is
known as latitude effect
(1) fuel *The intensity is maximum at the poles ( = 900), minimum at
the equator ( = 0) and constant between latitudes of
*Nuclear fuel generally used is
*The fissile isotopes
*In kamini reactor fuel is
(2) Moderator:
*It is used to slow down the fast neutrons.
*2 MeV of neutron energy reduced to 0.025 eV,
Ex: Ordinary water , heavy water &Graphite.
(3) Control rods:
*The control rods are used to control the chain reaction Altitude effect:
* boron or cadmium or boron carbide (B4C),
a ceramic material as control rod. *The study of variation of cosmic ray intensity (I) with altitude
(h) is known as altitude effect,
*The intensity increases with altitude and reaches a maximum at a
height of about 20 km.
(4) The cooling system: *Above this height there is a fall in intensity
*It removes the heat generated in the reactor core.
Ex: Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid sodium
(5) Shielding:
As a protection against the harmful radiations,
the reactor is surrounded by a concrete wall of
thickness about 2 to 2.5 m.

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