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Abstract temperature. Since, above the KPT, the rate of sag increase
with temperature is reduced, the determination of KPT is
According to a CIGRE questionnaire completed in a significant factor in evaluating line uprating methods
2003, over 80% of existing lines were built with steel using the existing conductors.
reinforced aluminium conductors (ACSR). Therefore,
when attempting to increase the thermal rating of existing If the aluminium layers of ACSR undergo plastic
elongation due to metallurgical creep or high tension load
High Voltage (50 kV to 345 kV) transmission lines, low-
events, then the knee-point temperature of the conductor
cost line uprating methods often involve allowing the
is reduced, typically decreasing over the life of the line.
existing ACSR conductors to operate at an increased
In calculating the conductor sag at temperatures above
Maximum Allowable Conductor Temperature (MACT)
the KPT, the possibility of compression forces, residual
temperature. Of course, minimum electrical clearances to
manufacturing stress, and greater than anticipated plastic
ground, buildings and other lines must be maintained and
elongation of the aluminium layers must be considered.
the conductor system unharmed by operating at higher
temperatures. If these criteria are not met, the line must be 1. Introduction & Background
reconductored or rebuilt.
In designing a new overhead transmission line, one of
For ACSR, all sag-tension calculation methods assume the most basic and necessary calculations is that of sag-
that the unstressed length of aluminium and steel layers tension. CIGRE Technical Brochure 324 [1] explains
is the same before and after installation. After initially the calculation of sag and tension for bare overhead
sagging the conductor, high line currents cause the conductors under various ice/wind conditions and at
conductor temperature and sag to increase. CIGRE the high conductor temperatures produced by the lines
Technical Brochure 324 suggests two linear and one highest power flow. Based on these calculations, span
non-linear conductor model. The Experimental Plastic lengths and structure heights are chosen to meet the
Elongation (EPE) model considers the aluminium layers structure loads and electrical clearance requirements over
and steel core separately. The paper explains and quantifies the life of the line.
the various factors that influence the calculation of ACSR
sag at high temperature. In evaluating existing lines, power flow constraints
on the AC Transmission System are often the result of
The thermal elongation rate of the aluminium layer(s) is inadequate thermal rating on older existing High Voltage
twice that of the steel core, and, while the total tension (50 kV to 345 kV) transmission lines, built with one
decreases with increasing temperature, the tension in the ACSR conductor per phase. Increasing the thermal rating
aluminium layers decreases faster than the tension in the of these existing lines can often be accomplished by
steel core. For strong ACSR conductors in short spans increasing the maximum design temperature of the lines
operated above 75oC, the aluminium layer tension may if this can be done while continuing to maintain minimum
reach zero at a knee-point temperature (KPT) which electrical clearances to ground, buildings and other lines.
is less than the lines actual or proposed templating As described in [2], if the sag of these ACSR conductors
* Da.douglass@ieee.org
KEYWORDS
High temperature sag, knee-point temperature (KPT), aluminium layer axial compression, ACSR, LiDAR, Linear
Elastic, Simplified Plastic Elongation, Experimental Plastic Elongation.
Table 1: Sag Errors at High Temperature for three Different ACSR Strandings
and that (2) the length of the aluminium layers and the With ACSR, the core usually undergoes only a small
core must remain equal. For an aluminium conductor amount of plastic elongation during high load events and
with a steel core (i.e. ACSR), suspended in a catenary, the the impact of plastic elongation in the aluminium layers is
aluminium strand layers of ACSR elongate at twice the different. Using the EPE stress-strain model, the amount
rate of the steel core. of plastic elongation in the aluminium layers can be
calculated as a function of both high tension load events
If the conductor is modelled with the EPE method, the
and creep elongation over time. All three stress-strain
tension of the steel core and the surrounding aluminium
models allow one to calculate the KPT of ACSR, but LE
layers are modelled separately. Therefore, as the ACSR
assumes that it remains constant over time and loads,
conductor temperature increases, the total conductor
SPE assumes that KPT decreases a set amount over time,
length and sag increase and the total conductor tension
and EPE can be used to calculate the KPT of ACSR for
decreases. However, for the lengths of the steel core
user-specified loading events and, given creep elongation
and the surrounding aluminium layers to remain equal,
models, the variation of KPT over the life of the line.
the greater thermal elongation of the aluminium must
be offset by reduced elastic elongation and the lesser Other factors can also influence the KPT. The initial
thermal elongation of the steel core must be increased KPT of ACSR (or other reinforced conductors) can be
by increased elastic elongation. In other words, as the reduced by pre-stressing the conductors prior to sagging
conductor temperature increases, the percentage of total and clipping. Rawlins [7] suggests in some detail that the
tension in the aluminium must decrease. KPT can be higher than expected due to residual stranding
stresses in the aluminium wires of ACSR made in modern
At a temperature referred to as the knee-point
rigid-frame stranding machines, which effectively makes
temperature (KPT), the tension in the aluminium layers
the zero-stress aluminium wire layers shorter than the
of the ACSR conductor has decreased to zero (see Figure
zero stress length of the core. Finally, long pulls and
1) and all of the conductor tension is in the steel core.
high tensions during tension stringing can produce non-
Above the KPT, the aluminium wire layers go into
negligible plastic elongation of the aluminium prior to
compression. If the elastic modulus of the aluminium
sagging. These phenomena are best studied using the EPE
layers in compression is equal to that in tension (think
model.
of the behaviour of Aluminium-clad steel wire), then the
CTE remains equal to that at temperatures below the KPT. Above the KPT, the continued thermal expansion of
If the elastic modulus of the aluminium wire layers is aluminium yields increasing aluminium compression but,
zero, then the conductors composite thermal elongation if the aluminium compression modulus is low, the rate of
rate decreases to that of the steel core alone, depending sag increase with temperature is sharply reduced to near
upon the compression modulus of the aluminium layers. that of the steel core alone as shown in Figure 2.
In any stranded aluminium conductor, the aluminium The advantage of using the EPE conductor model is that
wires undergo both elastic and plastic elongation. With it yields lower calculated high temperature sags (about a
an all-aluminium conductor, plastic elongation due to meter less at 150oC as shown in Figure 2). On the other
high load events and metallurgical creep, cause both the hand, because it is not as conservative as the LE/SPE
everyday sag and the high temperature sag to increase conductor model, there must be increased concern with
over the life of an overhead line. those factors that affect the modelling.
There are three primary concerns with regard to sags 6. Compression of helical
calculated by the EPE conductor model. They involve the
conductor manufacturing details (lay lengths and bobbin aluminium strand layers
tension), the conductor installation procedures, and the For single-layer and multi-aluminium layer ACSR
occurrence of severe mechanical ice & wind load events conductors, at conductor temperatures above the KPT, the
prior to the field sag measurements of the existing line. aluminium wires continue to expand faster than the steel
The KPT depends on the ACSR stranding (Figure 3) and the core wires putting the aluminium layers into compression
effective span length (Figure 4) as summarized in Table 2. and increasing the elastic elongation of the steel core.
Given the physics of the ACSR conductor, aluminium
Table 2: Final knee-point temperature as a function of ACSR
steel content and ruling span length. compression must occur above the KPT.
Figure 3: Comparison of sag vs temperature for 45/7, 54/7, and 30/19 ACSR Figure 4: Sag vs conductor temperature for 180, 300, and 425 m spans.
with a 300 m ruling span.
Where:
D = Overall diameter of strand layer
Where: E is the axial elastic modulus of aluminium d = Strand diameter in layer
(slightly less than 60 GPa). R = Radial expansion of the strand layer
n is the number of strands in the layer. Considering the number of strands in the layer, n, as a
is the lay angle of the layer. function of strand and layer diameters:
Eff is a weak function of the lay angle and is typically
slightly less than 4 GPa. Therefore, the axial modulus
of the aluminium layers in compression is less than 10%
of the axial modulus in tension unless the layers are Then:
constrained radially.
Figure 8: Comparison of measured and calculated sag vs temperature for 26/7 ACSR
calculations can be important in establishing the thermal The experiments at both locations indicate that high
capacity of existing clearance-limited overhead lines and temperature sag calculations using the EPE conductor
in determining the best method for increasing the thermal model should use an assumption of 15 to 20 MPa for
capacity of such lines. residual aluminium stress to be conservative on the basis
of this limited experimental data.
Two careful laboratory experiments are discussed in the
following paragraphs. Figure 8, shown in Reference [7], 8. High Temperature Sag in new
is based on tests performed as part of a study of high
temperature thermal elongation with an indoor, 90 meter and existing lines
test span. The conductor is 26/7 Hawk (240 mm2) and it it may be observed that sag at high temperature is seldom
was pre-stressed to simulate the aluminium layer plastic measured in either new or old lines. In both cases, high
elongation that would occur as a result of creep and high temperature sag is calculated based upon sag measurements
load events in an installed line. made at everyday line currents and weather conditions.
This experimental data was analysed by Rawlins [7] and For new lines, field measurements are made after tension
presented in an IEEE paper which elicited a good deal stringing as part of line construction. For existing lines,
of interesting discussion. In essence, Rawlins proposed measurements are made with the line carrying normal
current (or none), by LiDAR or conventional survey
that the experimental data could best be explained by
methods.
residual stress in the aluminium layers produced as a
result of stranding in a rigid-frame stranding machine. With new and existing lines, given non-homogeneous
He supplemented this data by measurements of residual conductors (both conventional ACSR and HTLS), the
stress in various ACSR conductors prior to installation tension distribution between core and aluminium layers is
and concluded that the KPT should be adjusted upward estimated at the time of measurement.
by assuming a residual stress of 15 MPa. The EPE analysis presented in this paper is also applicable
A second experimental study was performed in an outdoor to the analysis of high-temperature, low-sag conductors
test line (2 spans) at the Oakridge National Laboratory in having either zirconium or annealed aluminium layers
Oakridge, Tennessee. The analysis was reported by Seppa surrounding a core which has high strength and low
[8] and his plot of the test data is reproduced in Figure 9. thermal elongation.
The test facility consisted of two 180 m spans, carefully
terminated to allow accurate sag measurement and with 9. Selection of High-Temperature
many thermocouples embedded in the conductors. Sag model for new lines
The laboratory experiments demonstrate that the measured when designing new overhead transmission lines,
sags are less than those calculated with the LE or EPE, the height and the placement of support structures is
constant CTE model and greater than that calculated dependent on wind and ice loads (primarily on the
with the EPE/Graphical method where residual stress is conductors) and on the sag of the phase conductor at the
ignored. templating temperature. If the reduction in slope of sag
When calculating the sag of ACSR at conductor 1. The maximum operating high temperature of the line
temperatures above 75C, the thermal elongation rate is determined by the clearances produced when the
of the conductor should model the mechanical and conductor is at the templating temperature.
thermal behaviour of the aluminium layers and the steel 2. The spans are short (<400m).
core separately. If the conventional ACSR temperature- 3. The conductor has a steel core area greater than 10%
independent CTE formula is used, the sag at maximum that of the aluminium layers.
line temperature will be overestimated. In designing new 4. Lay ratios are near recommended values.
lines, allowing for the modest amount of excess high When the sag of ACSR at high temperature is essential
temperature sag which results from the linear CTE method to the selection of line uprating method, the KPT should
is of minor importance. However, in evaluating options be determined by use of the EPE mechanical conductor
for thermal uprating of existing lines, the difference in model (including the impact of metallurgical creep of
the linear and non-linear CTE methods can have a large aluminium and plastic elongation for high tension load
impact on the uprating method chosen. events) and a residual stress of 15 to 20 MPa should be
If the conductors are intended to operate at temperatures specified for the aluminium layers.
above 75C, it is recommended that a model be used that
takes into account the knee-point of the conductor. Failure
13. Bibliography
to do this may result in a suboptimal conductor being [1] CIGRE Task Force B2.12.3, Sag-tension Calculation Methods for
Overhead Lines, Technical Brochure 324, June, 2007.
chosen for the line.
[2] CIGRE Task Force B2.12, Conductors for Uprating of Overhead
The temperature gradient also needs to be considered as Lines, Technical Brochure 244, April, 2004,
the average temperature determines the conductor sag and [3] IEEE Subcommittee 15.11, Limitations of the Ruling Span Method
not the surface temperature [10]. for Overhead Line Conductors at High Operating Temperatures.
Report of IEEE WG on Thermal Aspects of Conductors, IEEE WPM
As the conductor temperature increases above ambient, 1998, Tampa, FL, Feb. 3, 1998
the aluminium layer thermal expansion rate is twice that [4] CIGRE WG B2.12, Alternating Current (AC) Resistance of
of the steel core and at the knee-point temperature Helically Stranded Conductors, Technical Brochure 345, April,
(KPT), the tension in the aluminium layers is zero and 2008.
all the tension is in the steel core. Beyond the KPT, the [5] IEC 1597, Overhead electrical conductors Calculation methods
CTE of the conductor is reduced and the conductor sag for stranded bare conductors, First Edition, 1995.
which corresponds to the lines maximum temperature is [6] Varney T., Aluminium Company of America, Graphic Method
for Sag Tension Calculations for A1/S1A (ACSR) and Other
reduced. Conductors, Pittsburg, 1927
The issue of KPT and its impact on the line sag at high [7] Rawlins, C.B., Some Effects of Mill Practice on the Stress Strain
temperature depends on a number of line design factors. Behavior of ACSR, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 14,
No. 2, April, 1999.
The issue is of minimal concern when:
[8] T. Seppa Fried Wire? (Public Utilities Fortnightly, December 2003,
1. The maximum operating high temperature of the line is pages 39-41)
determined by loss of strength in the aluminium layers [9] CIGRE Working Group B2.36, Guide for Application of Direct Real-
rather than sag. Time Monitoring Systems, Technical Brochure 498, June, 2012.
2. The spans are long (>400 m). [10] Clairmont, B, Douglass, D., Radial and Longitudinal Temperature
3. The conductor has a steel core area less than 7% that of Gradients in Bare Stranded Conductors with High Current
the aluminium layers. Densities, CIGRE Paper B2-108, Paris, 2012.
4. Compression modulus of the aluminium layers is
negligible.