Napoleon

This article is about Napoleon I. For other uses, see age 24. The Directory eventually gave him command of
Napoleon (disambiguation). the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the
government from royalist insurgents. At age 26, he be-
gan his rst military campaign against the Austrians and
their Italian allieswinning virtually every battle, con-
quering the Italian Peninsula in a year, and becoming a
national hero. In 1798, he led a military expedition to
Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He
engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First
Consul of the Republic. His ambition and public approval
inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the rst
Emperor of the French. Intractable dierences with the
British meant that the French were facing a Third Coali-
tion by 1805. Napoleon shattered this coalition with deci-
sive victories in the Ulm Campaign and a historic triumph
over Russia and Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz, which
led to the elimination of the thousand year-old Holy Ro-
man Empire. In 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms
against him because Prussia became worried about grow-
ing French inuence on the continent. Napoleon quickly
defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then
marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe and
annihilated the Russians in June 1807 at the Battle of
Friedland. France then forced the defeated nations of the
Imperial coat of arms Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807,
bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signi-
Napoleon Bonaparte (/npolin bonprt/;[2] ed the high watermark of the French Empire. In 1809,
French: [naple bnapat]; 15 August 1769 5 May the Austrians and the British challenged the French again
1821) was a French military and political leader who during the War of the Fifth Coalition, but Napoleon so-
rose to prominence during the French Revolution and lidied his grip over Europe after triumphing at the Battle
led several successful campaigns during the French of Wagram in July.
Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke o
of the French from 1804 until 1814, and again in 1815. British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon in-
Napoleon dominated European and global aairs for vaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of
more than a decade while leading France against a Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted
series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years,
most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory
building a large empire that ruled over continental for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring
Europe before its nal collapse in 1815. One of the diplomatic conicts between France and its client states,
greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the economic con-
are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons sequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely vio-
political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as lated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into
one of the most celebrated and controversial leaders in another war. The French launched a major invasion of
human history.[3][4] Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign
He was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruc-
relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When tion of Russian cities, and inspired a renewed push against
the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving Napoleon by his enemies. In 1813, Prussia and Austria
as an artillery ocer in the French army. Seizing the new joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France.
opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rapidly rose A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Al-
through the ranks of the military, becoming a general at lied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in

1
2 1 ORIGINS AND EDUCATION

October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and cap-

tured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to
abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba
near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power.
However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815
and took control of France once again. The Allies re-
sponded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated
Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The British
exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the
South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of
51.[5][6]
Napoleon had an extensive and powerful inuence on the
modern world, bringing liberal reforms to the numerous
territories that he conquered and controlled, such as the
Low Countries, Switzerland, and large parts of modern
Italy and Germany. He implemented fundamental liberal
policies in France and throughout Western Europe.[note 1]
His legal achievement, the Napoleonic Code, has inu-
enced the legal systems of more than 70 nations around
the world. British historian Andrew Roberts stated, The
ideas that underpin our modern worldmeritocracy,
equality before the law, property rights, religious toler-
ation, modern secular education, sound nances, and so
onwere championed, consolidated, codied and geo-
graphically extended by Napoleon. To them he added a Napoleons father Carlo Buonaparte was Corsica's representative
rational and ecient local administration, an end to ru- to the court of Louis XVI of France.
ral banditry, the encouragement of science and the arts,
the abolition of feudalism and the greatest codication of
laws since the fall of the Roman Empire.[13]

1 Origins and education

Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769, to Carlo Maria di

Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino, in his familys
ancestral home Casa Buonaparte in Ajaccio, the capital
of the island of Corsica. He was their fourth child and
third son. This was a year after the island was transferred
to France by the Republic of Genoa.[14] He was chris-
tened Napoleone di Buonaparte, probably named after an
uncle (an older brother who did not survive infancy was
the rst of the sons to be called Napoleone). In his 20s,
he adopted the more French-sounding Napolon Bona-
parte.[15][note 2]
The Corsican Buonapartes were descended from minor
Italian nobility of Tuscan origin, who had come to Cor-
sica from Liguria in the 16th century.[16][17]
His father Nobile Carlo Buonaparte was an attorney, and The nationalist Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli; portrait by
Richard Cosway, 1798
was named Corsicas representative to the court of Louis
XVI in 1777. The dominant inuence of Napoleons
childhood was his mother, Letizia Ramolino, whose rm
discipline restrained a rambunctious child.[18] Napoleons He had an elder brother, Joseph, and younger siblings:
maternal grandmother had married into the Swiss Fesch Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline, and Jrme. A
family in her second marriage, and Napoleons uncle, the boy and girl were born before Joseph but died in infancy.
cardinal Joseph Fesch, would fulll a role as protector of Napoleon was baptised as a Catholic.[19]
the Bonaparte family for some years. Napoleons noble, moderately auent background af-
2.1 Siege of Toulon 3

forded him greater opportunities to study than were avail- nearly two years leave in Corsica and Paris during this pe-
able to a typical Corsican of the time.[20] In January 1779, riod. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalist,
he was enrolled at a religious school in Autun. In May, and wrote to Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli in May 1789,
he was admitted to a military academy at Brienne-le- As the nation was perishing I was born. Thirty thousand
Chteau.[21] His rst language was Corsican, and he al- Frenchmen were vomited on to our shores, drowning the
ways spoke French with a marked Corsican accent and throne of liberty in waves of blood. Such was the odious
never learned to spell French properly.[22] He was teased sight which was the rst to strike me.[29]
by other students for his accent and applied himself to He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica,
reading.[23] An examiner observed that Napoleon has al-
ghting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists,
ways been distinguished for his application in mathemat- revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He was a sup-
ics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geogra-
porter of the republican Jacobin movement, organising
phy... This boy would make an excellent sailor.[24][note 3]clubs in Corsica,[30] and was given command over a bat-
On completion of his studies at Brienne in 1784, talion of volunteers. He was promoted to captain in the
Napoleon was admitted to the elite cole Militaire in regular army in July 1792, despite exceeding his leave of
Paris. He trained to become an artillery ocer and, absence and leading a riot against French troops.[31]
when his fathers death reduced his income, was forced He came into conict with Paoli, who had decided to
to complete the two-year course in one year.[26] He was split with France and sabotage the French assault on the
the rst Corsican to graduate from the cole Militaire.[26] Sardinian island of La Maddalena.[32] Bonaparte and his
He was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon family ed to the French mainland in June 1793 because
Laplace.[27] of the split with Paoli.[33]

2 Early career 2.1 Siege of Toulon

Main article: Siege of Toulon

In July 1793, Bonaparte published a pro-republican

Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, lieutenant-colonel of a battalion
of Corsican Republican volunteers
Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was
commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fre artillery reg-
iment.[21][note 4] He served in Valence and Auxonne until
after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, and took
Bonaparte at the Siege of Toulon
pamphlet entitled Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at
Beaucaire) which gained him the support of Augustin
Robespierre, younger brother of the Revolutionary leader
Maximilien Robespierre. With the help of his fellow
Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti, Bonaparte was ap-
4 2 EARLY CAREER

pointed artillery commander of the republican forces at

the Siege of Toulon.[34]
He adopted a plan to capture a hill where republican guns
could dominate the citys harbour and force the British to
evacuate. The assault on the position led to the capture
of the city, but during it Bonaparte was wounded in the
thigh. He was promoted to brigadier general at the age
of 24. Catching the attention of the Committee of Public
Safety, he was put in charge of the artillery of Frances
Army of Italy.[35]
Napoleon spent time as inspector of coastal fortications
on the Mediterranean coast near Marseille while he was Journe du 13 Vendmiaire. Artillery re in front of the Church
waiting for conrmation of the Army of Italy post. He of Saint-Roch, Paris, Rue Saint-Honor
devised plans for attacking the Kingdom of Sardinia as
part of Frances campaign against the First Coalition. Au-
gustin Robespierre and Saliceti were ready to listen to the
freshly promoted artillery general.[36]
The French army carried out Bonapartes plan in the
Battle of Saorgio in April 1794, and then advanced to
seize Ormea in the mountains. From Ormea, they headed
west to outank the Austro-Sardinian positions around He was moved to the Bureau of Topography of the Com-
Saorge. After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent mittee of Public Safety and sought unsuccessfully to be
Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to de- transferred to Constantinople in order to oer his ser-
termine that countrys intentions towards France.[37] vices to the Sultan.[43] During this period, he wrote the
romantic novella Clisson et Eugnie, about a soldier and
his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonapartes own relation-
2.2 13 Vendmiaire ship with Dsire.[44] On 15 September, Bonaparte was
removed from the list of generals in regular service for his
refusal to serve in the Vende campaign. He faced a dif-
Main article: 13 Vendmiaire
cult nancial situation and reduced career prospects.[45]

Some contemporaries alleged that Bonaparte was put un- On 3 October, royalists in Paris declared a rebellion
der house arrest at Nice for his association with the Robe- against the National Convention.[46] Paul Barras, a leader
spierres following their fall in the Thermidorian Reaction of the Thermidorian Reaction, knew of Bonapartes mil-
in July 1794, but Napoleons secretary Bourrienne dis- itary exploits at Toulon and gave him command of the
puted the allegation in his memoirs. According to Bour- improvised forces in defence of the Convention in the
rienne, jealousy was responsible, between the Army of Tuileries Palace. Napoleon had seen the massacre of the
the Alps and the Army of Italy (with whom Napoleon Kings Swiss Guard there three years earlier and realised
was seconded at the time).[38] Bonaparte dispatched an that artillery would be the key to its defence.[21]
impassioned defense in a letter to the commissar Saliceti, He ordered a young cavalry ocer named Joachim Mu-
and he was subsequently acquitted of any wrongdoing.[39] rat to seize large cannons and used them to repel the at-
He was released within two weeks and, due to his tech- tackers on 5 October 179513 Vendmiaire An IV in the
French Republican Calendar. 1,400 royalists died and the
nical skills, was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian
positions in the context of Frances war with Austria. He rest ed.[46] He had cleared the streets with a whi of
also took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from grapeshot", according to 19th-century historian Thomas
the British, but the French were repulsed by the British Carlyle in The French Revolution: A History.[47][48]
Royal Navy.[40] The defeat of the royalist insurrection extinguished the
By 1795, Bonaparte had become engaged to Dsire threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden
Clary, daughter of Franois Clary. Dsires sister Julie fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new government,
Clary had married Bonapartes elder brother Joseph.[41] the Directory. Murat married one of Napoleons sis-
In April 1795, he was assigned to the Army of the West, ters and became his brother-in-law; he also served un-
which was engaged in the War in the Vendea civil der Napoleon as one of his generals. Bonaparte was pro-
war and royalist counter-revolution in Vende, a region in moted to Commander[33]of the Interior and given command
west central France on the Atlantic Ocean. As an infantry of the Army of Italy.
command, it was a demotion from artillery generalfor Within weeks, he was romantically attached to Josphine
which the army already had a full quotaand he pleaded de Beauharnais, the former mistress of Barras. The cou-
poor health to avoid the posting.[42] ple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony.[49]
2.4 Egyptian expedition
2.3 First Italian campaign
Main article: Italian campaigns of the French Revolution- from Vienna, and nally decided to sue for peace.[51] The
ary Wars
Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take Treaty of Campo Formio, gave France control of most of
Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole, by Baron Antoine-Jean Gros,
(ca. 1801), Muse du Louvre, Paris
command of the Army of Italy. He immediately went
on the oensive, hoping to defeat the forces of Piedmont
before their Austrian allies could intervene. In a series
of rapid victories during the Montenotte Campaign, he
knocked Piedmont out of the war in two weeks. The
French then focused on the Austrians for the remainder
of the war, the highlight of which became the protracted
struggle for Mantua. The Austrians launched a series
of oensives against the French to break the siege, but
Napoleon defeated every relief eort, scoring victories
at the battles of Castiglione, Bassano, Arcole, and Rivoli.
The decisive French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led
to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli,
the Austrians lost up to 14,000 men while the French lost
about 5,000.[50]
The next phase of the campaign featured the French inva-
sion of the Habsburg heartlands. French forces in South-
ern Germany had been defeated by the Archduke Charles
in 1796, but the Archduke withdrew his forces to protect
Vienna after learning about Napoleons assault. In the
rst encounter between the two commanders, Napoleon
pushed back his opponent and advanced deep into Aus-
trian territory after winning at the Battle of Tarvis in
5
March 1797. The Austrians were alarmed by the French
thrust that reached all the way to Leoben, about 100 km
Treaty of Leoben, followed by the more comprehensive
northern Italy and the Low Countries, and a secret clause
promised the Republic of Venice to Austria. Bonaparte
marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending 1,100
years of independence. He also authorized the French to
loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark.[52]
His application of conventional military ideas to real-
world situations enabled his military triumphs, such as
creative use of artillery as a mobile force to support his
infantry. He stated later in life: I have fought sixty bat-
tles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at
the beginning. Look at Caesar; he fought the rst like the
last.[53]
Bonaparte could win battles by concealment of troop de-
ployments and concentration of his forces on the hinge
of an enemys weakened front. If he could not use his
favourite envelopment strategy, he would take up the cen-
tral position and attack two co-operating forces at their
hinge, swing round to ght one until it ed, then turn to
face the other.[54] In this Italian campaign, Bonapartes
army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons, and 170
standards.[55] The French army fought 67 actions and won
18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology
and Bonapartes tactics.[56]
During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly in-
uential in French politics. He founded two newspapers:
one for the troops in his army and another for circulation
in France.[57] The royalists attacked Bonaparte for looting
Italy and warned that he might become a dictator.[58] All
told, Napoleons forces extracted an estimated $45 mil-
lion in funds from Italy during their campaign there, an-
other $12 million in precious metals and jewels; atop that,
his forces conscated more than three-hundred price-
less paintings and sculptures.[59] Bonaparte sent General
Pierre Augereau to Paris to lead a coup d'tat and purge
the royalists on 4 SeptemberCoup of 18 Fructidor.
This left Barras and his Republican allies in control again
but dependent on Bonaparte, who proceeded to peace ne-
gotiations with Austria. These negotiations resulted in
the Treaty of Campo Formio, and Bonaparte returned
to Paris in December as a hero.[60] He met Talleyrand,
Frances new Foreign Ministerwho served in the same
capacity for Emperor Napoleonand they began to pre-
pare for an invasion of Britain.[33]
2.4 Egyptian expedition
Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria
After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that
Frances naval power was not yet strong enough to con-
front the British Royal Navy. He decided on a military
expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britains
6 3 RULER OF FRANCE

French army.[67]
On 1 August 1798, the British eet under Horatio Nel-
son captured or destroyed all but two French vessels
in the Battle of the Nile, defeating Bonapartes goal to
strengthen the French position in the Mediterranean.[68]
His army had succeeded in a temporary increase
of French power in Egypt, though it faced repeated
uprisings.[69] In early 1799, he moved an army into
the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee).
Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the con-
quest of the coastal towns of Arish, Gaza, Jaa, and
Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, (ca. 1868) by Jean-Lon Grme, Haifa.[70] The attack on Jaa was particularly brutal.
Hearst Castle Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were
former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, so he or-
dered the garrison and 1,400 prisoners to be executed by
bayonet or drowning to save bullets.[68] Men, women, and
children were robbed and murdered for three days.[71]
Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men; 1,500
were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thou-
sands perished from diseasemostly bubonic plague. He
failed to reduce the fortress of Acre, so he marched
his army back to Egypt in May. To speed up the re-
Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 by Louis-Franois, treat, Bonaparte ordered plague-stricken men to be poi-
Baron Lejeune, 1808 soned with opium; the number who died remains dis-
puted, ranging from a low of 30 to a high of 580. He
also brought out 1,000 wounded men.[72] Back in Egypt
[33]
access to its trade interests in India. Bonaparte wished on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious
to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with invasion at Abukir.[73]
the ultimate dream of linking with Tipu Sultan, a Mus-
lim enemy of the British in India.[61]
Napoleon assured the Directory that as soon as he had 3 Ruler of France
conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the In-
dian princes and, together with them, attack the English Main articles: 18 Brumaire and Napoleonic era
in their possessions.[62] The Directory agreed in order to While in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed of European
secure a trade route to India.[63] aairs. He learned that France had suered a series of
In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the defeats in the War of the Second Coalition.[74] On 24 Au-
French Academy of Sciences. His Egyptian expedition gust 1799, he took advantage of the temporary departure
included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for
naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them. Their France, despite the fact that he had received no explicit
discoveries included the Rosetta Stone, and their work orders from Paris.[68] The army was left in the charge of
was published in the Description de l'gypte in 1809.[64] Jean Baptiste Klber.[75]
En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached Malta on 9 June Unknown to Bonaparte, the Directory had sent him or-
1798, then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller. Grand ders to return to ward o possible invasions of French
Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surren- soil, but poor lines of communication prevented the de-
dered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an livery of these messages.[74] By the time that he reached
important naval base with the loss of only three men.[65] Paris in October, Frances situation had been improved
General Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by by a series of victories. The Republic, however, was
the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July.[33] He bankrupt and the ineective Directory was unpopular
fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks, with the French population.[76] The Directory discussed
Egypts ruling military caste. This helped the French Bonapartes desertion but was too weak to punish
practice their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyra- him.[74]
mids, fought on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a
the pyramids. General Bonapartes forces of 25,000 heros welcome. He drew together an alliance with direc-
roughly equalled those of the Mamluks Egyptian cavalry. tor Emmanuel Joseph Sieys, his brother Lucien, speaker
Twenty-nine French[66] and approximately 2,000 Egyp- of the Council of Five Hundred Roger Ducos, director
tians were killed. The victory boosted the morale of the Joseph Fouch, and Talleyrand, and they overthrew the
3.1 French Consulate
General Bonaparte surrounded by members of the Council of
Five Hundred during the Coup of 18 Brumaire, by Franois Bou-
chot
Directory by a coup d'tat on 9 November 1799 (the
18th Brumaire according to the revolutionary calendar),
closing down the council of ve hundred. Napoleon be-
came rst consul for ten years, with two consuls ap-
pointed by him who had consultative voices only. His
power was conrmed by the new "Constitution of the
Year VIII", originally devised by Sieys to give Napoleon
a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by
direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed).
The constitution preserved the appearance of a republic
but in reality established a dictatorship.[77][78]
3.1 French Consulate
Main articles: French Consulate and War of the Second
Coalition
Napoleon established a political system that histo-
rian Martyn Lyons called dictatorship by plebiscite.[79]
Worried by the democratic forces unleashed by the Rev-
olution, but unwilling to ignore them entirely, Napoleon
resorted to regular electoral consultations with the French
people on his road to imperial power.[79] He drafted the
Constitution of the Year VIII and secured his own elec-
tion as First Consul, taking up residence at the Tuileries.
The constitution was approved in a rigged plebiscite held
the following January, with 99.94 percent ocially listed
as voting yes.[80] Napoleons brother, Lucien, had fal-
sied the returns to show that 3 million people had
participated in the plebiscite; the real number was 1.5
million.[79] Political observers at the time assumed the
eligible French voting public numbered about 5 million
people, so the regime articially doubled the participation
rate to indicate popular enthusiasm for the Consulate.[79]
7
Bonaparte, First Consul, by Ingres. Posing the hand inside the
waistcoat was often used in portraits of rulers to indicate calm
and stable leadership.
In the rst few months of the Consulate, with war in Eu-
rope still raging and internal instability still plaguing the
country, Napoleons grip on power remained very tenu-
ous.
In the spring of 1800, Napoleon and his troops crossed
the Swiss Alps into Italy, aiming to surprise the Austrian
armies that had reoccupied the peninsula when Napoleon
was still in Egypt.[note 5] After a dicult crossing over
the Alps, the French army entered the plains of North-
ern Italy virtually unopposed.[82] While one French army
approached from the north, the Austrians were busy with
another stationed in Genoa, which was besieged by a sub-
stantial force. The erce resistance of this French army,
under Andr Massna, gave the northern force some time
to carry out their operations with little interference.[83]
After spending several days looking for each other, the
two armies collided at the Battle of Marengo on 14 June.
General Melas had a numerical advantage, elding about
30,000 Austrian soldiers while Napoleon commanded
24,000 French troops.[84] The battle began favorably for
the Austrians as their initial attack surprised the French
and gradually drove them back. Melas stated that he'd
won the battle and retired to his headquarters around 3
pm, leaving his subordinates in charge of pursuing the
French.[85] The French lines never broke during their tac-
8 3 RULER OF FRANCE

Joseph, led the complex negotiations in Lunville and

reported that Austria, emboldened by British support,
would not acknowledge the new territory that France
had acquired. As negotiations became increasingly frac-
tious, Bonaparte gave orders to his general Moreau to
strike Austria once more. Moreau and the French swept
through Bavaria and scored an overwhelming victory at
Hohenlinden in December 1800. As a result, the Aus-
trians capitulated and signed the Treaty of Lunville in
February 1801. The treaty rearmed and expanded ear-
lier French gains at Campo Formio.[89] Britain now re-
mained the only nation that was still at war with France.

3.1.1 Temporary peace in Europe

See also: Haitian Revolution

After a decade of constant warfare, France and Britain

signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing
the Revolutionary Wars to an end. Amiens called for
the withdrawal of British troops from recently conquered
colonial territories as well as for assurances to curtail the
expansionary goals of the French Republic.[83] With Eu-
rope at peace and the economy recovering, Napoleons
popularity soared to its highest levels under the Consulate,
both domestically and abroad.[90] In a new plebiscite dur-
Napoleon as commander of the Army ing the spring of 1802, the French public came out in huge
numbers to approve a constitution that made the Con-
sulate permanent, essentially elevating Napoleon to dic-
tator for life.[90] Whereas the plebiscite two years earlier
tical retreat; Napoleon constantly rode out among the had brought out 1.5 million people to the polls, the new
troops urging them to stand and ght. Late in the after- referendum enticed 3.6 million to go and vote (72% of all
noon, a full division under Desaix arrived on the eld and eligible voters).[91] There was no secret ballot in 1802 and
reversed the tide of the battle. A series of artillery bar- few people wanted to openly defy the regime; the consti-
rages and cavalry charges decimated the Austrian army, tution gained approval with over 99% of the vote.[91] His
which ed over the Bormida River back to Alessandria, broad powers were spelled out in the new constitution:
leaving behind 14,000 casualties.[86] The following day,
Article 1. The French people name, and the Senate pro-
the Austrian army agreed to abandon Northern Italy once claims Napoleon-Bonaparte First Consul for Life.[92] Af-
more with the Convention of Alessandria, which granted
ter 1802, he was generally referred to as Napoleon rather
them safe passage to friendly soil in exchange for their than Bonaparte.[28]
fortresses throughout the region.[86]
The brief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus on
Although critics have blamed Napoleon for several tacti- the French colonies abroad. Saint-Domingue had man-
cal mistakes preceding the battle, they have also praisedaged to acquire a high level of political autonomy during
his audacity for selecting a risky campaign strategy, the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussaint Louverture in-
choosing to invade the Italian peninsula from the north stalling himself as de facto dictator by 1801. Napoleon
when the vast majority of French invasions came from the saw his chance to recuperate the formerly wealthy colony
west, near or along the coastline.[87] As Chandler pointswhen he signed the Treaty of Amiens. During the Rev-
out, Napoleon spent almost a year getting the Austrians olution, the National Convention voted to abolish slav-
out of Italy in his rst campaign; in 1800, it took him only
ery in February 1794. Under the terms of Amiens, how-
a month to achieve the same goal.[87] German strategist ever, Napoleon agreed to appease British demands by not
and eld marshal Alfred von Schlieen concluded that abolishing slavery in any colonies where the 1794 de-
Bonaparte did not annihilate his enemy but eliminated cree had never been implemented. The resulting Law
him and rendered him harmless while "[attaining] the of 20 May never applied to colonies like Guadeloupe
object of the campaign: the conquest of North Italy.[88]or Guyane, even though rogue generals and other o-
Napoleons triumph at Marengo secured his political au- cials used the pretext of peace as an opportunity to re-
thority and boosted his popularity back home, but it did instate slavery in some of these places. The Law of 20
not lead to an immediate peace. Bonapartes brother, May ocially restored the slave trade to the Caribbean
3.2 French Empire 9

colonies, not slavery itself.[93] Napoleon sent an expedi-

tion under General Leclerc designed to reassert control
over Sainte-Domingue. Although the French managed
to capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed
when high rates of disease crippled the French army. In
May 1803, the last 8000 French troops left the island
and the slaves proclaimed an independent republic that
they called Hati in 1804.[94] Seeing the failure of his
colonial eorts, Napoleon decided in 1803 to sell the
Louisiana Territory to the United States, instantly dou-
bling the size of the U.S. The selling price in the Louisiana
Purchase was less than three cents per acre, a total of $15
million.[3][95]
The peace with Britain proved to be uneasy and
controversial.[96] Britain did not evacuate Malta as
promised and protested against Bonapartes annexation of
Piedmont and his Act of Mediation, which established
a new Swiss Confederation. Neither of these territo-
ries were covered by Amiens, but they inamed tensions
signicantly.[97] The dispute culminated in a declaration
of war by Britain in May 1803; Napoleon responded by
reassembling the invasion camp at Boulogne.[68]

3.2 French Empire

Bust of Napoleon I, 18071809 CE. Marble, from Carrara, Italy.
Main article: First French Empire After Antoine-Denis Chaudet. The Victoria and Albert Museum,
See also: Coronation of Napoleon I and Napoleonic Wars London

To expand his power, Napoleon used these assassina-

tion plots to justify the creation of an imperial system
based on the Roman model. He believed that a Bourbon
restoration would be more dicult if his familys succes-
sion was entrenched in the constitution.[100] Launching
yet another referendum, Napoleon was elected as Em-
peror of the French by a tally exceeding 99%.[91] As with
the Life Consulate two years earlier, this referendum pro-
duced heavy participation, bringing out almost 3.6 mil-
lion voters to the polls.[91]

The Coronation of Napoleon by Jacques-Louis David in 1804.
During the Consulate, Napoleon faced several roy-
alist and Jacobin assassination plots, including the
Conspiration des poignards (Dagger plot) in October 1800
and the Plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise (also known as the
Infernal Machine) two months later.[98] In January 1804,
his police uncovered an assassination plot against him that
involved Moreau and which was ostensibly sponsored by
the Bourbon family, the former rulers of France. On
the advice of Talleyrand, Napoleon ordered the kidnap-
ping of the Duke of Enghien, violating the sovereignty
of Baden. The Duke was quickly executed after a se-
cret military trial, even though he had not been involved
in the plot.[99] Enghiens execution infuriated royal courts
throughout Europe, becoming one of the contributing po-
litical factors for the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars.
A keen observer of Bonapartes rise to absolute power,
Madame de Rmusat, explains that men worn out by
the turmoil of the Revolution looked for the domi-
nation of an able ruler and that people believed quite
sincerely that Bonaparte, whether as consul or emperor,
would exert his authority and save [them] from the perils
of anarchy.[101] "
Napoleons coronation took place on 2 December 1804.
Two separate crowns were brought for the ceremony: a
golden laurel wreath recalling the Roman Empire and a
replica of Charlemagnes crown.[102] Napoleon entered
the ceremony wearing the laurel wreath and kept it on
his head throughout the proceedings.[102] For the ocial
coronation, he raised the Charlemagne crown over his
own head in a symbolic gesture, but never placed it on top
because he was already wearing the golden wreath.[102]
Instead he placed the crown on Josephines head, the
10 3 RULER OF FRANCE

event commemorated in the ocially sanctioned painting men,[108] who were well equipped, well trained, and led
by Jacques-Louis David.[102] Napoleon was also crowned by competent ocers.[109]
King of Italy, with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, at the Napoleon knew that the French eet could not defeat the
Cathedral of Milan on 26 May 1805. He created eighteen Royal Navy in a head-to-head battle, so he planned to lure
Marshals of the Empire from amongst his top generals to it away from the English Channel through diversionary
secure the allegiance of the army. tactics.[110] The main strategic idea involved the French
Navy escaping from the British blockades of Toulon and
3.2.1 War of the Third Coalition Brest and threatening to attack the West Indies. In the
face of this attack, it was hoped, the British would weaken
Main article: War of the Third Coalition their defense of the Western Approaches by sending ships
Great Britain had broken the Peace of Amiens by declar- to the Caribbean, allowing a combined Franco-Spanish
eet to take control of the channel long enough for French
armies to cross and invade.[110] However, the plan unrav-
eled after the British victory at the Battle of Cape Finis-
terre in July 1805. French Admiral Villeneuve then re-
treated to Cdiz instead of linking up with French naval
forces at Brest for an attack on the English Channel.[111]
By August 1805, Napoleon had realized that the strate-
gic situation had changed fundamentally. Facing a po-
tential invasion from his continental enemies, he decided
to strike rst and turned his armys sights from the En-
glish Channel to the Rhine. His basic objective was to de-
stroy the isolated Austrian armies in Southern Germany
before their Russian allies could arrive. On 25 Septem-
Napoleon and the Grande Arme receive the surrender of ber, after great secrecy and feverish marching, 200,000
Austrian General Mack after the Battle of Ulm in October 1805.
French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260
The decisive nale of the Ulm Campaign raised the tally of cap-
km (160 mi).[112][113] Austrian commander Karl Mack
tured Austrian soldiers to 60,000. With the Austrian army de-
stroyed, Vienna would fall to the French in November. had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the
fortress of Ulm in Swabia. Napoleon swung his forces
ing war on France in May 1803.[103] In December 1804, to the southeast and the Grande Arme performed an
an Anglo-Swedish agreement became the rst step to- elaborate wheeling movement that outanked the Aus-
wards the creation of the Third Coalition. By April 1805, trian positions. The Ulm Maneuver completely surprised
Britain had also signed an alliance with Russia.[104] Aus- General Mack, who belatedly understood that his army
tria had been defeated by France twice in recent mem- had been cut o. After some minor engagements that
ory and wanted revenge, so it joined the coalition a few culminated in the Battle of Ulm, Mack nally surren-
months later.[105] dered after realizing that there was no way to break out of
the French encirclement. For just 2,000 French casual-
Before the formation of the Third Coalition, Napoleon ties, Napoleon had managed to capture a total of 60,000
had assembled an invasion force, the Arme d'Angleterre, Austrian soldiers through his armys rapid marching.[114]
around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France. He The Ulm Campaign is generally regarded as a strate-
intended to use this invasion force to strike at Eng- gic masterpiece and was inuential in the development
land. They never invaded, but Napoleons troops re- of the Schlieen Plan in the late 19th century.[115] For
ceived careful and invaluable training for future military the French, this spectacular victory on land was soured
operations.[106] The men at Boulogne formed the core by the decisive victory that the Royal Navy attained at
for what Napoleon later called La Grande Arme. At the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October. After Trafalgar,
the start, this French army had about 200,000 men or- Britain had total domination of the seas for the duration
ganized into seven corps, which were large eld units that of the Napoleonic Wars.
contained 36 to 40 cannons each and were capable of
independent action until other corps could come to the Following the Ulm Campaign, French forces managed to
rescue.[107] A single corps properly situated in a strong capture Vienna in November. The fall of Vienna pro-
defensive position could survive at least a day without sup- vided the French a huge bounty as they captured 100,000
port, giving the Grande Arme countless strategic and tac- muskets, 500 cannons, and the intact bridges across the
tical options on every campaign. On top of these forces, Danube.[116] At this critical juncture, both Tsar Alexan-
Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22,000 organized der I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II decided to en-
into two cuirassier divisions, four mounted dragoon divi- gage Napoleon in battle, despite reservations from some
sions, one division of dismounted dragoons, and one of of their subordinates. Napoleon sent his army north in
light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces.[108] By pursuit of the Allies, but then ordered his forces to re-
1805, the Grande Arme had grown to a force of 350,000 treat so that he could feign a grave weakness. Desperate
3.2 French Empire
Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by Franois Grard 1805.
The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three
Emperors, was one of Napoleons many victories, where the
French Empire defeated the Third Coalition.
to lure the Allies into battle, Napoleon gave every indica-
tion in the days preceding the engagement that the French
army was in a pitiful state, even abandoning the domi-
nant Pratzen Heights near the village of Austerlitz. At
the Battle of Austerlitz, in Moravia on 2 December, he
deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and
deliberately weakened his right ank, enticing the Allies
to launch a major assault there in the hopes of rolling up
the whole French line. A forced march from Vienna by
Marshal Davout and his III Corps plugged the gap left by
Napoleon just in time. Meanwhile, the heavy Allied de-
ployment against the French right weakened their center
on the Pratzen Heights, which was viciously attacked by
the IV Corps of Marshal Soult. With the Allied center
demolished, the French swept through both enemy anks
and sent the Allies eeing chaotically, capturing thou-
sands of prisoners in the process. The battle is often seen
as a tactical masterpiece because of the near-perfect exe-
cution of a calibrated but dangerous plan of the same
stature as Cannae, the celebrated triumph by Hannibal
some 2,000 years before.[117]
The Allied disaster at Austerlitz signicantly shook the
faith of Emperor Francis in the British-led war eort.
France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately
and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after on 26
December. Pressburg took Austria out of both the war
and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of
Campo Formio and of Lunville between the two pow-
ers. The treaty conrmed the Austrian loss of lands to
France in Italy and Bavaria, and lands in Germany to
Napoleons German allies. It also imposed an indem-
nity of 40 million francs on the defeated Habsburgs and
allowed the eeing Russian troops free passage through
hostile territories and back to their home soil. Napoleon
went on to say, The battle of Austerlitz is the nest of all I
have fought.[118] Frank McLynn suggests that Napoleon
was so successful at Austerlitz that he lost touch with
reality, and what used to be French foreign policy be-
came a personal Napoleonic one.[119] Vincent Cronin
disagrees, stating that Napoleon was not overly ambitious
for himself, he embodied the ambitions of thirty million
Frenchmen.[120]
11
3.2.2 Middle-Eastern alliances
Main articles: Franco-Ottoman alliance and Franco-
Persian alliance
Napoleon continued to entertain a grand scheme to es-
The Iranian Envoy Mirza Mohammed Reza-Qazvini meeting
with Napoleon I at the Finckenstein Palace, 27 April 1807, to
sign the Treaty of Finckenstein.
tablish a French presence in the Middle East in order to
put pressure on Britain and Russia, and perhaps form an
alliance with the Ottoman Empire.[61] In February 1806,
Ottoman Emperor Selim III nally recognized Napoleon
as Emperor. He also opted for an alliance with France,
calling France our sincere and natural ally.[121] That
decision brought the Ottoman Empire into a losing war
against Russia and Britain. A Franco-Persian alliance was
also formed between Napoleon and the Persian Empire of
Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. It collapsed in 1807, when France
and Russia themselves formed an unexpected alliance.[61]
In the end, Napoleon had made no eective alliances in
the Middle East.[122]
3.2.3 War of the Fourth Coalition and Tilsit
Main article: War of the Fourth Coalition
After Austerlitz, Napoleon established the Confederation
of the Rhine in 1806. A collection of German states in-
tended to serve as a buer zone between France and Cen-
tral Europe, the creation of the Confederation spelled the
end of the Holy Roman Empire and signicantly alarmed
the Prussians. The brazen reorganization of German ter-
ritory by the French risked threatening Prussian inu-
ence in the region, if not eliminating it outright. War
fever in Berlin rose steadily throughout the summer of
1806. At the insistence of his court, especially his wife
Queen Louise, Frederick William III decided to chal-
lenge the French domination of Central Europe by going
to war.[123]
The initial military maneuvers began in September 1806.
12
Napoleon reviews the Imperial Guard before the Battle of Jena.
In a letter to Marshal Soult detailing the plan for the
campaign, Napoleon described the essential features
of Napoleonic warfare and introduced the phrase le
bataillon-carr (square battalion).[124] In the bataillon-
carr system, the various corps of the Grande Arme
would march uniformly together in close supporting
distance.[124] If any single corps was attacked, the oth-
ers could quickly spring into action and arrive to help.
Napoleon invaded Prussia with 180,000 troops, rapidly
marching on the right bank of the River Saale. As in
previous campaigns, his fundamental objective was to
destroy one opponent before reinforcements from an-
other could tip the balance of the war. Upon learn-
ing the whereabouts of the Prussian army, the French
swung westwards and crossed the Saale with overwhelm-
ing force. At the twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt,
fought on 14 October, the French convincingly defeated
the Prussians and inicted heavy casualties. With sev-
eral major commanders dead or incapacitated, the Prus-
sian king proved incapable of eectively commanding
the army, which began to quickly disintegrate. In a
vaunted pursuit that epitomized the peak of Napoleonic
warfare, according to historian Richard Brooks,[125] the
French managed to capture 140,000 soldiers, over 2,000
cannons and hundreds of ammunition wagons, all in a sin-
gle month. Historian David Chandler wrote of the Prus-
sian forces: Never has the morale of any army been more
completely shattered.[124] Despite their overwhelming
defeat, the Prussians refused to negotiate with the French
until the Russians had an opportunity to enter the ght.
Following his triumph, Napoleon imposed the rst ele-
ments of the Continental System through the Berlin De-
cree issued in November 1806. The Continental System,
which prohibited European nations from trading with
Britain, was widely violated throughout his reign.[126][127]
In the next few months, Napoleon marched against the ad-
vancing Russian armies through Poland and was involved
in the bloody stalemate at the Battle of Eylau in February
1807.[128] After a period of rest and consolidation on both
3 RULER OF FRANCE
The Treaties of Tilsit: Napoleon meeting with Alexander I of
Russia on a raft in the middle of the Neman River
sides, the war restarted in June with an initial struggle at
Heilsberg that proved indecisive. On 14 June, however,
Napoleon nally obtained an overwhelming victory over
the Russians at the Battle of Friedland, wiping out the
majority of the Russian army in a very bloody struggle.
The scale of their defeat convinced the Russians to make
peace with the French. On 19 June, Czar Alexander sent
an envoy to seek an armistice with Napoleon. The latter
assured the envoy that the Vistula River represented the
natural borders between French and Russian inuence in
Europe. On that basis, the two emperors began peace ne-
gotiations at the town of Tilsit after meeting on an iconic
raft on the River Niemen. The very rst thing Alexander
said to Napoleon was probably well-calibrated: I hate
the English as much as you do.[129]
Alexander faced pressure from his brother, Duke Con-
stantine, to make peace with Napoleon. Given the vic-
tory he had just achieved, the French emperor oered the
Russians relatively lenient termsdemanding that Russia
join the Continental System, withdraw its forces from
Wallachia and Moldavia, and hand over the Ionian Is-
lands to France.[130] By contrast, Napoleon dictated very
harsh peace terms for Prussia, despite the ceaseless ex-
hortations of Queen Louise. Wiping out half of Prussian
territories from the map, Napoleon created a new king-
dom of 1,100 square miles called Westphalia. He then
appointed his young brother Jrme as the new monarch
of this kingdom. Prussias humiliating treatment at Tilsit
caused a deep and bitter antagonism which festered as the
Napoleonic era progressed. Moreover, Alexanders pre-
tensions at friendship with Napoleon led the latter to se-
riously misjudge the true intentions of his Russian coun-
terpart, who would violate numerous provisions of the
treaty in the next few years. Despite these problems, the
Treaties of Tilsit at last gave Napoleon a respite from war
and allowed him to return to France, which he had not
seen in over 300 days.[131]
3.2 French Empire
3.2.4 Peninsular War and Erfurt
Main article: Peninsular War
The settlements at Tilsit gave Napoleon time to organize
his empire. One of his major objectives became enforc-
ing the Continental System against the British. He de-
cided to focus his attention on the Kingdom of Portugal,
which consistently violated his trade prohibitions. Af-
ter defeat in the War of the Oranges in 1801, Portugal
adopted a double-sided policy. At rst, John VI agreed
to close his ports to British trade. The situation changed
dramatically after the Franco-Spanish defeat at Trafalgar; Before going to Iberia, Napoleon decided to address sev-
John grew bolder and ocially resumed diplomatic and eral lingering issues with the Russians. At the Congress of
trade relations with Britain.
Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleons brother, as King of Spain
Unhappy with this change of policy by the Portuguese
government, Napoleon sent an army to invade Portu-
gal. On 17 October 1807, 24,000 French troops under
General Junot crossed the Pyrenees with Spanish cooper-
ation and headed towards Portugal to enforce Napoleons
orders.[132] This attack was the rst step in what would
eventually become the Peninsular War, a six-year strug-
gle that signicantly sapped French strength. Through-
out the winter of 1808, French agents became increas-
ingly involved in Spanish internal aairs, attempting to
incite discord between members of the Spanish royal
family. On 16 February 1808, secret French machina-
tions nally materialized when Napoleon announced that
13
he would intervene to mediate between the rival political
factions in the country.[133] Marshal Murat led 120,000
troops into Spain and the French arrived in Madrid on
24 March,[134] where wild riots against the occupation
erupted just a few weeks later. Napoleon appointed his
brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as the new King of Spain in
the summer of 1808. The appointment enraged a heav-
ily religious and conservative Spanish population. Resis-
tance to French aggression soon spread throughout the
country. The shocking French defeat at the Battle of
Bailn in July gave hope to Napoleons enemies and partly
persuaded the French emperor to intervene in person.
Erfurt in October 1808, Napoleon hoped to keep Russia
on his side during the upcoming struggle in Spain and dur-
ing any potential conict against Austria. The two sides
reached an agreement, the Erfurt Convention, that called
upon Britain to cease its war against France, that rec-
ognized the Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden,
and that armed Russian support for France in a pos-
sible war against Austria to the best of its ability.[135]
Napoleon then returned to France and prepared for war.
The Grande Arme, under the Emperors personal com-
mand, rapidly crossed the Ebro River in November 1808
and inicted a series of crushing defeats against the Span-
ish forces. After clearing the last Spanish force guarding
the capital at Somosierra, Napoleon entered Madrid on 4
December with 80,000 troops.[136] He then unleashed his
soldiers against Moore and the British forces. The British
were swiftly driven to the coast, and they withdrew from
Spain entirely after a last stand at the Battle of Corunna
in January 1809.
Napoleon would end up leaving Iberia in order to deal
with the Austrians in Central Europe, but the Peninsu-
lar War continued on long after his absence. He never
returned to Spain after the 1808 campaign. Several
months after Corunna, the British sent another army to
the peninsula under the future Duke of Wellington. The
war then settled into a complex and asymmetric strate-
gic deadlock where all sides struggled to gain the up-
per hand. The highlight of the conict became the bru-
tal guerrilla warfare that engulfed much of the Span-
ish countryside. Both sides committed the worst atroc-
ities of the Napoleonic Wars during this phase of the
conict. The vicious guerrilla ghting in Spain, largely
absent from the French campaigns in Central Europe,
severely disrupted the French lines of supply and commu-
nication. Although France maintained roughly 300,000
troops in Iberia during the Peninsular War, the vast ma-
jority were tied down to garrison duty and to intelligence
operations.[137] The French were never able to concen-
trate all of their forces eectively, prolonging the war
until events elsewhere in Europe nally turned the tide in
favor of the Allies. After the invasion of Russia in 1812,
the number of French troops in Spain vastly declined as
Napoleon needed reinforcements to conserve his strate-
14 3 RULER OF FRANCE

gic position in Europe. By 1814, after scores of battles Grande Arme in a dangerous position, with its two wings
and sieges throughout Iberia, the Allies had managed to separated by 75 miles (121 km) and joined together by
push the French out of the peninsula. a thin cordon of Bavarian troops. Charles pressed the
The impact of the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and oust- left wing of the French army and hurled his men towards
ing of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy in favor of his the III Corps of Marshal Davout. In response, Napoleon
brother Joseph had an enormous impact on the Spanish came up with a plan to cut [140] o the Austrians in the cele-
empire. In Spanish America many local elites formed brated Landshut Maneuver. He realigned the axis of
juntas and set up mechanisms to rule in the name of his army and marched his soldiers towards the town of
Eckmhl. The French scored a convincing win in the re-
Ferdinand VII of Spain, whom they considered the le-
gitimate Spanish monarch. The outbreak of the Spanish sulting Battle of Eckmhl, forcing Charles to withdraw
his forces over the Danube and into Bohemia. On 13
American wars of independence in most of the empire
was a result of Napoleons destabilizing actions in Spain May, Vienna fell for the second time in four years, al-
though the war continued since most of the Austrian army
and led to the rise of strongmen in the wake of these
wars.[138] had survived the initial engagements in Southern Ger-
many.
By 17 May, the main Austrian army under Charles had
3.2.5 War of the Fifth Coalition and Marie Louise arrived on the Marchfeld. Charles kept the bulk of his
troops several miles away from the river bank in hopes
Main article: War of the Fifth Coalition of concentrating them at the point where Napoleon de-
After four years on the sidelines, Austria sought another cided to cross. On 21 May, the French made their rst
major eort to cross the Danube, precipitating the Battle
of Aspern-Essling. The Austrians enjoyed a comfortable
numerical superiority over the French throughout the bat-
tle; on the rst day, Charles disposed of 110,000 soldiers
against only 31,000 commanded by Napoleon.[141] By the
second day, reinforcements had boosted French numbers
up to 70,000.[142] The battle was characterized by a vi-
cious back-and-forth struggle for the two villages of As-
pern and Essling, the focal points of the French bridge-
head. By the end of the ghting, the French had lost As-
pern but still controlled Essling. A sustained Austrian ar-
tillery bombardment eventually convinced Napoleon to
withdraw his forces back onto Lobau Island. Both sides
inicted about 23,000 casualties on each other.[143] It was
the rst defeat Napoleon suered in a major set-piece
Napoleon at the Battle of Wagram, painted by Horace Vernet. battle, and it caused excitement throughout many parts
of Europe because it proved that he could be beaten on
war with France to avenge its recent defeats. Austria the battleeld.[144]
could not count on Russian support because the latter was
at war with Britain, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire in After the setback at Aspern-Essling, Napoleon took more
1809. Frederick William of Prussia initially promised to than six weeks in planning and preparing for contin-
help the Austrians, but reneged before conict began.[139] gencies before
[145]
he made another attempt at crossing the
A report from the Austrian nance minister suggested Danube. From 30 June to the early days of July,
that the treasury would run out of money by the middle the French recrossed the Danube in strength, with more
of 1809 if the large army that the Austrians had formed than 180,000 troops marching across the Marchfeld to-
[145]
since the Third Coalition remained mobilized. [139]
Al- wards the Austrians. Charles received the French with
[146]
though Archduke Charles warned that the Austrians were 150,000 of his own men. In the ensuing Battle of Wa-
not ready for another showdown with Napoleon, a stance gram, which also lasted two days, Napoleon commanded
that landed him in the so-called peace party, he did his forces in what was the largest battle of his career up
not want to see the army demobilized either. [139]
On 8 until then. Napoleon nished o the battle with a concen-
February 1809, the advocates for war nally succeeded trated central thrust that punctured a hole in the Austrian
when the Imperial Government secretly decided on an- army and forced Charles to retreat. Austrian losses [147]
were
other confrontation against the French. very heavy, reaching well over 40,000 casualties. The
French were too exhausted to pursue the Austrians imme-
In the early morning of 10 April, leading elements of the diately, but Napoleon eventually caught up with Charles
Austrian army crossed the Inn River and invaded Bavaria. at Znaim and the latter signed an armistice on 12 July.
The early Austrian attack surprised the French; Napoleon
himself was still in Paris when he heard about the inva- In the Kingdom of Holland, the British launched the
sion. He arrived at Donauwrth on the 17th to nd the Walcheren Campaign to open up a second front in the
3.2 French Empire 15

war. Empress Josphine had still not given birth to a child

from Napoleon, who became worried about the future of
his empire following his death. Desperate for a legitimate
heir, Napoleon divorced Josphine in January 1810 and
started looking for a new wife. Hoping to cement the
recent alliance with Austria through a family connection,
Napoleon married the Archduchess Marie Louise, who
was 18 years old at the time. On 20 March 1811, Marie
Louise gave birth to a baby boy, whom Napoleon made
heir apparent and bestowed the title of King of Rome. His
son never actually ruled the empire, but historians still
refer to him as Napoleon II.

3.2.6 Invasion of Russia

Main article: French invasion of Russia

In 1808, Napoleon and Czar Alexander met at the

First French Empire at its greatest extent in 1811

French Empire
French satellite states
Allied states

war and to relieve the pressure on the Austrians. The

British army only landed at Walcheren on 30 July, by
which point the Austrians had already been defeated. The
Walcheren Campaign was characterized by little ght-
ing but heavy casualties thanks to the popularly dubbed
"Walcheren Fever". Over 4000 British troops were lost
in a bungled campaign, and the rest withdrew in Decem-
ber 1809.[148] The main strategic result from the cam-
paign became the delayed political settlement between
the French and the Austrians. Emperor Francis wanted The Moscow re depicted by an unknown German artist
to wait and see how the British performed in their theater
before entering into negotiations with Napoleon. Once it Congress of Erfurt to preserve the Russo-French alliance.
became apparent that the British were going nowhere, the The leaders had a friendly personal relationship after their
Austrians agreed to peace talks. rst meeting at Tilsit in 1807.[151] By 1811, however, ten-
The resulting Treaty of Schnbrunn in October 1809 was sions had increased and Alexander was under pressure
from the Russian nobility to break o the alliance. A
the harshest that France had imposed on Austria in re-
cent memory. Metternich and Archduke Charles had major strain on the relationship between the two nations
became the regular violations of the Continental System
the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as their funda-
mental goal, and to this end they succeeded by making by the Russians, which led Napoleon to threaten Alexan-
Napoleon seek more modest goals in return for promises der with serious consequences if he formed an alliance
of friendship between the two powers.[149] Nevertheless, with Britain.[152]
while most of the hereditary lands remained a part of By 1812, advisers to Alexander suggested the possibility
the Habsburg realm, France received Carinthia, Carniola, of an invasion of the French Empire and the recapture of
and the Adriatic ports, while Galicia was given to the Poland. On receipt of intelligence reports on Russias war
Poles and the Salzburg area of the Tyrol went to the preparations, Napoleon expanded his Grande Arme to
Bavarians.[149] Austria lost over three million subjects, more than 450,000 men.[153] He ignored repeated advice
about one-fth of her total population, as a result of these against an invasion of the Russian heartland and prepared
territorial changes.[150] Although ghting in Iberia contin- for an oensive campaign; on 24 June 1812 the invasion
ued, the War of the Fifth Coalition would be the last ma- commenced.[154]
jor conict on the European continent for the next three
In an attempt to gain increased support from Polish na-
years. tionalists and patriots, Napoleon termed the war the Sec-
Napoleon turned his focus to domestic aairs after the ond Polish Warthe First Polish War had been the Bar
16 3 RULER OF FRANCE

snow up to their knees and nearly 10,000 men and horses

froze to death on the night of 8/9 November alone. After
Battle of Berezina Napoleon managed to escape but had
to abandon much of the remaining artillery and baggage
train. On 5 December, shortly before arriving in Vilnius,
Napoleon left the army in a sledge.[159]
The French suered in the course of a ruinous retreat,
including from the harshness of the Russian Winter. The
Arme had begun as over 400,000 frontline troops, with
fewer than 40,000 crossing the Berezina River in Novem-
ber 1812.[160] The Russians had lost 150,000 in battle and
hundreds of thousands of civilians.[161]

Napoleons withdrawal from Russia, a painting by Adolph

Northen 3.2.7 War of the Sixth Coalition

Main article: War of the Sixth Coalition

Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia in There was a lull in ghting over the winter of 1812
1768. Polish patriots wanted the Russian part of Poland
to be joined with the Duchy of Warsaw and an indepen-
dent Poland created. This was rejected by Napoleon, who
stated he had promised his ally Austria this would not
happen. Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfs
because of concerns this might provoke a reaction in his
armys rear. The serfs later committed atrocities against
French soldiers during Frances retreat.[155]
The Russians avoided Napoleons objective of a deci-
sive engagement and instead retreated deeper into Rus-
sia. A brief attempt at resistance was made at Smolensk
in August; the Russians were defeated in a series of bat-
tles, and Napoleon resumed his advance. The Russians
again avoided battle, although in a few cases this was only
achieved because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated Napoleons farewell to his Imperial Guard, 20 April 1814
to attack when the opportunity arose. Owing to the Rus-
sian armys scorched earth tactics, the French found it in- 13 while both the Russians and the French rebuilt their
creasingly dicult to forage food for themselves and their forces; Napoleon was able to eld 350,000 troops.[162]
horses.[156] Heartened by Frances loss in Russia, Prussia joined with
The Russians eventually oered battle outside Moscow Austria, Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain, and Por-
tugal in a new coalition. Napoleon assumed command in
on 7 September: the Battle of Borodino resulted in ap-
proximately 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French dead, Germany and inicted a series of defeats on the Coalition
culminating in the Battle of Dresden in August 1813.[163]
wounded or captured, and may have been the bloodiest
day of battle in history up to that point in time.[157] Al- Despite these successes, the numbers continued to mount
though the French had won, the Russian army had ac- against Napoleon, and the French army was pinned down
cepted, and withstood, the major battle Napoleon had by a force twice its size and lost at the Battle of Leipzig.
hoped would be decisive. Napoleons own account was: This was by far the largest battle of the Napoleonic Wars
The most terrible of all my battles was the one before and cost more than 90,000 casualties in total.[164]
Moscow. The French showed themselves to be worthy of The Allies oered peace terms in the Frankfurt propos-
victory, but the Russians showed themselves worthy of als in November 1813. Napoleon would remain as Em-
being invincible.[158] peror of France, but it would be reduced to its natural
The Russian army withdrew and retreated past Moscow. frontiers. That meant that France could retain control
Napoleon entered the city, assuming its fall would end the of Belgium, Savoy and the Rhineland (the west bank of
war and Alexander would negotiate peace. However, on the Rhine River), while giving up control of all the rest,
orders of the citys governor Feodor Rostopchin, rather including all of Spain and the Netherlands, and most of
than capitulation, Moscow was burned. After ve weeks, Italy and Germany. Metternich told Napoleon these were
Napoleon and his army left. In early November Napoleon the best terms the Allies were likely to oer; after further
got concerned about loss of control back in France af- victories, the terms would be harsher and harsher. Met-
ter the Malet coup of 1812. His army walked through ternichs motivation was to maintain France as a balance
3.2 French Empire
against Russian threats, while ending the highly destabi-
lizing series of wars.[165]
Napoleon, expecting to win the war, delayed too long
and lost this opportunity; by December the Allies had
withdrawn the oer. When his back was to the wall
in 1814 he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the
basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals. The Allies
now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of
France to its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of
Belgium. Napoleon would remain Emperor, however he
rejected the term. The British wanted Napoleon per-
manently removed; they prevailed. Napoleon adamantly
refused.[165][166]
Napoleon withdrew back into France, his army reduced
to 70,000 soldiers, and little cavalry; he faced more than
three times as many Allied troops.[167] The French were to Elba at the close of the War of the Sixth Coalition
surrounded: British armies pressed from the south, and
other Coalition forces positioned to attack from the Ger-
man states. Napoleon won a series of victories in the
Six Days Campaign, though these were not signicant
enough to turn the tide. The leaders of Paris surrendered
to the Coalition in March 1814.[168]
On 1 April, Alexander addressed the Snat conservateur.
Long docile to Napoleon, under Talleyrands prodding it
had turned against him. Alexander told the Snat that
the Allies were ghting against Napoleon, not France,
and they were prepared to oer honorable peace terms if
Napoleon were removed from power. The next day, the
Snat passed the Acte de dchance de l'Empereur (Em-
perors Demise Act), which declared Napoleon deposed.
Napoleon had advanced as far as Fontainebleau when he
learned that Paris was lost. When Napoleon proposed
the army march on the capital, his senior ocers and
marshals mutinied.[169] On 4 April, led by Ney, they con-
fronted Napoleon. Napoleon asserted the army would fol-
low him, and Ney replied the army would follow its gen-
erals. While the ordinary soldiers and regimental ocers
wanted to ght on, without any senior ocers or marshals
any prospective invasion of Paris would have been impos-
sible. Bowing to the inevitable, on 4 April Napoleon ab-
dicated in favour of his son, with Marie Louise as regent.
However, the Allies refused to accept this under prodding
from Alexander, who feared that Napoleon might nd
an excuse to retake the throne.[170] Napoleon was then
forced to announce his unconditional abdication only two
days later.
3.2.8 Exile to Elba
The Allied Powers having declared that
Emperor Napoleon was the sole obstacle to
the restoration of peace in Europe, Emperor
Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that
he renounces, for himself and his heirs, the
thrones of France and Italy, and that there
is no personal sacrice, even that of his life,
17
British etching from 1814 in celebration of Napoleons rst exile
which he is not ready to do in the interests of
France.
Done in the palace of Fontainebleau, 11 April
1814.
Act of abdication of Napoleon[171]
In the Treaty of Fontainebleau, the Allies exiled him to
Elba, an island of 12,000 inhabitants in the Mediter-
ranean, 20 km (12 mi) o the Tuscan coast. They gave
him sovereignty over the island and allowed him to retain
the title of Emperor. Napoleon attempted suicide with
a pill he had carried after nearly being captured by the
Russians during the retreat from Moscow. Its potency
had weakened with age, however, and he survived to be
exiled while his wife and son took refuge in Austria.[172]
In the rst few months on Elba he created a small navy
and army, developed the iron mines, oversaw the con-
struction of new roads, issued decrees on modern agri-
cultural methods, and overhauled the islands legal and
educational system.[173][174]
A few months into his exile, Napoleon learned that his
ex-wife Josephine had died in France. He was devastated
by the news, locking himself in his room and refusing to
leave for two days.[175]
3.2.9 Hundred Days
Main article: Hundred Days
Separated from his wife and son, who had returned to
Austria, cut o from the allowance guaranteed to him
by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumours
he was about to be banished to a remote island in the
Atlantic Ocean,[176] Napoleon escaped from Elba, in the
brig Inconstant on 26 February 1815 with 700 men over
him.[176] Two days later, he landed on the French main-
land at Golfe-Juan and started heading north.[176]
The 5th Regiment was sent to intercept him and made
18 4 EXILE ON SAINT HELENA

When Napoleon heard that Prussian troops had orders

to capture him dead or alive, he ed to Rochefort, con-
sidering an escape to the United States. British ships
were blocking every port. Napoleon demanded asylum
from the British Captain Frederick Maitland on HMS
Bellerophon on 15 July 1815.[180]

4 Exile on Saint Helena

Napoleon returned from Elba, by Karl Stenben, 19th century

contact just south of Grenoble on 7 March 1815.

Napoleon approached the regiment alone, dismounted his
horse and, when he was within gunshot range, shouted
to the soldiers, Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if
you wish.[177] The soldiers quickly responded with,
Vive L'Empereur!" Ney, who had boasted to the re-
stored Bourbon king, Louis XVIII, that he would bring
Napoleon to Paris in an iron cage, aectionately kissed
his former emperor and forgot his oath of allegiance to
the Bourbon monarch. The two then marched together Napoleon on Saint Helena
towards Paris with a growing army. The unpopular Louis
XVIII ed to Belgium after realizing he had little polit-Britain kept Napoleon on the island of Saint Helena in the
ical support. On 13 March, the powers at the Congress Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km (1,162 mi) from the west coast
of Vienna declared Napoleon an outlaw. Four days later, of Africa. Napoleon was moved to Longwood House
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia each pledged there in December 1815; it had fallen into disrepair, and
to put 150,000 men into the eld to end his rule.[178] the location was damp, windswept and unhealthy. The
Times published articles insinuating the British govern-
Napoleon arrived in Paris on 20 March and governed
ment was trying to hasten his death, and he often com-
for a period now called the Hundred Days. By the start
plained of the living conditions in letters to the governor
of June the armed forces available to him had reached
and his custodian, Hudson Lowe.[181]
200,000, and he decided to go on the oensive to attempt
to drive a wedge between the oncoming British and Prus- With a small cadre of followers, Napoleon dictated his
sian armies. The French Army of the North crossed the memoirs and grumbled about conditions. Lowe cut
frontier into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, in Napoleons expenditure, ruled that no gifts were allowed
modern-day Belgium.[179] if they mentioned his imperial status, and made his sup-
porters sign a guarantee they would stay with the prisoner
Napoleons forces fought the Coalition armies, com-
indenitely.[182]
manded by the Duke of Wellington and Gebhard
Leberecht von Blcher, at the Battle of Waterloo on 18
June 1815. Wellingtons army withstood repeated attacks
by the French and drove them from the eld while the
Prussians arrived in force and broke through Napoleons
right ank.
Napoleon returned to Paris and found that both the legis-
lature and the people had turned against him. Realizing
his position was untenable, he abdicated on 22 June in
favour of his son. He left Paris three days later and settled
at Josephines former palace in Malmaison (on the west-
ern bank of the Seine about 17 kilometres (11 mi) west
of Paris). Even as Napoleon travelled to Paris, the Coali- Longwood House, Saint Helena: site of Napoleons captivity
tion forces swept through France (arriving in the vicinity
of Paris on 29 June), with the stated intent of restoring There were rumors of plots and even of his escape, but
Louis XVIII to the French throne. in reality no serious attempts were made.[183] For En-
4.1 Death 19

glish poet Lord Byron, Napoleon was the epitome of

the Romantic hero, the persecuted, lonely, and awed
genius.[184]

4.1 Death
Further information: Napoleons death mask and Retour
des cendres
His personal physician, Barry O'Meara, warned Lon-

Napoleons tomb at Les Invalides

where it remained until the tomb designed by Louis Vis-

conti was completed.
In 1861, Napoleons remains were entombed in a
porphyry stone sarcophagus in the crypt under the dome
at Les Invalides.[190]

4.1.1 Cause of death

The cause of his death has been debated. Napoleons

physician, Franois Carlo Antommarchi, led the autopsy,
which found the cause of death to be stomach cancer. An-
tommarchi did not sign the ocial report.[191] Napoleons
father had died of stomach cancer, although this was
seemingly unknown at the time of the autopsy.[192] An-
tommarchi found evidence of a stomach ulcer; this was
Bronze death mask of Napoleon I. Modeled in 1821, cast in 1833. the most convenient explanation for the British, who
wanted to avoid criticism over their care of Napoleon.[186]
don that his declining state of health was mainly caused
by the harsh treatment. Napoleon conned himself for
months on end in his damp and wretched habitation of
Longwood.[185]
In February 1821, Napoleons health began to deteriorate
rapidly. He reconciled with the Catholic Church. He died
on 5 May 1821, after confession, Extreme Unction and
Viaticum in the presence of Father Ange Vignali. His last
words were, France, l'arme, tte d'arme, Josphine
(France, army, head of the army, Josphine).[186][187]
Napoleons original death mask was created around 6
May, although it is not clear which doctor created
it.[188][note 6] In his will, he had asked to be buried on
the banks of the Seine, but the British governor said he
should be buried on Saint Helena, in the Valley of the
Willows.[186]
In 1840, Louis Philippe I obtained permission from the
British to return Napoleons remains to France. On 15 Napoleon on His Death Bed, by Horace Vernet, 1826
December 1840, a state funeral was held. The hearse
proceeded from the Arc de Triomphe down the Champs- In 1955, the diaries of Napoleons valet, Louis Marc-
lyses, across the Place de la Concorde to the Esplanade hand, were published. His description of Napoleon in
des Invalides and then to the cupola in St Jrmes Chapel, the months before his death led Sten Forshufvud in a
20 5 RELIGION

1961 paper in Nature to put forward other causes for

his death, including deliberate arsenic poisoning.[193] Ar-
senic was used as a poison during the era because it
was undetectable when administered over a long period.
Forshufvud, in a 1978 book with Ben Weider, noted
that Napoleons body was found to be well preserved
when moved in 1840. Arsenic is a strong preserva-
tive, and therefore this supported the poisoning hypothe-
sis. Forshufvud and Weider observed that Napoleon had
attempted to quench abnormal thirst by drinking large
amounts of orgeat syrup that contained cyanide com-
pounds in the almonds used for avouring.[193]
They maintained that the potassium tartrate used in his
treatment prevented his stomach from expelling these
compounds and that his thirst was a symptom of the
poison. Their hypothesis was that the calomel given to
Napoleon became an overdose, which killed him and left
extensive tissue damage behind.[193] According to a 2007
article, the type of arsenic found in Napoleons hair shafts
was mineral, the most toxic, and according to toxicologist Reorganisation of the religious geography: France is divided into
Patrick Kintz, this supported the conclusion that he was 59 dioceses and 10 ecclesiastical provinces.
murdered.[194]
There have been modern studies that have supported the 5.1 Concordat
original autopsy nding.[194] In a 2008 study, researchers
analysed samples of Napoleons hair from throughout his Further information: Concordat of 1801
life, as well as samples from his family and other con- Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries
temporaries. All samples had high levels of arsenic, ap-
proximately 100 times higher than the current average.
According to these researchers, Napoleons body was al-
ready heavily contaminated with arsenic as a boy, and the
high arsenic concentration in his hair was not caused by
intentional poisoning; people were constantly exposed to
arsenic from glues and dyes throughout their lives.[note 7]
Studies published in 2007 and 2008 dismissed evidence
of arsenic poisoning, and conrmed evidence of peptic
ulcer and gastric cancer as the cause of death.[196]

5 Religion
Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church
Napoleons baptism took place in Ajaccio on 21 July
1771; he was piously raised as a Catholic but he never
developed much faith.[197] As an adult, Napoleon was
a deist. Napoleons deity was an absent and distant
God. However he had a keen appreciation of the power
of organized religion in social and political aairs, and
paid a great deal of attention to bending it to his pur-
poses. He noted the inuence of Catholicisms rituals
and splendors.[197] Napoleon had a civil marriage with
Josphine de Beauharnais, without religious ceremony.
Napoleon was crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804
at Notre Dame de Paris in a ceremony presided over
by Pope Pius VII. On 1 April 1810, Napoleon married
the Austrian princess Marie Louise in a Catholic cere-
mony. During his brothers rule in Spain, he abolished
the Spanish Inquisition in 1813.
Leaders of the Catholic Church taking the civil oath required by
the Concordat
and Catholics, the Concordat of 1801 was signed on 15
July 1801 between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. It solidi-
ed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of
France and brought back most of its civil status. The hos-
tility of devout Catholics against the state had now largely
been resolved. It did not restore the vast church lands and
endowments that had been seized during the revolution
and sold o. As a part of the Concordat, he presented
another set of laws called the Organic Articles.[198][199]
While the Concordat restored much power to the papacy,
the balance of churchstate relations had tilted rmly in
Napoleons favour. He selected the bishops and super-
vised church nances. Napoleon and the pope both found
 21

the Concordat useful. Similar arrangements were made

with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon,
especially Italy and Germany.[200] Now, Napoleon could
win favor with the Catholics while also controlling Rome
in a political sense. Napoleon said in April 1801, Skillful
conquerors have not got entangled with priests. They can
both contain them and use them. French children were
issued a catechism that taught them to love and respect
Napoleon.[201]

5.2 Religious emancipation

Further information: Napoleon and the Jews and
Napoleon and Protestants

Napoleon emancipated Jews, as well as Protestants in

Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countries,
from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and he ex-
panded their rights to property, worship, and careers.
Despite the anti-semitic reaction to Napoleons policies
from foreign governments and within France, he be-
lieved emancipation would benet France by attracting
Jews to the country given the restrictions they faced
elsewhere.[202] Napoleon visiting the Palais Royal for the opening of the 8th ses-
sion of the Tribunat in 1807, by Merry-Joseph Blondel
He stated, I will never accept any proposals that will ob-
ligate the Jewish people to leave France, because to me
the Jews are the same as any other citizen in our country. history to ask what Hannibal or Alexander or anyone else
It takes weakness to chase them out of the country, but it did in a similar situation. Critics said he won many bat-
takes strength to assimilate them.[203] He was seen as so tles simply because of luck; Napoleon responded, Give
favourable to the Jews that the Russian Orthodox Church me lucky generals, aware that luck comes to leaders
formally condemned him as "Antichrist and the Enemy who recognize opportunity, and seize it.[212] Dwyer states
of God.[204] that Napoleons victories at Austerlitz and Jena in 1805
06 heightened his sense of self-grandiosity, leaving him
even more certain of his destiny and invincibility.[213]
6 Personality In terms of inuence on events, it was more than
Napoleons personality that took eect. He reorganized
Historians emphasize the strength of the ambition that France itself to supply the men and money needed for
took Napoleon from an obscure village to command of wars.[214] He inspired his menWellington said his pres-
most of Europe.[205] George F. E. Rud stresses his rare ence on the battleeld was worth 40,000 soldiers, for he
combination of will, intellect and physical vigour.[206] inspired condence from privates to eld marshals.[215]
At 5 ft 6 in (168 cm),[207] he was not physically imposing He also unnerved the enemy. At the Battle of Auerstadt
but in one-on-one situations he typically had a hypnotic in 1806, King Frederick William III of Prussia outnum-
eect on people and seemingly bent the strongest lead- bered the French by 63,000 to 27,000; however, when
ers to his will.[208] He understood military technology, he was told, mistakenly, that Napoleon was in command,
but was not an innovator in that regard.[209] He was an he ordered a hasty retreat that turned into a rout.[216] The
innovator in using the nancial, bureaucratic, and diplo- force of his personality neutralized material diculties as
matic resources of France. He could rapidly dictate a se- his soldiers fought with the condence that with Napoleon
ries of complex commands to his subordinates, keeping in charge they would surely win.[217]
in mind where major units were expected to be at each
future point, and like a chess master, seeing the best
plays moves ahead.[210] 7 Image
Napoleon maintained strict, ecient work habits, prior-
itizing what needed to be done. He cheated at cards, Further information: Cultural depictions of Napoleon
but repaid the losses; he had to win at everything he Napoleon has become a worldwide cultural icon who
attempted.[211] He kept relays of sta and secretaries at symbolises military genius and political power. Martin
work. Unlike many generals, Napoleon did not examine van Creveld described him as the most competent hu-
22 8 REFORMS

painting produced in 1812 by Jacques-Louis David.[223]

When he became First Consul and later Emperor,
Napoleon eschewed his generals uniform and habitually
wore the green colonel uniform (non-Hussar) of a colonel
of the Chasseur Cheval of the Imperial Guard, the reg-
iment that served as his personal escort many times, with
a large bicorne. He also habitually wore (usually on Sun-
days) the blue uniform of a colonel of the Imperial Guard
Foot Grenadiers (blue with white facings and red cus).
He also wore his Lgion d'honneur star, medal and rib-
bon, and the Order of the Iron Crown decorations, white
French-style culottes and white stockings. This was in
contrast to the complex uniforms with many decorations
of his marshals and those around him.

8 Reforms

Napoleon is often represented in his green colonel uniform of the

Chasseur Cheval of the Imperial Guard, the regiment that often
served as his personal escort, with a large bicorne and a hand-
in-waistcoat gesture.

man being who ever lived.[218] Since his death, many

towns, streets, ships, and even cartoon characters have
been named after him. He has been portrayed in hun-
dreds of lms and discussed in hundreds of thousands of First remittance of the Lgion d'Honneur, 15 July 1804, at Saint-
books and articles.[219] Louis des Invalides, by Jean-Baptiste Debret (1812).
During the Napoleonic Wars he was taken seriously by
the British press as a dangerous tyrant, poised to invade. Napoleon instituted various reforms, such as higher edu-
The British nicknamed him Boney. A nursery rhyme cation, a tax code, road and sewer systems, and estab-
warned children that Bonaparte ravenously ate naughty lished the Banque de France, the rst central bank in
people; the "bogeyman".[220] The British Tory press has French history. He negotiated the Concordat of 1801
depicted Napoleon as much smaller than average height with the Catholic Church, which sought to reconcile the
before, and that image persisted. Confusion about his mostly Catholic population to his regime. It was pre-
height results from the dierence between the French sented alongside the Organic Articles, which regulated
pouce and British inch. He was reported as being 5 ft public worship in France. He dissolved the Holy Roman
2 in in French units, which is 5 ft 6 in British Imperial Empire prior to German Unication later in the 19th cen-
units or 1.68 cman average height for a man of that tury. The sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United
period.[note 8] Is spite of that, the Napoleon Complex is States doubled the size of the United States.[224]
named after him to describe men who have an inferiority
In May 1802, he instituted the Legion of Honour, a
complex and become aggressive due to short stature.
substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of
In 1908 Alfred Adler, a psychologist, cited Napoleon chivalry, to encourage civilian and military achievements;
to describe an inferiority complex in which short peo- the order is still the highest decoration in France.[225]
ple adopt an over-aggressive behaviour to compensate
for lack of height; this inspired the term Napoleon com-
plex.[222] The stock character of Napoleon is a comically 8.1 Napoleonic Code
short petty tyrant and this has become a clich in popu-
lar culture. He is often portrayed wearing a large bicorne Main article: Napoleonic Code
hat with a hand-in-waistcoat gesturea reference to the Napoleons set of civil laws, the Code Civilnow of-
8.2 Warfare 23

and the nation state.[231]

Napoleon implemented a wide array of liberal reforms
in France and across Continental Europe, especially in
Italy and Germany, as summarized by British historian
Andrew Roberts:

The ideas that underpin our modern world

meritocracy, equality before the law, property
rights, religious toleration, modern secular ed-
ucation, sound nances, and so onwere cham-
pioned, consolidated, codied and geographi-
cally extended by Napoleon. To them he added
a rational and ecient local administration, an
end to rural banditry, the encouragement of
science and the arts, the abolition of feudalism
and the greatest codication of laws since the
fall of the Roman Empire.[232]

Napoleon directly overthrew feudal remains in much of

western Continental Europe. He liberalised property
laws, ended seigneurial dues, abolished the guild of mer-
First page of the 1804 original edition of the Code Civil chants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, le-
galised divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews
equal to everyone else. The Inquisition ended as did the
ten known as the Napoleonic Codewas prepared by Holy Roman Empire. The power of church courts and re-
committees of legal experts under the supervision of ligious authority was sharply reduced and equality under
[233]
Jean Jacques Rgis de Cambacrs, the Second Con- the law was proclaimed for all men.
sul. Napoleon participated actively in the sessions of the
Council of State that revised the drafts. The development
8.2 Warfare
of the code was a fundamental change in the nature of
the civil law legal system with its stress on clearly written Further information: Napoleonic weaponry and warfare
and accessible law. Other codes ("Les cinq codes") were and Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte
commissioned by Napoleon to codify criminal and com- In the eld of military organisation, Napoleon borrowed
merce law; a Code of Criminal Instruction was published, from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoine Hip-
which enacted rules of due process.[226] polyte, Comte de Guibert, and from the reforms of pre-
The Napoleonic code was adopted throughout much of ceding French governments, and then developed much
Continental Europe, though only in the lands he con- of what was already in place. He continued the policy,
quered, and remained in force after Napoleons defeat. which emerged from the Revolution, of promotion based
Napoleon said: My true glory is not to have won forty primarily on merit.[234]
battles ... Waterloo will erase the memory of so many
Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile
victories. ... But ... what will live forever, is my Civil artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the sta
Code.[227] The Code inuences a quarter of the worlds
system became more uid and cavalry returned as an
jurisdictions such as that of in Continental Europe, the important formation in French military doctrine. These
Americas and Africa.[228] methods are now referred to as essential features of
Dieter Langewiesche described the code as a revolution- Napoleonic warfare.[234] Though he consolidated the
ary project which spurred the development of bourgeois practice of modern conscription introduced by the Direc-
society in Germany by the extension of the right to tory, one of the restored monarchys rst acts was to end
own property and an acceleration towards the end of it.[235]
feudalism. Napoleon reorganised what had been the HolyHis opponents learned from Napoleons innovations. The
Roman Empire, made up of more than a thousand enti- increased importance of artillery after 1807 stemmed
ties, into a more streamlined forty-state Confederation of
from his creation of a highly mobile artillery force, the
the Rhine; this provided the basis for the German Con-growth in artillery numbers, and changes in artillery prac-
federation and the unication of Germany in 1871.[229]tices. As a result of these factors, Napoleon, rather than
The movement toward national unication in Italy was relying on infantry to wear away the enemys defenses,
similarly precipitated by Napoleonic rule.[230] These now could use massed artillery as a spearhead to pound
changes contributed to the development of nationalism a break in the enemys line that was then exploited by
24
Statue in Cherbourg-Octeville unveiled by Napoleon III in 1858.
Napoleon I strengthened the towns defences to prevent British
naval incursions.
supporting infantry and cavalry. McConachy rejects the
alternative theory that growing reliance on artillery by
the French army beginning in 1807 was an outgrowth of
the declining quality of the French infantry and, later,
Frances inferiority in cavalry numbers.[236] Weapons
and other kinds of military technology remained static
through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, but 18th-
century operational mobility underwent change.[237]
Napoleons biggest inuence was in the conduct of war-
fare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleons meth-
ods in a widely used textbook that inuenced all Euro-
pean and American armies.[238] Napoleon was regarded
by the inuential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz as
a genius in the operational art of war, and historians rank
him as a great military commander.[239] Wellington, when
asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered:
In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon.[240]
Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruc-
tion, not just outmanoeuvring, of enemy armies emerged.
Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts
which made wars costlier and more decisive. The po-
litical eect of war increased; defeat for a European
power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves.
Near-Carthaginian peaces intertwined whole national ef-
forts, intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total
war.[241]
8 REFORMS
8.3 Metric system
File:France 1803-04-A 20 Francs.jpg
Depicted as First Consul on the 1803 20 gold Napolon
gold coin.
Main articles: History of the metric system, Mesures
usuelles, and Units of measurement in France
The ocial introduction of the metric system in Septem-
ber 1799 was unpopular in large sections of French so-
ciety. Napoleons rule greatly aided adoption of the
new standard not only across France but also across the
French sphere of inuence. Napoleon took a retrograde
step in 1812 when he passed legislation to introduce the
mesures usuelles (traditional units of measurement) for re-
tail trade[242] a system of measure that resembled the
pre-revolutionary units but were based on the kilogram
and the metre; for example the livre metrique (metric
pound) was 500 g[243] instead of 489.5 gthe value of the
livre du roi (the kings pound).[244] Other units of measure
were rounded in a similar manner prior to the denitive
introduction of the metric system across parts of Europe
in the middle of the 19th century.[245]
8.4 Education
Napoleons educational reforms laid the foundation of
a modern system of education in France and through-
out much of Europe.[246] Napoleon synthesized the best
academic elements from the Ancien Rgime, The En-
lightenment, and the Revolution, with the aim of es-
tablishing a stable, well-educated and prosperous soci-
ety. He made French the only ocial language. He
left some primary education in the hands of religious or-
ders, but he oered public support to secondary edu-
cation. Napoleon founded a number of state secondary
schools (lyces) designed to produce a standardized ed-
ucation that was uniform across France. All students
were taught the sciences along with modern and clas-
sical languages. Unlike the system during the Ancien
Rgime, religious topics did not dominate the curricu-
9.2 Propaganda and memory 25

lum, although they were present with the teachers from
the clergy. Napoleon hoped to use religion to produce
social stability.[247] He gave special attention to the ad-
vanced centers, such as the cole Polytechnique, that
provided both military expertise and state-of-the-art re-
search in science.[248] Napoleon made some of the rst
eorts at establishing a system of secular and public ed-
ucation. The system featured scholarships and strict dis-
cipline, with the result being a French educational sys-
tem that outperformed its European counterparts, many
of which borrowed from the French system.[249]
9 Memory and evaluation
forces from across Europe. Artefacts were brought to
the Muse du Louvre for a grand central museum; his
example would later serve as inspiration for more no-
torious imitators.[256] He was compared to Adolf Hitler
most famously by the historian Pieter Geyl in 1947[257]
and Claude Ribbe in 2005.[258] David G. Chandler, a
foremost historian of Napoleonic warfare, wrote in 1973
that, Nothing could be more degrading to the former
[Napoleon] and more attering to the latter [Hitler].
The comparison is odious. On the whole Napoleon
was inspired by a noble dream, wholly dissimilar from
Hitlers... Napoleon left great and lasting testimonies to
his geniusin codes of law and national identities which
survive to the present day. Adolf Hitler left nothing but
destruction.[259]

9.1 Criticism Critics argue Napoleons true legacy must reect the loss
of status for France and needless deaths brought by his
rule: historian Victor Davis Hanson writes, After all,
the military record is unquestioned17 years of wars,
perhaps six million Europeans dead, France bankrupt,
her overseas colonies lost.[260] McLynn states that, He
can be viewed as the man who set back European eco-
nomic life for a generation by the dislocating impact of
his wars.[254] Vincent Cronin replies that such criticism
relies on the awed premise that Napoleon was responsi-
ble for the wars which bear his name, when in fact France
was the victim of a series of coalitions which aimed to de-
stroy the ideals of the Revolution.[261]

9.2 Propaganda and memory

The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya, showing Spanish Main article: Napoleonic propaganda
resisters being executed by Napoleons troops.
Napoleons use of propaganda contributed to his rise to
In the political realm, historians debate whether power, legitimated his rgime, and established his im-
Napoleon was an enlightened despot who laid the foun- age for posterity. Strict censorship, controlling aspects of
dations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac the press, books, theater, and art, was part of his propa-
who wrought greater misery than any man before the ganda scheme, aimed at portraying him as bringing des-
coming of Hitler.[250] Many historians have concluded perately wanted peace and stability to France. The pro-
that he had grandiose foreign policy ambitions. The pagandistic rhetoric changed in relation to events and to
Continental powers as late as 1808 were willing to give the atmosphere of Napoleons reign, focusing rst on his
him nearly all of his gains and titles, but some scholars role as a general in the army and identication as a sol-
maintain he was overly aggressive and pushed for too dier, and moving to his role as emperor and a civil leader.
much, until his empire collapsed.[251][252] Specically targeting his civilian audience, Napoleon fos-
Napoleon ended lawlessness and disorder in post- tered a relationship with the contemporary art commu-
Revolutionary France.[253] He was considered a tyrant nity, taking an active role in commissioning and control-
and usurper by his opponents.[254] His critics charge that ling dierent forms of art production to suit his propa-
he was not troubled when faced with the prospect of ganda goals.[262]
war and death for thousands, turned his search for undis-Hazareesingh (2004) explores how Napoleons image and
puted rule into a series of conicts throughout Europe memory are best understood. They played a key role in
and ignored treaties and conventions alike. His role in collective political deance of the Bourbon restoration
the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery monarchy in 18151830. People from dierent walks
in Frances overseas colonies are controversial and aectof life and areas of France, particularly Napoleonic vet-
his reputation.[255] erans, drew on the Napoleonic legacy and its connections
[263]
Napoleon institutionalised plunder of conquered territo- with the ideals of the 1789 revolution.
ries: French museums contain art stolen by Napoleons Widespread rumors of Napoleons return from St. He-
26 10 MARRIAGES AND CHILDREN

lena and Napoleon as an inspiration for patriotism, in-

dividual and collective liberties, and political mobiliza-
tion manifested themselves in seditious materials, dis-
playing the tricolor and rosettes. There were also subver-
sive activities celebrating anniversaries of Napoleons life
and reign and disrupting royal celebrationsthey demon-
strated the prevailing and successful goal of the var-
ied supporters of Napoleon to constantly destabilize the
Bourbon regime.[263]
Datta (2005) shows that, following the collapse of mili-
taristic Boulangism in the late 1880s, the Napoleonic leg-
end was divorced from party politics and revived in pop-
ular culture. Concentrating on two plays and two novels
from the periodVictorien Sardou's Madame Sans-Gne
(1893), Maurice Barrs's Les Dracins (1897), Edmond
Rostand's L'Aiglon (1900), and Andr de Lorde and
Gyp's Napolonette (1913)Datta examines how writers
and critics of the Belle poque exploited the Napoleonic
legend for diverse political and cultural ends.[264]
Reduced to a minor character, the new ctional Napoleon
became not a world historical gure but an intimate one,
fashioned by individuals needs and consumed as popular
entertainment. In their attempts to represent the emperor Bas-relief of Napoleon I in the chamber of the United States
as a gure of national unity, proponents and detractors House of Representatives
of the Third Republic used the legend as a vehicle for
exploring anxieties about gender and fears about the pro-
cesses of democratization that accompanied this new era Empire, he reduced the number of German states from
of mass politics and culture.[264] 300 to less than 50, prior to the German Unication. A
byproduct of the French occupation was a strong devel-
International Napoleonic Congresses take place regu- opment in German nationalism. Napoleon also signi-
larly, with participation by members of the French cantly aided the United States when he agreed to sell the
and American military, French politicians and schol- territory of Louisiana for 15 million dollars during the
ars from dierent countries.[265] In January 2012, the presidency of Thomas Jeerson. That territory almost
mayor of Montereau-Fault-Yonne, near Paristhe site doubled the size of the United States, adding the equiva-
of a late victory of Napoleonproposed development of lent of 13 states to the Union.[270]
Napoleons Bivouac, a commemorative theme park at a
projected cost of 200 million euros.[266]
10 Marriages and children
9.3 Long-term inuence outside France
Napoleon married Josphine de Beauharnais in 1796,
when he was 26; she was a 32-year-old widow whose rst
Main article: Inuence of the French Revolution husband had been executed during the Revolution. Un-
Napoleon was responsible for spreading the values of the
til she met Bonaparte, she had been known as Rose, a
French Revolution to other countries, especially in legal name which he disliked. He called her Josphine in-
reform and the abolition of serfdom.[267] stead, and she went by this name henceforth. Bonaparte
After the fall of Napoleon, not only was Napoleonic Code often sent her love letters while on his campaigns.[271] He
retained by conquered countries including the Nether- formally adopted her son Eugne and cousin Stphanie
lands, Belgium, parts of Italy and Germany, but has been and arranged dynastic marriages for them. Josphine
used as the basis of certain parts of law outside Eu- had her daughter Hortense marry Napoleons brother
rope including the Dominican Republic, the US state of Louis.[272]
Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec.[268] The
Josphine had lovers, such as lieutenant Hippolyte
memory of Napoleon in Poland is favorable, for his sup-
Charles, during Napoleons Italian campaign.[273]
port for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal
Napoleon learnt of that aair and a letter he wrote about
code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of
it was intercepted by the British and published widely, to
modern middle class bureaucracies.[269] embarrass Napoleon. Napoleon had his own aairs too:
Napoleon could be considered one of the founders of during the Egyptian campaign he took Pauline Bellisle
modern Germany. After dissolving the Holy Roman Foures, the wife of a junior ocer, as his mistress. She

became known as Cleopatra.[274][note 9]
Plate showing statues of Amenhotep III at Luxor, Egypt. Com-
missioned by Napoleon as a present to Josephine but she rejected
it. From France. The Victoria and Albert Museum, London
While Napoleons mistresses had children by him,
Josphine did not produce an heir, possibly because
of either the stresses of her imprisonment during the
Reign of Terror or an abortion she may have had in her
twenties.[276] Napoleon chose divorce so he could re-
marry in search of an heir. Despite his divorce from
Josephine, Napoleon showed his dedication to her for the
rest of his life. When he heard the news of her death while
on exile in Elba, he locked himself in his room and would
not come out for two full days.[175] Her name would also
be his nal word on his deathbed in 1821.
In March 1810, he married the 19-year old Marie Louise,
Archduchess of Austria, and a great niece of Marie An-
toinette by proxy; thus he had married into a German
royal and imperial family.[277] Louise was less than happy
with the arrangement, at least at rst, stating Just to see
the man would be the worst form of torture. Her great-
aunt had been executed in France, while Napoleon had
fought numerous campaigns against Austria all through-
out his military career. However, she seemed to warm up
to him over time. After her wedding, she wrote to her
father He loves me very much. I respond to his love sin-
cerely. There is something very fetching and very eager
about him that is impossible to resist.[175]
Napoleon and Marie Louise remained married until his
death, though she did not join him in exile on Elba and
thereafter never saw her husband again. The couple
had one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles (1811
1832), known from birth as the King of Rome. He
became Napoleon II in 1814 and reigned for only two
weeks. He was awarded the title of the Duke of Reich-
stadt in 1818 and died of tuberculosis aged 21, with no
children.[277]
Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son: Charles
Lon (18061881) by Elonore Denuelle de La
27
Plaigne.[278] Alexandre Colonna-Walewski (1810
1868), the son of his mistress Maria Walewska,
although acknowledged by Walewskas husband, was
also widely known to be his child, and the DNA of his
direct male descendant has been used to help conrm
Napoleons Y-chromosome haplotype.[279] He may have
had further unacknowledged illegitimate ospring as
well, such as Eugen Megerle von Mhlfeld by Emilie
Victoria Kraus[280] and Hlne Napoleone Bonaparte
(18161907) by Albine de Montholon.
11 Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Main article: Titles and styles of Napoleon
12 Ancestry
13 Notes
[1] He established a system of public education,[7] abol-
ished the vestiges of feudalism,[8] emancipated Jews and
other religious minorities,[9] abolished the Spanish Inqui-
sition,[10] enacted legal protections for an emerging mid-
dle class,[11] and centralized state power at the expense of
religious authorities.[12]
[2] His name was also spelled as Nabulione, Nabulio, Napo-
lionne, and Napulione.[15]
[3] Aside from his name, there does not appear to be a con-
nection between him and Napoleons theorem.[25]
[4] He was mainly referred to as Bonaparte until he became
First Consul for life.[28]
[5] This is depicted in Bonaparte Crossing the Alps by
Hippolyte Delaroche and in Jacques-Louis Davids impe-
rial Napoleon Crossing the Alps. He is less realistically
portrayed on a charger in the latter work.[81]
[6] It was customary to cast a death mask of a leader. At least
four genuine death masks of Napoleon are known to exist:
one in The Cabildo in New Orleans, one in a Liverpool
museum, another in Havana and one in the library of the
University of North Carolina.[189]
[7] The body can tolerate large doses of arsenic if ingested
regularly, and arsenic was a fashionable cure-all.[195]
[8] Napoleons height was 5 ft 2 in in French measure ac-
cording to Antommarchi at Napoleons autopsy, whereas
British sources put his height at 5 ft 6 in in imperial mea-
sure: both equivalent to 1.68 m.[221] Napoleon surrounded
himself with tall bodyguards and was aectionately nick-
named le petit caporal, reecting his reported camaraderie
with his soldiers rather than his height.
28 14 CITATIONS

[9] One night, during an illicit liaison with the actress Mar- [20] Cronin 1994, p.27
guerite George, Napoleon had a major t. This and other
more minor attacks have led historians to debate whether [21] Roberts 2001, p.xvi
he had epilepsy and, if so, to what extent.[275]
[22] McLynn 1998, p. 18

[23] Dwyer 2008, p. 29

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[1] E. Hales, Napoleon and the Pope, (London:1962) pg 114 [25] Wells 1992, p.74

[2] Napoleon. Random House Websters Unabridged Dic- [26] Dwyer 2008, p. 42
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[27] McLynn 1998, p. 26
[3] Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life. Penguin Group, [28] McLynn 1998, p. 290
2014, Introduction.
[29] McLynn 1998, p. 37
[4] Charles Messenger, ed. (2001). Readers Guide to Mili-
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95970-8. panion. ABC-CLIO. p. 131.
[5] John Sainsbury (1842). Sketch of the Napoleon Museum. [31] McLynn 1998, p. 55
London. p. 15.
[32] McLynn 1998, p. 61
[6] Philip Ingram (1998). Napoleon and Europe. Nelson
Thornes. pp. 4749. [33] Roberts 2001, p.xviii

[7] Grab 2003, p. 56. [34] Dwyer 2008, p. 132

[8] Broers, M. and Hicks, P.The Napoleonic Empire and the [35] McLynn 1998, p. 76
New European Political Culture. Palgrave Macmillan,
[36] Chandler 1973, p. 30
2012, p. 230
[37] Patrice Gueniey, Bonaparte: 17691802 (Harvard UP,
[9] Conner, S. P. The Age of Napoleon. Greenwood Publish-
2015), pp 13759.
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[38] Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon, p.39.
[10] Perez, Joseph. The Spanish Inquisition: A History. Yale
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[11] Fremont-Barnes, G. and Fisher, T. The Napoleonic Wars: [40] Dwyer 2008, p. 157
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[12] Grab, A. Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe. [42] McLynn 1998, p. 92
Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, Conclusion.
[43] Dwyer 2008, p. 26
[13] Andrew Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014), p. xxxiii.
[44] Dwyer 2008, p. 164
[14] McLynn 1998, p. 6
[45] McLynn 1998, p. 93
[15] Dwyer 2008, p. xv
[46] McLynn 1998, p. 96
[16] McLynn 1998, p. 2
[47] Johnson 2002, p.27
[17] 2012 DNA tests found that some of the familys an-
[48] The works of Thomas Carlyle The French Revolution,
cestors were from the Caucasus region; Le Figaro
vol.III, book 3.VII. Google.
Mon Figaro : Selon son ADN,les anctres de Napolon
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[19] Dwyer 2008, ch 1 [55] Harvey 2006, p.179

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[56] McLynn 1998, p. 135 [92] Edwards 1999, p.55

[57] Dwyer 2008, p. 306 [93] Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life. Penguin Group,
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[58] Dwyer 2008, p. 305
[94] Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life. Penguin Group,
[59] Bell 2015, p. 30. 2014, p. 303
[60] Dwyer 2008, p. 322 [95] Connelly 2006, p.70
[61] Watson 2003, pp.1314
[96] R.B. Mowat, The Diplomacy of Napoleon (1924) is a sur-
[62] Amini 2000, p.12 vey online; for a recent advanced diplomatic history, see
Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Pol-
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[64] Englund (2010) pp 1278 [97] McLynn 1998, p. 265

[65] McLynn 1998, p. 175 [98] McLynn 1998, p. 243

[66] McLynn 1998, p. 179 [99] McLynn 1998, p. 296
[67] Dwyer 2008, p. 372 [100] McLynn 1998, p. 297
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[69] Dwyer 2008, p. 392
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[72] Gueniey, Bonaparte: 17691802 pp 5002. [103] Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Pol-
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[73] Dwyer 2008, p. 442
[104] Chandler 1966, p. 328. Meanwhile, French territorial re-
[74] Connelly 2006, p.57 arrangements in Germany occurred without Russian con-
sultation and Napoleons annexations in the Po valley in-
[75] Dwyer 2008, p. 444
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[76] Dwyer 2008, p. 455
[105] Chandler 1966, p. 331
[77] Franois Furet, The French Revolution, 17701814
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[107] Chandler 1966, p. 332
[78] Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon from 18 Brumaire to Tilsit
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16 EXTERNAL LINKS
Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in De-
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and the French History Wars. French Politics, Cul-
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16 External links
The Napoleonic Guide
Napoleon Series
International Napoleonic Society
Napolon Bonaparte (Character) at the Internet
Movie Database
Biography by the US Public Broadcasting Service
Inside Longwood descriptions of Longwood House
& other places on St. Helena, articles on Napoleons
captivity
Alan Schom Interview on his book Napoleon Bona-
parte on Booknotes, 26 October 1997
Works by Napoleon at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Napoleon at Internet Archive
 35

Memoirs of Napoleon at Project Gutenberg

John Holland Rose. The Life of Napoleon I at

Project Gutenberg

John Gibson Lockhart. The History of Napoleon

Buonaparte at Project Gutenberg

William Milligan Sloane. The Life of Napoleon I. at

Project Gutenberg Vol. 1/4
Napoleon Personal Manuscripts & Letters

William Milligan Sloane. The Life of Napoleon I. at

Project Gutenberg Vol. 3/4

Letter written by Napoleon Buonaparte (Bonaparte)

to Guillaume Thomas Francois Raynal RG 523
Brock University Library Digital Repository
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17.1 Text 37

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File:13Vendmiaire.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/13Vend%C3%A9miaire.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Charles Monnet
File:16_Napoleons_exole_St_Helena_June1970.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/16_Napoleons_
exole_St_Helena_June1970.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: http://www.hmsminerva.info/photos2.htm Original artist: This le
is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic license.
File:1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/f/f0/1801_Antoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_on_the_Bridge_at_Arcole.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH.
Original artist: Antoine-Jean Gros
File:Arms_of_the_French_Empire2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Arms_of_the_French_
Empire2.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, Based on: [1] Original artist: Spedona
File:Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_France_(Ancien).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Arms_of_the_
Kingdom_of_France_%28Ancien%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sodacan
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Public domain Contributors: LHistoire par limage [1], digital version produced by Agence photographique de la Runion des muses na-
tionaux [2] Original artist: Franois Grard
17.2 Images 39

File:Baron_Franois_Grard_-_Josphine_in_coronation_costume_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Baron_Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9rard_-_Jos%C3%A9phine_in_coronation_costume_-_Google_Art_
Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: WAGBi20Bn-3hOA at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist:
Born in Rome. Dead in Paris.
Details of artist on Google Art Project
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Orleans_%28moderne%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Syryatsu
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License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/44/Bouchot_-_Le_general_Bonaparte_au_Conseil_des_Cinq-Cents.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
www.histoire-image.org (<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.histoire-image.org/photo/zoom/vers16_
bouchot_001f.jpg'>direct link</a>) Original artist: Franois Bouchot
File:Bust_of_Napoleon_I,_1807-1809_CE._Marble,_from_Carrara,_Italy._After_Antoine-Denis_Chaudet._The_Victoria_
and_Albert_Museum,_London.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Bust_of_Napoleon_I%2C_
1807-1809_CE._Marble%2C_from_Carrara%2C_Italy._After_Antoine-Denis_Chaudet._The_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_
London.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)
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cense: Public domain Contributors: www.musees-nationaux-napoleoniens.org Original artist: Unknown<a href='https:
//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:
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40 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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17.2 Images 41

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wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Paul_Delaroche_-_Napoleon_Crossing_the_Alps_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg License: Public domain
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42 17 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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